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Make It Big!: The Effect of Font Size and Line Spacing on Online Readability
Abstract
We report from an eye-tracking experiment with 104 participants who performed reading tasks on the most popular text-heavy website of the Web: Wikipedia. Using a hybrid-measures design, we compared objective and subjective readability and comprehension of the articles for font sizes ranging from 10 to 26 points, and line spacings ranging from 0.8 to 1.8 (font: Arial). Our findings provide evidence that readability, measured via mean fixation duration, increased significantly with font size. Further, comprehension questions had significantly more correct responses for font sizes 18 and 26. For line spacing, we found marginal effects, suggesting that the two tested extremes (0.8 and 1.8) impair readability. These findings provide evidence that text-heavy websites should use fonts of size 18 or larger and use default line spacing when the goal is to make a web page easy to read and comprehend. Our results significantly differ from previous recommendations, presumably, because this is the first work to cover font sizes beyond 14 points.
... Reading is increasingly practiced online in web browsers and on screens as more content and services are digitized. This transition leads to another aspect of readability, which is the presented text's properties instead of the text's content [41]. Banerjee and Bhattacharyya [42] claimed that reading efficiency relies on the ergonomic presentation of visual information. ...
... Therefore, typography, which refers to the features of font type and size, is essential for understanding the complexities of visual information in a human-computer interface [42]. Improving the readability of online text in the context of typography is one of the most direct and efficient methods to enhance usability and ease of access to information [41] not only for the general public but also for individuals with special needs such as the elderly [43], visually impaired individuals [44], dyslexia readers [45], [46] or individuals with print disabilities [47]. Typefaces are generally classified into two most basic forms: Serifs and Sans Serifs. ...
... For privacy policies only available in portable document format (PDF), font and font size information was obtained from Adobe Acrobat DC. Multiple studies related to typography [41], [42], [48], [55], [56] were studied to derive recommendations for suitable font and font size to be used in privacy policies. ...
Today's privacy policies contain various deficiencies, including failure to convey information comprehensibly to most Internet users and a lack of transparency. Meanwhile, existing studies on privacy policies only focused on specific areas of interest and lack an inclusive outlook on the state privacy policies due to the differences in privacy policy samples, text properties, measures, methodologies, and backgrounds. Therefore, this research develops an assessment metric to bridge this gap by integrating the fragmented understanding of privacy policies and exploring potential aspects to evaluate privacy policies absent from existing studies. The multifaceted assessment metric developed through this study covers three main aspects: content, text property, and user interface. Through the investigation and analyses performed on Malaysian organizations’ online privacy policies, this study reveals several trends using text processing and clustering analysis methods: (1) the use of jargon in privacy policies are relatively low, (2) privacy policies with higher compliance levels tend to be lengthier and more repetitive, and vice versa, (3) regardless of compliance level, there are privacy policies that are not presented in user-friendly font size. Finally, as an experiment of applying the developed metrics, the results confirm the relevance of the assessment metrics developed for assessing online privacy policies via text processing and clustering analysis.
... In addition to the PSs, we found that Rello et al. (2016) recommended using a text size of at least 18 pt. up to 26 pt. to improve readability and comprehension when reading on the screen. ...
... (H2): According to a study by Rello et al. (2016), larger font sizes, such as 18-26 pt, help improve readability, overall, when reading from the screen, and this is especially true for people with dyslexia or people with a lower level of visual impairments (W3C, 2018). It should also be noted that different fonts of the same size may look different in their actual size. ...
... From this selected set, WCAG 2.1 (PS6) and ICT4IAL (PS7) provided the greatest number of instructions. Compared with the proposed heuristics, WCAG 2.1 does not provide detailed instructions relating to (1) font size (see H2), (2) font selection (see H3), (3) use of bullets (see H4), (4) text alignment (see H6), (5) order of content by importance (see H13) and (6) summary provision of content (see H13), but these factors significantly improve readability and support the learning of people with dyslexia or those with lower levels of visual impairments (Chen et al., 2015;Rello et al., 2016;Rello & Baeza-Yates, 2013). Some of the instructions in the PSs are repetitive, but many have been provided only once. ...
Governments and public organisations provide digital services and share information on websites, so web content needs to be accessible to all citizens. Text remains the main form of providing information, and reading is the primary way to interact with digital services. However, existing guidelines are not adequate for content creators in public organisations. The wide scope and technicality of these guidelines make them confusing, difficult to understand and challenging to implement. To respond to this emerging need, in this paper, we contribute improvements to the guidance of accessible text production by proposing heuristics with a design science approach. Specifically, we (1) review accessibility guidelines and determine improvement factors related to text accessibility, (2) establish a design and evaluation workshop with 38 students, and (3) verify the feasibility of the proposal with content creators. Our evidence shows that the proposed accessibility heuristics are clear and easy to understand, and they are useful for content creators.
... Reading is increasingly practiced online in web browsers and on screens as more content and services are digitized. This transition leads to another aspect of readability, which is the presented text's properties instead of the text's content [41]. Banerjee and Bhattacharyya [42] claimed that reading efficiency relies on the ergonomic presentation of visual information. ...
... Therefore, typography, which refers to the features of font type and size, is essential for understanding the complexities of visual information in a human-computer interface [42]. Improving the readability of online text in the context of typography is one of the most direct and efficient methods to enhance usability and ease of access to information [41] not only for the general public but also for individuals with special needs such as the elderly [43] and visually impaired individuals [44]. Typefaces are generally classified into two most basic forms: Serifs and Sans Serifs. ...
... For privacy policies only available in portable document format (PDF), font and font size information was obtained from Adobe Acrobat DC. Multiple studies related to typography [41], [42], [48], [55], [56] were studied to derive recommendations for suitable font and font size to be used in privacy policies. ...
Today's privacy policies contain various deficiencies, including failure to convey information comprehensibly to most Internet users and a lack of transparency. Meanwhile, existing studies on privacy policies only focused on specific areas of interest and lack in cooperating an inclusive outlook on the state privacy policies due to the differences in privacy policy samples, text properties, measures, methodologies, and backgrounds. Therefore, this research develops an assessment metric to bridge this gap by integrating the fragmented understanding of privacy policies and exploring potential aspects to evaluate privacy policies absent from existing studies. The multifaceted assessment metric developed through this study covers three main aspects: content, text property , and user interface. Through the investigation and analyses performed on Ma-laysian organizations online privacy policies, this study reveals several trends using Text processing and Clustering analysis methods: (1) the use of jargon in privacy policies are relatively low, (2) privacy policies with higher compliance level tends to be lengthier and more repetitive, and vice versa, (3) regardless of compliance level, there are privacy policies that are not presented in user-friendly font size. Finally, as an experiment of applying the developed metrics, the results derived confirm the relevancy of the assessment metrics developed for assessing online privacy policies via text processing and clustering analysis.
... The reading length of a few paragraphs is also well-suited for shorter remote crowdsourcing tasks deployed on the web. This web-based naturalistic setting sacrifices the internal validity of prior in-lab studies [16,21,88], in exchange for greater ecological validity. While remote studies might suffer from reader distractions [98] and uncontrolled variables, such as viewing distance [56] and the physical size of digital text [120], it is easier to recruit more participants to offset this additional noise. ...
... There is a rich history of research exploring typography as a tool to enhance readability and reader efficacy. While past work has individually considered font preference, familiarity, comprehension, and reading speed [6,7,9,14,16,17,19,21,79,88,113], these factors can be tightly coupled. For the first time, our work considers these factors simultaneously, controlling for some and systematically varying others to address possible confounds. ...
... As the variety of devices grew and the size of screens grew larger, Rello et al. [88] argued that much previous work is outdated due to early studies using font sizes 14px and below and participants reading aloud. the difficulty modern graphic designers face selecting their preferred font from many fonts [72]. ...
In our age of ubiquitous digital displays, adults often read in short, opportunistic interludes. In this context of Interlude Reading, we consider if manipulating font choice can improve adult readers' reading outcomes. Our studies normalize font size by human perception and use hundreds of crowdsourced participants to provide a foundation for understanding which fonts people prefer and which fonts make them more effective readers. Participants' reading speeds (measured in WPM) increased by 35% when comparing fastest and slowest fonts without affecting reading comprehension. High WPM variability across fonts suggests that one font does not fit all. We provide font recommendations related to higher reading speed and discuss the need for individuation, allowing digital devices to match their readers' needs in the moment. We provide recommendations from one of the most significant online reading efforts to date. To complement this, we release our materials and tools with this paper.
... Screenshot software can be employed to determine what participants have on screen (Brinberg et al. 2021;Reeves et al. 2019) but can also include gyroscope data from modern smartphones (Pires et al., 2018) which can reveal, for example, whether a reader is engaging with a text while walking through the orientation of their device (Barnard et al., 2007;Mustonen et al., 2004). Finally, audio recordings, which can be supported by any device with audio input, can be used to approximate reading activity through read-aloud protocols (Banerjee et al. 2011;Bernard et al., 2001;Rello et al., 2016). ...
... Both approaches have advantages. Prior reading studies have most commonly used Likert scales to determine participant font preference (Banerjee 2011, Bernard et al. 2003, Bhatias et al. 2011, Rello et al. 2016, and Wang et al. 2018. While Likert scales are straightforward, and can be easily averaged across users, when averaging these results they lose their subjective nature (Stevens 1946). ...
... There is no prescriptive statistical tool for readability research, which is commonly analyzed with multiple generalizations of the general linear model (GLM). Many studies rely upon multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) to isolate the impact of independent variables (IVs) upon multiple dependent variables (DVs), often including both reading speed and comprehension Nam et al. 2020;Rello, Pielot, and Marcos 2016;Gao et al. 2019). It's not uncommon to augment these larger analyses with smaller "manipulation checks" which rely upon t-tests or simple analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test out assumptions. ...
Readability is on the cusp of a revolution. Fixed text is becoming fluid as a proliferation of digital reading devices rewrite what a document can do. As past constraints make way for more flexible opportunities, there is great need to understand how reading formats can be tuned to the situation and the individual. We aim to provide a firm foundation for readability research, a comprehensive framework for modern, multi-disciplinary readability research. Readability refers to aspects of visual information design which impact information flow from the page to the reader. Readability can be enhanced by changes to the set of typographical characteristics of a text. These aspects can be modified on-demand, instantly improving the ease with which a reader can process and derive meaning from text. We call on a multi-disciplinary research community to take up these challenges to elevate reading outcomes and provide the tools to do so effectively.
... Sans serif fonts such as Helvetica, Arial, and Verdana are more effective than serif (embellished) fonts not only for people with dyslexia (Rello and Baeza-Yates 2013) but all populations (Bernard et al. 2001;Chaparro et al. 2010). Later, Rello et al. (2016) found an increase in font size above 14 pt, but no larger than 22 pt, improves readability. When communicating hazard information, selecting familiar fonts is especially important since the message needs to be trusted (Hyndman 2016). ...
... Following the graphic design of weather impact and hazard statements by Gordon et al. (2022), we developed a template (Heggli et al. 2023) • Appropriate negative space to aid in simplicity (Hilligoss and Howard 2002;Samara 2020) • Variation in font size and weight changed to establish a hierarchy of information (Poulin 2017) • Arial font (a minimum font size of 14 pt) for readability (Bernard et al. 2001;Chaparro et al. 2010;Nersesian et al. 2020;Rello et al. 2016;Sattler et al. 1997) • Space for communication-driven embellishments to act as topical cues (Samara 2020) The template provided is designed with a color theme based on http://www.ColorBrewer.org (Harrower and Brewer 2003). ...
When hazardous weather is forecast, communicating probabilistic information (PI) can improves trust, confidence, and understanding of forecast information resulting in improved decision-making by emergency managers and public audiences. With probabilistic forecast tools modernizing forecast operations, the National Weather Service is calling on regional offices to increase the use of PI. However, communicating PI can be challenging since the information is intrinsically more complex than single-value deterministic forecasts that do not include a measure of uncertainty. We suggest that effective PI visualization not only includes the PI graphic but also communicates potential impacts and issues preventative guidance to limit exposure to weather-related hazards. Decision support tools like PI benefit from, if not require, effective visual communication that capitalizes on the efficiency of the visual system to extract information, decrease the time to interpret information, and increase the understanding of uncertainties. Furthermore, PI visuals need to be accessible to disabled and neurodivergent audiences. To enhance the visual communication of PI, we synthesize literature from graphic design and social science to identify guiding principles for effective visual communication and provide a one-page printout quick guide. To showcase how forecasters can incorporate guiding principles in the local context, we provide examples built from readily usable templates to demonstrate how probabilistic forecast information extracted from tools like the National Blend of Models can be used to enhance the visual communication of PI to support more informed decision-making.
... Analyzing organizational specificities from recruiters' perspectives, we construct a framework for formatsensitive resume representation. Following that, we infer knowledge from experts [5], which allows us to identify the most relevant CV's text-linguistic functions associated with an optimal segmentation process. As a final step, BERT-sequence classifiers are adjusted based on resume terminology and format-sensitive document markers to identify such functions, thereby improving the segmentation F1 score. ...
... Note that annotated sections can vary from CV to CV. We then generate automatic document segmentations that capture visual readability patterns [5] used by recruiters to identify CV sections. ...
In the early stages of a recruitment process, recruiters can spend a lot of time analyzing resumes (CVs) manually. This has led to the development of machine learning methods for the automated analysis of such documents, which currently besides text encompass rich formatting. Since rich formatting is not considered in any of the automated analysis stages and its possible impact has not been studied, this article investigates how to extract, transform, and apply grapholinguistic content. To this end, we propose a format sensitive and BERT-based framework for the essential first step in CV analysis, i.e. segmentation, relating the automatic description of graphic and textual markers, transformed in linguistic variables by means of fuzzification, to identify dependencies and semantic relationships with the recruiters’ manual segmentation. Using a training dataset of 150 resumes, our approach achieved an F1-Score of 89% when segmenting 153 new samples.
... Similar works that have been conducted in relation to the topics within this paper are presented below. A study by Rello et al. (2016) suggests that several parameters influence readability for dyslexic individuals. These include font size and type, text colour and background colour. ...
... The results reveal that three out of four ocular metrics tested displayed a statistically significant difference between the dyslexic and control groups. Fixation duration was identified to be longer in the dyslexic group than in the control; this result is in line with research within the area (Rello et al., 2016;Rello & Yates, 2013). Regression count displayed that the dyslexic group on average made more regressions than the control group, although the data was more condensed in the control group than the dyslexic group, these findings are consistent with current literature (Rayner, 1985;Rayner, 1998). ...
... Again, in this case, the space available in the digital format is an advantage [31]. It must be noted, thus, that at this point the WCAG principle of perceivability is tightly linked to the principle of understandability-hindering reading has an impact on comprehension, as demonstrated in previous research involving the use of Wikipedia (a lexicographic resource) by persons with dyslexia [32]. ...
Information access has been one of the main concerns of lexicography since the first dictionaries were compiled. This paper draws an explicit link between the proposals made from the fields of applied linguistics and website accessibility to enhance the users’ experience in consulting online dictionaries. The paper starts with a reflection on two intertwined notions that are relevant for the discussion: Access and accessibility. After that, it focuses on elements connected to two Web Content Accessibility Guidelines principles, namely perceivability and understandability. It reflects on real practices regarding the way in which information is structured in today’s dictionaries, the use of text alternatives, typographic choice, the writing of definitions, and the use of abbreviations, and proposes measures to tackle the identified challenges. The implementation of easy-to-understand language is highlighted as a relevant resource for prospective lexicographic projects.
... With the advancement of research techniques, some related experiments have taken the form of the eye-tracking experiments to compare the display effects of different fonts. The findings show that the 18-point font size achieves the best readability, comprehension and subjective perception scores in the display of web pages and ensures a certain amount of screen text accommodation (Rello et al. 2016). In the design of user interfaces, besides the setting of font type, size, and spacing for reading text, there are many dynamic and interactive applications of fonts. ...
Driven by the information age, the development of screen display technology has brought new opportunities and challenges for typeface design. Font design has gradually realized multi-dimensional presentation forms and interactive interaction properties. Starting from the application of fonts in user interfaces, this paper analyzes the factors constituting text interactivity and the basic characteristics of font interactivity. It summarizes the expression form of font interactivity in user interface design and its feedback effect. The study shows that, as a fundamental element of user interface design, standardizing the interactive properties in fonts and reading text can ensure the readability of text and improve the efficiency of information communication. At the same time, the application of new digital technologies further expands people's access to text information. The rich media and information dissemination channels have given rise to new patterns of font interactivity applications, shifting the representation of text from static to dynamic, enriching visual variables and application scenarios, and generally broadening the design field. Finally, this paper believes that immersive and interactive typeface design is the future development trend, and the typeface design in user interface should actively break the barriers to seek boundaries and development. The interactive application of fonts with the intervention of new technologies and devices enables designers to convey information and emotions more fully and completely, thus enabling users to obtain a better reading experience and efficient information resources.
... We also reflected the respondents' difficulties in reading small-sized letters written on products. For this, we provide a text display panel for product information following principles of universal design for older adults (Boyarski et al. , 1998bRello et al. 2016) (Pair 5). ...
Engaging in outdoor daily activities such as shopping is an essential, yet challenging activity for older wheelchair users (OWU). However, little is investigated on how to augment the OWU’s independence during their in-person shopping experiences, specifically by addressing their physical conditions. We first conducted semi-structured interviews and a large-scale survey with 77 people in total to discover OWU’s needs and pain points in comparison with those of general older adults or wheelchair population. Based on these findings, we propose ARbility, a wearable AR-based shopping system for OWU which supports product recognition from seated positions on wheelchairs and one-stop shopping functionality for minimizing physical loads. In our user evaluation with 13 OWU in a real-world environment, ARbility demonstrated 33% decrease in arm movement, with the participants validating its efficacy and usability in qualitative interviews. We conclude with implications on how a wearable AR-based shopping system supports the active aging and inclusion of OWU.
... According to our experiment on a set of snapshots, we set the distance threshold of adjacent contours to 10 pixels. PACTOR discards those contours whose width or height is less than 13 pixels, as researchers suggested that font sizes greater than the traditional 10 points (i.e., 13 pixels) lead to significant improvements in readability and comprehension [22,41]. PACTOR extracts content blocks from the screenshot according to the remaining contours. ...
Web defacement is one of the major promotional channels for online underground economies. It regularly compromises benign websites and injects fraudulent content to promote illicit goods and services. It inflicts significant harm to websites’ reputations and revenues and may lead to legal ramifications. In this paper, we uncover proactive web defacements, where the involved web pages (i.e., landing pages) proactively deface themselves within browsers using JavaScript (i.e., control scripts). Proactive web defacements have not yet received attention from research communities, anti-hacking organizations, or law-enforcement officials. To detect proactive web defacements, we designed a practical tool, PACTOR. It runs in the browser and intercepts JavaScript API calls that manipulate web page content. It takes snapshots of the rendered HTML source code immediately before and after the intercepted API calls and detects proactive web defacements by visually comparing every two consecutive snapshots. Our two-month empirical study, using PACTOR, on 2,454 incidents of proactive web defacements shows that they can evade existing URL safety-checking tools and effectively promote the ranking of their landing pages using legitimate content/keywords. We also investigated the vendor network of proactive web defacements and reported all the involved domains to law-enforcement officials and URL-safety checking tools.
... Although the product has been declared valid, the validator suggests improvements, namely the consistency of using standard or non-standard language, using fonts that are easy for children to read, and increasing the font size so that it is easy for children to read and improvements to HOTS questions. It is known that font size affects legibility (Rello et al., 2016) and is proven to make it easier for someone to remember letters or words (Yang et al., 2018). ...
So far, separating science and religion has brought the world into chaos. In contrast, science and religion do not need to be a dichotomy because they can be integrated constructively to solve problems in human life. This study aims to analyze the validity, practicality, and readability of Islamic Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STEAM) Activities for Early Childhood (AUD), which is part of design research. The research approach uses quantitative methods with a design that refers to the Plomp model. The results of the validity test show that the resulting product is very valid with improvements in standard and non-standard language, use of fonts, enlargement of font sizes, and improvements in Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) questions. After going through the improvement of the prototype, readability, and practicality tests, the results were very good and suitable for use. The results and steps of this study can be used as a reference for other researchers who want to test the validity, practicality, and readability of reading product development for early childhood. In this STEAM Storybook product, more emphasis is placed on integrating Islamic content and activities with the Engineering Design Process.
... Referring to a past study by Rello, Pielot, & Marcos (2016), the most prominent factors which led to quick reading speed, short fixation time, and more precise spelling were the font size and font type. It was suggested to use as largest font size possible and avoid using less than 12 pt for the body text. ...
The human brain is a complex structure that allows us to encode and decode various stimuli that incorporate the five senses. In the case of children with dyslexia, this information processing performs inefficiently which resulted in reading, spelling, and/ or writing difficulties. Other related difficulties, such as memorizing, organizing, sequencing, and motor skills deficiency, may also be present. This specific learning difference is a lifetime challenge that cannot be cured, but it can be overcome through structured interventions. For many years, the multi-sensory approach utilized visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile to trigger the senses, which is well known as one of the most compelling aspects of instruction for dyslexic students. By simultaneously training the brain through the senses, it is hypothesized that this approach can enhance the phonetical ability in a more effective and meaningful way through the implementation of an interactive learning kit for dyslexia. This paper is an initial phase of long-term research about an interactive learning kit for dyslexia. It includes the analysis of a multi-sensory approach and how it can be implemented in the design and development process in the next phase. Keywords: dyslexia; multi-sensory; interactive; learning.
... Despite the increased readability of digital texts after a change in font size and line spacing (Rello, Pielot & Marcos, 2016), in the context of push notifications, both features of the text are fixed. Therefore, to enhance communication, clarity and conciseness become relevant. ...
Mobile apps market is a growing market and the main technological enabler of apps are push notifications (PN). Today, users are currently receiving a daily average of 63 PN.
After an introduction that highlights the relevance of PN, this chapter covers the background of its topic –pop-up messages that emerge on the smartphone screen- and its characterization: (1) proactive communication with the user; (2) explicitly authorized through an opt-in request; (3) wide range of content, private and social, sent by social networks, commercial companies, or news publishers from apps or web site; (4) targeted according to the users’ interests, previous behaviors, or time of day; (6) always prompting the user to click on the PN that will land on the sender’s app / web site.
There is a steep competition for the user's attention to click through the PN message. Thus the chapter moves through to discuss the factors that influence the choice of whether to open or ignore a PN: (1) Timing in the delivery, disruption, and systems for managing PN in a non-disruptive way. (2) Top-down factors in PN usage, such as user profile, user reaction times, and user interest in the content (3) Bottom-up factors, such as message textual and visual features as an antecedent of click-through rate.
Before concluding, the chapter suggests future directions for researchers and practitioners: how to increase opt-in rates, user experience of PN, reasons to opt-out …
The chapter ends with a conclusion and a list of references.
... What guidelines can support content creators in producing accessible text that is beneficial for people with various disabilities, not just people with learning difficulties? It is noteworthy that text is still the primary form of information sharing on the web (Kalender et al., 2018), which makes reading the primary form of content interaction (Rello, Pielot, & Marcos, 2016). ...
Accessibility awareness and development have improved in the past two decades, but many users still encounter accessibility barriers when using information technology (IT) artifacts (e.g., user interfaces and websites). Current research in information systems and human-computer interaction disciplines explores methods, techniques, and factors affecting the accessibility of IT artifacts for a particular population and provides solutions to address these barriers. However, design realized in one solution should be used to provide accessibility to the widest range of users, which requires an integration of solutions. To identify the factors that cause accessibility barriers and the solutions for users with different needs, a systematic literature review was conducted. This paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge by revealing (1) management-and development-level factors, and (2) user perspective factors affecting accessibility that address different accessibility barriers to different groups of population (based on the International Classification of Functioning by the World Health Organization). Based on these findings, we synthesize and illustrate the factors and solutions that need to be addressed when creating an accessible IT artifact.
... In contrast, larger point sizes such as 14, 18, 20, and higher are considered headline or display sizes and can convey a stronger emotional connection (Mohd Rezan and N. E. K., 2020). Rello, L., Pielot, M. and Marcos, M. C. (2016) said that expanding the font size is an easy and skilful way to enhance access to textual information. ...
ARTICLE INFORMATION Malaysia's Ministry of Higher Education has instructed all public universities to make entrepreneurship a compulsory subject for all students. In online entrepreneurship learning, learning material such as PowerPoint (PPT) acts as the tools used by lecturers to simplify the communication process in transferring the message to students. Communication through visual design is one of the easiest ways to assist students in better understanding, focusing, and engaging more with the content. However, if the learning material is poorly designed, it distracts the students' learning process, making them more likely to stop. Therefore, to avoid these problems, this study analysed the effectiveness of visual topology elements in entrepreneurship teaching materials in the most prominent university and the pioneer of entrepreneurship education in Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi MARA.
... Considering that the checkbox has a width of one character and the median size of the label is ten characters, the travel path from one horizontal checkbox to the next is 11 characters. When considering arranging the rows with an optimal line spacing for reading text (e.g., [37]), the vertical separation of two checkboxes is approximately 120-150% of the character height. As character heights are approximately 1.5 times their widths, we expect that processing checkboxes from top to bottom, column by column, is more efficient compared to processing them row by row and top to bottom. ...
The Cantonal Police of Zurich, Switzerland, use a checklist to identify impaired drivers when conducting traffic stops. This checklist was developed by subject-matter experts and has been in use for eight years. The goal of this study was to redesign the checklist while considering human factors and ergonomics principles in combination with findings from a retrospective analysis of a set of 593 completed checklists. The checklist was amended in accordance with the results of the retrospective analysis by adding missing items and discarding superfluous ones. In addition, a hierarchical cluster analysis of the retrospective data suggested an improved spatial organization of checklist elements and the grouping of similar items of the checklist. Furthermore, aspects related to Fitts’s law, visual complexity, and an optimized direction of processing the checklist underpinned the design process. The results of an evaluation of the redesigned checklist by 11 laypeople and 13 police officers indicated an improved usability of the redesigned checklist over the original.
... For judgements of complexity, we employed a scale in which disagreement indicated harder to read texts, using an item from prior work: "This sentence is easy to read. " [3,27,28,38]. For clarity, we reverse-scored annotators' responses for this particular item, using 5 for Strongly Disagree and 1 for Strongly Agree, so that we may more intuitively refer to the resulting score as complexity. ...
... Line spacing is known to affect the readability of a text (Bernard et al., 2007;Blackmore-Wright et al., 2013;Calabrèse et al., 2010;Chung, 2004;Chung et al., 2008;Katzir et al., 2013;Ling & van Schaik, 2007;Madhavan et al., 2016;Rello et al., 2016). More specifically, reading pace increases as a function of enhanced line spacing, presumably by decreasing the adverse effect of visual crowding 2 between adjacent lines (Bernard et al., 2007;Chung, 2004). ...
In two reading experiments, we examined the efficacy of the commercial reading assistance application BeeLine Reader which colours the letters of digital texts in gradients. According to its developers, BeeLine Reader increases reading speed, improves comprehension, and makes reading more enjoyable. We tested these hypotheses for second- and third-grade pupils (6–9 years old), assessing the influence of BeeLine Reader in several layouts in which we varied other features that are known to impact the reading processes of beginning readers (line spacing, line length, text segmentation). In comparison to control texts with a standard black font, reading time advantages for BeeLine texts emerged for pupils in second grade (not in third grade) when they read texts with long lines and little inter-line spacing. However, when second-grade readers processed texts that were optimized for their reading level (texts with short lines and sufficient inter-line spacing) they displayed a slower reading pace in texts with a BeeLine font than in texts with a black font. Furthermore, BeeLine texts may hamper comprehension for third-grade readers and were rated as more difficult and less convenient to process than texts with a black font. In conclusion, the visual anchors offered by BeeLine Reader may be useful for some beginning readers in some situations but the application can also impede the readability of texts. These findings emphasize that claims made for digital reading applications should be formally tested if they are going to be introduced into educational settings.
... In the study presented, the above-mentioned characteristics, as well as presentation of information in the language of the target audience were included into the "Didactic reduction" criterion. And the "Readability" criterion was used to assess the font size (Ali et al., 2013;Grobeln & Michalski, 2015;Rello, Pielot & Marcos, 2016), while the font style is irrelevant. ...
Objective. This study aims to determine the extent to which psycholinguistic variables are included in the analysis of the quality of directive posters on social media during Covid-19.
Methods. The methods used in the study include analysis of the relevant scientific literature on the identification of psycholinguistic categories and variables relevant to the study; expert assessment of qualitative parameters of posters published on Facebook by official organizations; methods of descriptive statistics.
Results. The analysis of 298 unique works conducted through Ukrainian network on Facebook revealed that the overall average quality of the publications is on the borderline between medium and high levels – 69.3% (by text parameters – 70.0%, graphic parameters – 68.6%).
Conclusions. The study revealed that psycholinguistic variables such as readability, imageability, concreteness, conceptual familiarity, semantic size, name agreement, image agreement, visual complexity, typicality, image variability, authenticity of texts, processing fluency, etc. penetrate deeply related research on the creolized texts in various forms and interpretations. The quality of the posters on Facebook made by the official institutions operating in the field of health care is at the borderline between medium and high levels. These indicators are most in need of improvement on text parameters such as “Emphasis” and “Call to action”, as well as on graphical parameters such as “Presence of interactive graphic links” and “Understandability of illustration message without text”.
... Online readers tend to scan and search for items that stand out, such as bullet points and boldface phrases. Therefore, online articles are adjusted for quick readability (Rello et al., 2016) and content of interest to researchers may be lost. Content about the tobacco robberies posted on social media was not included in this study. ...
Purpose
A large increase in robberies of convenience stores in New Zealand (NZ) in 2016 and 2017 was anecdotally attributed to persistent and substantial increases in excise tax on tobacco products. This study aims to explore the validity of that claim by examining the characteristics of the robberies through the lens of online news coverage.
Design/methodology/approach
Google, Bing and main online NZ news outlets were searched for news reports between 2009 and 2018 of tobacco-related store robberies. Content analysis was used to extract characteristics such as date of robbery, type of store, items targeted or stolen and demographic profile of offenders. The prevalence of reported robberies by socioeconomic level of the surrounding community was assessed using nearest primary school decile rating. Descriptive statistics and statistical analysis were used to discuss trends and key findings in the data.
Findings
Reports on 572 robberies were unevenly distributed across the years with a large increase in 2016 and 2017, followed by a substantial decrease in 2018. Local community convenience stores were primarily hit – more so in lower socioeconomic communities. Robberies occurred nationwide and disproportionately so during colder months in lower socioeconomic communities. Many robberies were aggravated resulting in serious injury to shopkeepers. Tobacco and cash were predominantly targeted.
Social implications
The large increase in robberies that occurred in 2016–2017 likely resulted from tax-driven tobacco price hikes combined with reduced duty-free tobacco coming into NZ with travellers. Installation of security in stores, news fatigue and other explanations are potential reasons for the 2018 decrease in reported robberies despite tobacco prices increasing. Frequent robberies of local stores, many including violence, should be a public health concern as destruction of community well-being can be a determinant of other health problems. The negative consequences for communities, particularly lower socioeconomic communities, need to be factored into the cost benefit analysis of raising the tax on tobacco.
Originality/value
This study provides much needed detail on the negative health and social consequences of tobacco-related store robberies.
... As noted above, the EHR design used in scenario 2 actually forced the physician to reorganize her work to manage the signing task. Regarding physical ergonomics, using established HCI design principles such as Fitts' law [54] to evaluate buttons and guide the layout and using visual ergonomics guidelines [55] on, for example, font size and color schemes, would be good starting points [56]. ...
Knowledge of how to design digital systems that are ergonomically sound, high in usability, and optimized for the user, context, and task has existed for some time. Despite this, there are still too many examples of new digital health care systems that are poorly designed and that could negatively affect both the work environment of health care staff and patient safety. This could be because of a gap between the theoretical knowledge of design and ergonomics and the practical implementation of this knowledge in procuring and developing digital health care systems. Furthermore, discussions of digitalization are often at a general level and risk neglecting the nature of direct interaction with the digital system. This is problematic since it is at this detailed level that work environment and patient safety issues materialize in practice. In this paper, we illustrate such issues with two scenarios concerned with contemporary electronic health care records, based on field studies in two health care settings. We argue that current methods and tools for designing and evaluating digital systems in health care must cater both to the holistic level and to the details of interaction and ergonomics. It must also be acknowledged that health care professionals are neither designers nor engineers, so expectations of them during the development of digital systems must be realistic. We suggest three paths toward a more sustainable digital work environment in health care: (1) better tools for evaluating the digital work environment in the field; (2) generic formulations of qualitative requirements related to usability and for adaptation to the user, context, and task, to be used in procurement; and (3) the introduction of digital ergonomics as an embracing concept capturing several of the ergonomic challenges (including physical, cognitive, and organizational aspects) involved in implementing and using digital systems.
... The substantial decline could owe to the strict page limits of KIIDs which in turn might lead to fund companies cramming these documents with information. Importantly, the fontsize effect transfers to online settings: Rello et al. (2016) show that text comprehension and focus of subjects (measured via eye-tracking) are significantly affected by font size. Clearly, font size may be adjusted easily for product information documents distributed via digital channels rather than in print. ...
With the introduction of short-form disclosure documents, financial regulation in the EU emphasizes the use of plain language to facilitate comprehensibility. We evaluate whether these documents and the accompanying plain language guidelines improve the readability of mandatory product information addressed to mutual fund investors. Applying advanced text mining algorithms, we benchmark the readability of product information by means of objective and readily replicable methods. While mutual fund information on average does not come in plain language, we find that readability improved significantly following the introduction of Key Investor Information Documents (KIIDs). Improvements are driven by simpler syntax and writing style. By contrast, the authors find that the use of jargon remains pervasive and report noncompliance with mandatory design requirements. We discuss our results and propose potential disclosure improvements.
Museums and cultural heritage institutions have an important role in presenting accurate information and sharing cultural knowledge, and new technologies are increasingly implemented. For the best results, the appropriateness of a specific technology must be evaluated for each context. Research has shown the need for participatory methods and local knowledge in Indigenous design contexts. We describe a case study where an Indigenous Sámi museum exhibition was augmented with interactive technology through multidisciplinary co-design work with museum experts, designers, and developers. The traditional clothing of the Sámi people was digitized by filming, and information related to it was presented as a touchscreen installation in a renewed exhibition. User tests including interactive tasks and interviews (n = 7) and a questionnaire (n = 27) were completed on-site. The installation was rated interesting and easy to use, while some users struggled to find all the features. Our study shows that a technically relatively simple digital installation can be easy-to-use but interesting for a standard museum visitor. Additionally, the work demonstrates how to build successful collaborations that highlight Indigenous cultural heritage. We discuss the implications of using technology to promote cultural heritage and identities.KeywordsInteractive systemsUser studiesDigital cultural heritageMuseum exhibitionsIndigenous HCI
With the increasing use of large-screen portable devices and the prevalence of list-based user interfaces, it has become critically important to design list interfaces that are visually appealing and user-friendly across various devices and screen sizes. The rules for adapting list-based user interfaces on large screens warrant investigation. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the responsive list width that can enhance visual search efficiency and improve user experience on portable devices with different widths of screen. Two experiments were conducted, in which we manipulated the width of single-column and parent-child lists on portable devices with medium- (Experiment 1; N = 80) and large-width screens (Experiment 2; N = 41), varying the range of list width from very narrow to very wide. Results show that for the single-column lists on a medium-width screen, users demonstrated the highest level of preference and gave the highest ratings for satisfaction and visual aesthetics when the lists were moderately wide. For the single-column lists on a large-width screen, users preferred both the moderately-narrow and moderately-wide lists. However, for parent-child lists, the results show that both the moderately-wide and very-wide lists were favored on both the medium-width and large-width screens. These findings may be attributed to users’ preference for the appropriate white space on different screens, thereby providing useful guidelines for the responsive design of lists on portable devices.
INTRODUCTION
I have not been trained to teach.
However, I teach, and I have been an architect-educator at the University of Portsmouth (UoP) for
nearly twenty years.
Is my situation anomalous in architectural education (AE)?
The answer is, “No”.
This situation is not unusual in AE, in fact it is the norm.
In 1995 Kevin Rhowbotham stated, “It is customary amongst practising architects to assume that those
who have achieved some degree of experience are somehow automatically equipped to teach. Nothing
could be further from the truth”.1
Initially, I expressed an interest to my former tutors to review the work of undergraduate students for
one-off, day-long studio assessments, known traditionally as the ‘Crit’2 while I was practicing as an
architect in the public sector.
Almost two decades later, I transitioned from being a guest of Portsmouth School of Architecture (PSA),
to being a full-time member of staff who sat on the School Executive Group, where I helped to make
decisions which guided the future of the Department.
In this time, I learned how to teach through my own experiences of being taught, observation, intuition
and from being mentored by colleagues.
Weaver et al. suggested, “Yet none of them is trained to be a teacher. Once upon a time they could
perhaps have relied on memories of their own education, in which however hit-and-miss the tutoring,
the student was carried along by the traditional design project”.3
Weaver et al. went on to state that this situation needs to change because, “there has been increased
pressure to account for the quality of provision and a move to professionalise teaching”.4
This piece of reflective writing recounts my own personal journey that led me to become a full-time
architect-teacher, the pitfalls and advantages that I have experienced along the way and the potentials
for improving how teachers in AE are taught. The suggestions that I make here will are being further
developed in the research and writing that I am undertaking as part of the Professional Doctorate in
Education (EdD) at UoP.
The design and construction of buildings are responsible for 40% of the EU's energy use with an
associated 36% CO2 emissions,1
significantly contributing to the climate emergency. Thus, the EU aims
for climate neutrality by 2050,2
but this needs to be achieved much sooner to avoid exacerbated damage
and other related crises and to ensure climate justice.3 However, in architectural education, a significant
gap in Climate Change Design CCD) knowledge, skills and competencies exist for both students and
educators and is one of the biggest challenges in the construction industry, as noted by the IPCC.4 Over
4000 architects in 18 countries declared 'a biodiversity and climate emergency'5 with over 2500
architecture students and teachers globally signing the ‘architecture education declares’ action with a
‘call for a curriculum change'.6
This paper, as part of the transnational ARCH4CHANGE EU Erasmus + funded project ‘Digital climate
change curriculum for architectural education: methods towards carbon neutrality, presents findings
from a systematic literature review, focusing on the barriers and successful pedagogical methods to
meet this urgent challenge in architecture education.
Thanks to major developments on the Internet, since 1990, the World Wide Web (WWW) has gained a worldwide reputation. The web has become a major source of information for acquiring knowledge, information, entertainment, and the performance of tasks such as booking, online shopping, etc. The readability of content on the web is one of the more significant aspects of Web design usability and accessibility. Readable contents affect how users process the information from the content. Web pages with a low level of readability alarm readers away from the contents. On the other hand, Webpages with a high level of readability allow users to efficiently read and get information from content on the web. In this paper, we have presented the current challenges concerning web readability: font size, font style, color contrast, white space, line spacing, width of the word, length of sentence, graphical contents placements, and relevancy of graphical contents that affect the readability on the websites.KeywordsWeb pageReadabilityAccessibilityRelevancyEvaluationImages
Background
Cognitive impairments are well-documented in multiple sclerosis (MS), while speech impairments are often overlooked despite their significant effect on quality of life. For effective clinical management of multisystem conditions such as MS, consideration should be given to the interaction between deficits in multiple domains, such as speech and cognition. To evaluate speech rate measures of spontaneous and read speech, in people with MS and to examine the link between speech and cognition.
Methods
Forty-five people with MS and 25 controls underwent an extensive cognitive battery, including executive functioning, information processing and memory tasks, and completed two speech tasks: a reading task and a picture description task, from which speech rate measures were derived.
Results
The progressive MS cohort had reduced articulation ( p < 0.04) and speech rate ( p < 0.02) compared to controls and those with relapsing MS. Regression models also revealed information processing speed accounted for 18% to 30% of the variance of spontaneous speech rate measures, and 27% of read speech. Executive functioning accounted for a further 10% of the variance of speech rate in those with MS.
Conclusions
The present study suggests that speech production is contingent on cognitive ability, with information processing speed and executive functioning linked with speech timing patterns.
As soon as the COVID-19 outbreak started, memes were mass produced, portraying emotions and experiences amidst the pandemic. It is observed from these memes that they are not only featuring humor and entertainment. This study aimed to analyze the images used and text placements of the viral COVID-19 memes. Semiology concepts from Saussure (1984) and Peirce (1991) were used as the processes for the content analysis on the viral COVID-19 memes used in the study. The images used and text placements were identified as the semiotic patterns of each meme. These patterns were analyzed to determine the overall characteristics of the memes. The study found out that the selection of the images used is based on popular culture. Photographs of people and screen capture images from movie and TV/cartoon shows are mostly used. The texts used in the memes are mostly placed in the center, overlaying the image or background used. An all-white Arial typeface with 28-48 pt. is the mostly used typography. With this text-image relationship, the memes are read easier leading to better comprehension and being viral. Hence, the study concluded that memes have the capability to become classroom tools to: a) associate or represent people, emotion, experience, and sentiment; and b) communicate using another form of media. The study recommends the integration of memes in teaching a lesson, specifically in English at secondary level, to promote humor and creativity in the language classroom.
The advent of variable font technologies---where typographic parameters such as weight, x-height and slant are easily adjusted across a range---enables encoding ordinal, interval or ratio data into text that is still readable. This is potentially valuable to represent additional information in text labels in visualizations (e.g., font weight can indicate city size in a geographical visualization) or in text itself (e.g., the intended reading speed of a sentence can be encoded with the font width). However, we do not know how different parameters, which are complex variations of shape, are perceived by the human visual system. Without this information it is difficult to select appropriate parameters and mapping functions that maximize perception of differences within the parameter range. We provide an empirical characterization of seven typographical parameters of Latin fonts in terms of absolute perception and just noticeable differences (JNDs) to help visualization designers to choose typographic parameters for visualizations that contain text, as well as support typographers and type designers when selecting which levels of these parameters to implement to achieve differentiability between normal text, emphasized text and different headings.
Aging and digitization are two major trends in modern society, resulting in a rapid increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly smartphone users. Research into these user’s mobile reading experience has significant value in industry application, as well as social value. Based on the subjective experience evaluation and eye movement data of 60 Chinese adults aged 50–70 years, we investigated the impact of different font sizes, line spacing, and stroke weight on the smartphone reading experience of Chinese characters in three typical scenarios: searching, overview reading, and long-text reading. Results show that font size has a significant impact on reading experience in all scenarios. Line spacing and stroke weight have different impacts in different reading scenarios. Line spacing has a significant effect on long-text reading (such as the news details page), while stroke weight has a significant impact on search scenarios (such as news headlines). Bold type fonts can highlight key information on a page with multiple levels of information. This study also identifies the optimal font size, line spacing and stroke weight for different scenarios and different levels of information. This is the first study that provides smartphone application developers with design specifications for optimal font size, line spacing and stroke weight in different scenarios for middle-aged and elderly Chinese users. These findings can be utilized to improve the reading experience of Chinese news apps in a comprehensive manner.
An online survey ( N = 810) examined the impact of design best practices on the perceived usability of End-User License Agreements (EULAs). Redesigning a EULA according to best-practices (without changing the EULA’s terms and conditions) led to higher perceived usability while responses to attitudinal (perceived reasonableness of conditions) and behavioral (anticipated agreement and use) items were unaffected. Readers (who reported reading EULAs frequently) (a) provided more positive evaluations of EULAs and (b) were more likely to anticipate agreeing to EULA terms than non-readers . These results suggest that best practices in document design can improve the usability of End-User License Agreements.
Widely used computer-aided translation (CAT) tools divide documents into segments, such as sentences, and arrange them side-by-side in a spreadsheet-like view. We present the first controlled evaluation of these design choices on translator performance, measuring speed and accuracy in three experimental text-processing tasks. We find significant evidence that sentence-by-sentence presentation enables faster text reproduction and within-sentence error identification compared to unsegmented text, and that a top-and-bottom arrangement of source and target sentences enables faster text reproduction compared to a side-by-side arrangement. For revision, on the other hand, we find that presenting unsegmented text results in the highest accuracy and time efficiency. Our findings have direct implications for best practices in designing CAT tools.
Tourist discourse has been recognized as a specialized type of cross-cultural communication. Thus, successful translation of tourist texts assumes that translators act as cross-cultural mediators on a number of levels. The rather low quality of translation in the tourism sector has been pointed out by several Translation Studies scholars. However, not much systematic empirical research on the quality of translation in this sector has been carried out. This paper analyses a corpus of multilingual websites produced by Croatian tourist boards. In the analysis of the data I rely on the criteria for assessing translation quality of web translation developed by Pierini (2007), and place a special focus on the achievement of pragmatic level equivalence between source and target texts as a major criterion of successful cross-cultural communication in the translation of tourism discourse.
As collaborative research between engineering and fashion, the purpose of this study was to investigate if saliency models can be applied for predicting consumers’ visual attention to fashion images such as fashion advertisements. A human subject study was conducted to record human visual fixations on 10 colour fashion advertisement images, which were randomly selected from fashion magazines. The participants include 67 college students (26 males and 41 females). All mouse-tracking locations on images were recorded and saved using Psychtoolbox-3 with MATLAB. The locations represent the human fixation points on the images and are used to generate fixation maps. This collaborative research is an innovative and pioneering approach to predict consumers’ visual attention toward fashion images using saliency models. From the results of this study, the engineering area’s saliency models were proven as effective measurements in predicting fashion consumers’ visual attention when looking at fashion images such as advertisements.
The majority of research into web accessibility has focused on identifying and eliminating the problems that people with disabilities encounter when interacting with the Web. In this paper we argue that we need to move away from studying user problems to studying how people with disabilities apply interaction strategies while browsing the Web. In this paper we present a study of 19 print disabled users, including blind, partially sighted and dyslexic people, interacting with a variety of interactive Web 2.0 web applications. The participants undertook tasks using concurrent and retrospective protocols to elicit information about how they interact with web content. The result of this study was a collection of 586 strategic action sequences that were classified into seven different types of strategy. Differences in the application of strategies between the user groups are presented, as well as the most frequent strategies used by each user group. We close the paper by discussing some implications for the design of websites and assistive technologies as well as the future directions for empirical research in accessibility.
This study examined the effects of line length on reading speed, comprehension, and user satisfaction of online news articles. Twenty college-age students read news articles displayed in 35, 55, 75, or 95 characters per line (cpl) from a computer monitor. Results showed that passages formatted with 95 cpl resulted in faster reading speed. No effects of line length were found for comprehension or satisfaction, however, users indicated a strong preference for either the short or long line lengths.
This study examined passages containing two serif and sans serif fonts at 12 and 14-point sizes for differences in legibility, reading time, and general preference when read by an older population. A significant main effect of size was found for font legibility in that 14-point fonts were more legible to read than 12-point fonts. A marginal interaction was also found for reading time in that participants read 12-point serif fonts significantly slower than 14-point serif or sans serif fonts. Moreover, participants significantly preferred the 14-point to the 12-point font size. Font recommendations are discussed.
Capturing and analyzing the detailed eye movements of a user while reading a web page can reveal much about the ways in which web reading occurs. The WebGazeAnalyzer system described here is a remote-camera system, requiring no invasive head-mounted apparatus, giving test subjects a normal web use experience when performing web-based tasks. While many such systems have been used in the past to collect eye gaze data, WebGazeAnalyzer brings together several techniques for efficiently collecting, analyzing and re-analyzing eye gaze data. We briefly describe techniques for overcoming the inherent inaccuracies of such apparatus, illustrating how we capture and analyze eye gaze data for commercial web design problems. Techniques developed here include methods to group fixations along lines of text, and reading analysis to measure reading speed, regressions, and coverage of web page text.
This study examined the readabiity.and subjective preferences of a set of fonts designed for screen display. Two new binary bitmap fonts performed well, suggesting that designers should consider incorporating similar attributes into default fonts for on- line type. This study examines reading for comprehension and users' pref- erences of fonts designed sp&icaUy for computer screens. Since the introduction of the personal computer and the more recent increase in the use of on-line sources of information (on- line help, database searching, and especially hypertext resources on the World Wide Web), the option of reading from paper rather than from computer screens has been drastically reduced and in some cases eliminated. A substantial literature on the legibility, readability, and users' preferences for fonts exists (see (2) for a relatively recent com- prehensive review). Recent work has studied users' performance on high resolution bit-mapped displays for a range of reading u&s such as proof-reading (3,4,5J, reading for comprehension and skimming IS). These studies indicate that there is no differ- ence., at least under some circumstances, between paper and high quality screen displays. Nevertheless, reading from screens remains anecdotally problematic. In part, this situation may be due to differences between the conditions of the experiments and conditions of typical on-line presentation (e.g., (4,5) studied anti-aliased text whereas actual practice for many long passages of on-line information is binary bitmap text; (S) studied text set in boldface whereas actual practice is regular face - strokes may appear thinner on a screen than on paper-with boldface reserved for cuemg of highlights). The current study was designed to look at users' performance with text as it is typically presented on-line - using fonts that were not designed speciically for screen display - with text that is likely to be presented on computer screens in the near future - using fonts designed spec-tically for screen display. The goal of the study was not to determine whether the newly designed screen fonts are better than those appearing on paper,
We report on an explorator y study analyzing preferred reading regions on a monitor using eye tracking. We show that users have indi vidually preferred reading regions, varying in location on the screen and in size. Furthermore, we explore how scrolling interactions and mouse movements are correlated with position and size of the individually pref erred reading regions.
Post-task ratings of difficulty in a usability test have the potential to provide diagnostic information and be an additional measure of user satisfaction. But the ratings need to be reliable as well as easy to use for both respondents and researchers. Three one-question rating types were compared in a study with 26 participants who attempted the same five tasks with two software applications. The types were a Likert scale, a Usability Magnitude Estimation (UME) judgment, and a Subjective Mental Effort Question (SMEQ). All three types could distinguish between the applications with 26 participants, but the Likert and SMEQ types were more sensitive with small sample sizes. Both the Likert and SMEQ types were easy to learn and quick to execute. The online version of the SMEQ question was highly correlated with other measures and had equal sensitivity to the Likert question type. Author Keywords
In order to maximize online reading performance and comprehension, how should a designer choose typographical variables such as font size and font type? This paper presents an eye tracking study of how font size and font type affect online reading. In a between-subjects design, we collected data from 82 subjects reading stories formatted in a variety of point sizes, san serif, and serif fonts. Reading statistics such as reading speed were computed, and post-tests of comprehension were recorded. For smaller font sizes, fixation durations are significantly longer, resulting in slower reading - but not significantly slower. While there were no significant differences in serif vs. san serif fonts, serif reading was slightly faster. Significant eye tracking differences were found for demographic variables such as age group and whether English is the subject's first language.
Though there have been many studies of computer based text reading, only a few have considered the small screens of handheld computers. This paper presents an investigation into the effect of varying font size between 2 and 16 point on reading text on a handheld computer. By using both older and younger participants the possible effects of age were examined. Reading speed and accuracy were measured and subjective views of participants recorded. Objective results showed that there was little difference in reading performance above 6 point, but subjective comments from participants showed a preference for sizes in the middle range. We therefore suggest, for reading tasks, that designers of interfaces for mobile computers provide fonts in the range of 8-12 point to maximize readability for the widest range of users.
We present an eye tracking study to measure if and how including pictures – relevant or irrelevant to the text – affects online
reading. In a between-subjects design, 82 subjects read a story on a computer screen. The text was accompanied by either:
(a) pictures related to the text, (b) pictures unrelated to the text (advertisements), or (c) no pictures. Reading statistics
such as reading speed and regressions were computed, as well as measures of picture gazes. When pictures related to the text
were replaced with advertisements, we observed a number of significant differences, including speed, regressions, and re-reading.
Font type and size characteristics play an important role in understanding the complexities of visual information in human-computer interface. India has emerged as the fastest growing personal computer (PC) user in the Asia pacific region. Studies and guidelines on the use of font type and size on screen for computer users are limited in the literature. Present work evaluates the influence of font type and size on reading on a computer screen in a group of young adults. Forty subjects volunteered for the study. Two types of fonts were used. Serif fonts included Times New Roman (TNR), Georgia and Courier New. Sans serif fonts included Arial, Verdana and Tahoma. These fonts were presented in 10, 12 and 14 point sizes. Subjects read eighteen passages (same length and reading level). Reading time, ranking and mental workload were measured. Readability was better for Serif compared to Sans serif. Reading time was minimum for Courier New 14 point. Sans serif fonts were preferred more than Serif fonts. Subjects’ ranking was highest and mental workload was least for Verdana 14 point. The present study recommends using 14 point sized fonts for reading on computer screen. Courier New is recommended based on reading time while for making onscreen presentation more attractive, Verdana is recommended based on subjects’ ranking and mental workload scoring.
This article details a study which predicted that across a wide range of print sizes dyslexic reading would follow the same curve shape as skilled reading, with constant reading rates across large print sizes and a sharp decline in reading rates below a critical print size. It also predicted that dyslexic readers would require larger critical print sizes to attain their maximum reading speeds, following the letter position coding deficit hypothesis. Reading speed was measured across twelve print sizes ranging from Snellen equivalents of 20/12 to 20/200 letter sizes for a group of dyslexic readers in Grades 2 to 4 (aged 7 to 10 years), and for non-dyslexic readers in Grades 1 to 3 (aged 6 to 8 years). The groups were equated for word reading ability. Results confirmed that reading rate-by-print size curves followed the same two-limbed shape for dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers. Dyslexic reading curves showed higher critical print sizes and shallower reading rate-by-print size slopes below the critical print size, consistent with the hypothesis of a letter-position coding deficit. Non-dyslexic reading curves also showed a decrease of critical print size with age. A developmental lag model of dyslexic reading does not account for the results, since the regression of critical print size on maximum reading rate differed between groups.
This paper presents a user study which compares reading performance versus user preference in customization of the text. We study the following parameters: grey scales for the font and the background, colors combinations, font size, column width and spacing of characters, lines and paragraphs. We used eye tracking to measure the reading performance of 92 participants, and questionnaires to collect their preferences. The study shows correlations on larger contrast and sizes, but there is no concluding evidence for the other parameters. Based on our results, we propose a set of text customization guidelines for reading text on screen combining the results of both kind of data.
In 2012, Wikipedia was the sixth-most visited website on the Internet. Being one of the main repositories of knowledge, students from all over the world consult it. But, around 10% of these students have dyslexia, which impairs their access to text-based websites. How could Wikipedia be presented to be more readable for this target group? In an experiment with 28 participants with dyslexia, we compare reading speed, comprehension, and subjective readability for the font sizes 10, 12, 14, 18, 22, and 26 points, and line spacings 0.8, 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8. The results show that font size has a significant effect on the readability and the understandability of the text, while line spacing does not. On the basis of our results, we recommend using 18-point font size when designing web text for readers with dyslexia. Our results significantly differ from previous recommendations, presumably, because this is the first work to cover a wide range of values and to study them in the context of an actual website.
Web usability measures the ease of use of a website. This study attempts to find the effect of three factors - font size, italics, and colour count - on web usability. The study was performed using a set of tasks and developing a survey questionnaire. We performed the study using a set of human subjects, selected from the undergraduate students taking courses in psychology. The data computed from the tasks and survey questionnaire were statistically analysed to find if there was any effect of font size, italics, and colour count on the three web usability dimensions. We found that for the student population considered, there was no significant effect of font size on usability. However, the manipulation of italics and colour count did influence some aspects of usability. The subjects performed better for pages with no italics and high italics compared to moderate italics. The subjects rated the pages that contained only one colour higher than the web pages with four or six colours. This research will help web developers better understand the effect of font size, italics, and colour count on web usability in general, and for young adults, in particular.
A special arrangement of the Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading Test was employed and shown to yield equivalent scores on Forms A and B. Thus varying amounts of leading could be inserted in Form B, and scores on B compared with performance on Form A, set solid. 400 college students were used, none of whom had previously taken the tests. It was found that: 1-point leading does not facilitate speed of reading as compared with text set solid; 2-point leading facilitates speed of reading by 7.5%; 4-point leading facilitates speed of reading by 5%. 10-point type and 19-pica line width were employed as printing specifications, and it may be that the advantage of two-point leading may hold only for this size of type and width of line. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading Tests printed in alternate forms (Form A with black type on white and Form B with white type on black) were used with 280 students to test the effect on speed of reading. Significant differences were found to give a 10.5% advantage in speed of reading in favor of black type on white. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The writers continue previous work, using the Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading tests. Speed of reading records obtained from 320 college students for texts set up in 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, and 14-point type with line length constant at 80 mm. show that 10-point type yields the fastest reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Royal National Institute of the Blind (RNIB) has produced a Clear Print booklet, which contains recommendations for the
production of Clear Print for the blind and partially sighted. The British Dyslexia Association (BDA) has produced a Dyslexia
Style Guide, which covers similar issues. Both focus on producing text, which is clear and therefore more easily read, and
there is significant overlap between the two. By comparing the two, a set of specifications for the production of text has
been generated. Using the specifications should produce clear text for both dyslexic and visually impaired readers. It should
improve readability for all. The text specifications plus additional recommendations from the BDA are considered with respect
to an existing set of web site design guidelines for dyslexic readers to produce an enhanced set of guidelines compatible
with both. These guidelines are recommended to be followed as standard, both for their benefits to visually impaired and dyslexic
readers, promoting accessibility for these groups, and for their potential to improve accessibility for all.
Times New Roman and Arial typefaces in 10- and 12-point, dot-matrix and anti-aliased format conditions were compared for readability (accuracy, reading speed, and accuracy/reading speed), as well as perceptions of typeface legibility, sharpness, ease of reading, and general preference. In assessing readability, the 10-point anti-aliased Arial typeface was read slower than the other type conditions. Examining perceptions of typeface legibility, sharpness, and ease of reading detected significant effects for typeface, size, and format. Overall, the 12-point dot-matrix Arial typeface was preferred to the other typefaces. Recommendations for appropriate typeface combinations for computer-displayed text are discussed.
With such a large volume of material accessible from the World Wide Web, there is an urgent need to increase our knowledge of factors in#uencing reading from screen. We investigate the e!ects of two reading speeds (normal and fast) and di!erent line lengths on comprehension, reading rate and scrolling patterns. Scrolling patterns are de"ned as the way in which readers proceed through the text, pausing and scrolling. Comprehension and reading rate are also examined in relation to scrolling patterns to attempt to identify some characteristics of e!ective readers. We found a reduction in overall comprehension when reading fast, but the type of information recalled was not dependent on speed. A medium line length (55 characters per line) appears to support e!ective reading at normal and fast speeds. This produced the highest level of comprehension and was also read faster than short lines. Scrolling patterns associated with better comprehension (more time in pauses and more individual scrolling movements) contrast with scrolling patterns used by faster readers (less time in pauses between scrolling). Consequently, e!ective readers can only be de"ned in relation to the aims of the reading task, which may favour either speed or accuracy. ( 2001 Academic Press
This paper provides a tutorial introduction to numerical cognition, with a review of essential findings and current points of debate. A tacit hypothesis in cognitive arithmetic is that numerical abilities derive from human linguistic competence. One aim of this special issue is to confront this hypothesis with current knowledge of number representations in animals, infants, normal and gifted adults, and brain-lesioned patients. First, the historical evolution of number notations is presented, together with the mental processes for calculating and transcoding from one notation to another. While these domains are well described by formal symbol-processing models, this paper argues that such is not the case for two other domains of numerical competence: quantification and approximation. The evidence for counting, subitizing and numerosity estimation in infants, children, adults and animals is critically examined. Data are also presented which suggest a specialization for processing approximate numerical quantities in animals and humans. A synthesis of these findings is proposed in the form of a triple-code model, which assumes that numbers are mentally manipulated in an arabic, verbal or analogical magnitude code depending on the requested mental operation. Only the analogical magnitude representation seems available to animals and preverbal infants.
Two experiments investigated whether lexical complexity increases a word’s processing time. Subjects read sentences, each
containing a target word, while their eye movements were monitored. In experiment 1, mean fixation time on infrequent words
was longer than on their more frequent controls, as was the first fixation after the Infrequent Target. Fixation Times on
Causative, factive, and negative verbs and ambiguous nouns were no longer than on their controls. Further analyses on the
ambiguous nouns, however, suggested that the likelihood of their various meanings affected fixation time. This factor was
investigated in experiment 2. subjects spent a longer time fixating ambiguous words with two equally likely meanings than
fixating ambiguous words with one highly likely meaning. The results suggest that verb complexity does not affect lexical
access time, and that word frequency And the presence of two highly likely meanings may affect lexical access and/or postaccess
integration.
Presents a model of reading comprehension that accounts for the allocation of eye fixations of 14 college students reading scientific passages. The model deals with processing at the level of words, clauses, and text units. Readers made longer pauses at points where processing loads were greater. Greater loads occurred while readers were accessing infrequent words, integrating information from important clauses, and making inferences at the ends of sentences. The model accounts for the gaze duration on each word of text as a function of the involvement of the various levels of processing. The model is embedded in a theoretical framework capable of accommodating the flexibility of reading. (70 ref)
The investigation of visual word recognition has been a major accomplishment of cognitive science. Two on-line methodologies, eye movements and event-related potentials, stand out in the search for the holy grail - an absolute time measure of when, how and why we recognize visual words while reading. Although each technique has its own experimental limitations, we suggest, by means of review and comparison, that these two methodologies can be used in complementary ways to produce a better picture of the mental action we call reading.
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