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Make It Big!: The Effect of Font Size and Line Spacing on Online Readability
Abstract
We report from an eye-tracking experiment with 104 participants who performed reading tasks on the most popular text-heavy website of the Web: Wikipedia. Using a hybrid-measures design, we compared objective and subjective readability and comprehension of the articles for font sizes ranging from 10 to 26 points, and line spacings ranging from 0.8 to 1.8 (font: Arial). Our findings provide evidence that readability, measured via mean fixation duration, increased significantly with font size. Further, comprehension questions had significantly more correct responses for font sizes 18 and 26. For line spacing, we found marginal effects, suggesting that the two tested extremes (0.8 and 1.8) impair readability. These findings provide evidence that text-heavy websites should use fonts of size 18 or larger and use default line spacing when the goal is to make a web page easy to read and comprehend. Our results significantly differ from previous recommendations, presumably, because this is the first work to cover font sizes beyond 14 points.
... Among our study population of US-based, Englishspeaking adult crowdworkers, most without reported reading or learning difficulties, we found that smaller spacing between cells consistently lead to faster task completion. This suggests that, for this representative population of mobile readers, the benefit from reducing the amount of scrolling needed to view the table outweighs the increased reading difficulty for denser text observed in previous readability studies [12,23]. The methods, results, and discussion of our quantitative studies are presented in Sections 5-7 respectively, and we offer our study materials, including all 28 tables with associated tasks in the supplemental material. ...
... Smaller fonts have been found to increase reading speed on small screens in Korean, while the reverse is true for larger screens [19]. Moderate line spacing tends to improve readability on mobile devices [15], while line spacing seems to have a smaller effect on larger displays as long as it is not extreme [23]. Recent research builds on Rello et al.'s work to study readability in non-English texts on mobile devices [30] and tablets [5], measuring reading speed, comprehension, and subjective preference. ...
... Non-extreme line spacing has been shown to improve readability of paragraphs [23], and in Section 4 we also found moderate table spacing to be preferred. Our hypothesis was that the moderate 1.75vw would be fastest because larger spacings reduce the amount of visible content. ...
... Reading is increasingly practiced online in web browsers and on screens as more content and services are digitized. This transition leads to another aspect of readability, which is the presented text's properties instead of the text's content [41]. Banerjee and Bhattacharyya [42] claimed that reading efficiency relies on the ergonomic presentation of visual information. ...
... Therefore, typography, which refers to the features of font type and size, is essential for understanding the complexities of visual information in a human-computer interface [42]. Improving the readability of online text in the context of typography is one of the most direct and efficient methods to enhance usability and ease of access to information [41] not only for the general public but also for individuals with special needs such as the elderly [43], visually impaired individuals [44], dyslexia readers [45], [46] or individuals with print disabilities [47]. Typefaces are generally classified into two most basic forms: Serifs and Sans Serifs. ...
... For privacy policies only available in portable document format (PDF), font and font size information was obtained from Adobe Acrobat DC. Multiple studies related to typography [41], [42], [48], [55], [56] were studied to derive recommendations for suitable font and font size to be used in privacy policies. ...
Today's privacy policies contain various deficiencies, including failure to convey information comprehensibly to most Internet users and a lack of transparency. Meanwhile, existing studies on privacy policies only focused on specific areas of interest and lack an inclusive outlook on the state privacy policies due to the differences in privacy policy samples, text properties, measures, methodologies, and backgrounds. Therefore, this research develops an assessment metric to bridge this gap by integrating the fragmented understanding of privacy policies and exploring potential aspects to evaluate privacy policies absent from existing studies. The multifaceted assessment metric developed through this study covers three main aspects: content, text property, and user interface. Through the investigation and analyses performed on Malaysian organizations’ online privacy policies, this study reveals several trends using text processing and clustering analysis methods: (1) the use of jargon in privacy policies are relatively low, (2) privacy policies with higher compliance levels tend to be lengthier and more repetitive, and vice versa, (3) regardless of compliance level, there are privacy policies that are not presented in user-friendly font size. Finally, as an experiment of applying the developed metrics, the results confirm the relevance of the assessment metrics developed for assessing online privacy policies via text processing and clustering analysis.
... In addition to the PSs, we found that Rello et al. (2016) recommended using a text size of at least 18 pt. up to 26 pt. to improve readability and comprehension when reading on the screen. ...
... (H2): According to a study by Rello et al. (2016), larger font sizes, such as 18-26 pt, help improve readability, overall, when reading from the screen, and this is especially true for people with dyslexia or people with a lower level of visual impairments (W3C, 2018). It should also be noted that different fonts of the same size may look different in their actual size. ...
... From this selected set, WCAG 2.1 (PS6) and ICT4IAL (PS7) provided the greatest number of instructions. Compared with the proposed heuristics, WCAG 2.1 does not provide detailed instructions relating to (1) font size (see H2), (2) font selection (see H3), (3) use of bullets (see H4), (4) text alignment (see H6), (5) order of content by importance (see H13) and (6) summary provision of content (see H13), but these factors significantly improve readability and support the learning of people with dyslexia or those with lower levels of visual impairments (Chen et al., 2015;Rello et al., 2016;Rello & Baeza-Yates, 2013). Some of the instructions in the PSs are repetitive, but many have been provided only once. ...
Governments and public organisations provide digital services and share information on websites, so web content needs to be accessible to all citizens. Text remains the main form of providing information, and reading is the primary way to interact with digital services. However, existing guidelines are not adequate for content creators in public organisations. The wide scope and technicality of these guidelines make them confusing, difficult to understand and challenging to implement. To respond to this emerging need, in this paper, we contribute improvements to the guidance of accessible text production by proposing heuristics with a design science approach. Specifically, we (1) review accessibility guidelines and determine improvement factors related to text accessibility, (2) establish a design and evaluation workshop with 38 students, and (3) verify the feasibility of the proposal with content creators. Our evidence shows that the proposed accessibility heuristics are clear and easy to understand, and they are useful for content creators.
... Sans serif fonts such as Helvetica, Arial, and Verdana are more effective than serif (embellished) fonts not only for people with dyslexia (Rello and Baeza-Yates 2013) but all populations (Bernard et al. 2001;Chaparro et al. 2010). Later, Rello et al. (2016) found an increase in font size above 14 pt, but no larger than 22 pt, improves readability. When communicating hazard information, selecting familiar fonts is especially important since the message needs to be trusted (Hyndman 2016). ...
... Following the graphic design of weather impact and hazard statements by Gordon et al. (2022), we developed a template (Heggli et al. 2023) • Appropriate negative space to aid in simplicity (Hilligoss and Howard 2002;Samara 2020) • Variation in font size and weight changed to establish a hierarchy of information (Poulin 2017) • Arial font (a minimum font size of 14 pt) for readability (Bernard et al. 2001;Chaparro et al. 2010;Nersesian et al. 2020;Rello et al. 2016;Sattler et al. 1997) • Space for communication-driven embellishments to act as topical cues (Samara 2020) The template provided is designed with a color theme based on http://www.ColorBrewer.org (Harrower and Brewer 2003). ...
When hazardous weather is forecast, communicating probabilistic information (PI) can improves trust, confidence, and understanding of forecast information resulting in improved decision-making by emergency managers and public audiences. With probabilistic forecast tools modernizing forecast operations, the National Weather Service is calling on regional offices to increase the use of PI. However, communicating PI can be challenging since the information is intrinsically more complex than single-value deterministic forecasts that do not include a measure of uncertainty. We suggest that effective PI visualization not only includes the PI graphic but also communicates potential impacts and issues preventative guidance to limit exposure to weather-related hazards. Decision support tools like PI benefit from, if not require, effective visual communication that capitalizes on the efficiency of the visual system to extract information, decrease the time to interpret information, and increase the understanding of uncertainties. Furthermore, PI visuals need to be accessible to disabled and neurodivergent audiences. To enhance the visual communication of PI, we synthesize literature from graphic design and social science to identify guiding principles for effective visual communication and provide a one-page printout quick guide. To showcase how forecasters can incorporate guiding principles in the local context, we provide examples built from readily usable templates to demonstrate how probabilistic forecast information extracted from tools like the National Blend of Models can be used to enhance the visual communication of PI to support more informed decision-making.
... Analyzing organizational specificities from recruiters' perspectives, we construct a framework for formatsensitive resume representation. Following that, we infer knowledge from experts [5], which allows us to identify the most relevant CV's text-linguistic functions associated with an optimal segmentation process. As a final step, BERT-sequence classifiers are adjusted based on resume terminology and format-sensitive document markers to identify such functions, thereby improving the segmentation F1 score. ...
... Note that annotated sections can vary from CV to CV. We then generate automatic document segmentations that capture visual readability patterns [5] used by recruiters to identify CV sections. ...
In the early stages of a recruitment process, recruiters can spend a lot of time analyzing resumes (CVs) manually. This has led to the development of machine learning methods for the automated analysis of such documents, which currently besides text encompass rich formatting. Since rich formatting is not considered in any of the automated analysis stages and its possible impact has not been studied, this article investigates how to extract, transform, and apply grapholinguistic content. To this end, we propose a format sensitive and BERT-based framework for the essential first step in CV analysis, i.e. segmentation, relating the automatic description of graphic and textual markers, transformed in linguistic variables by means of fuzzification, to identify dependencies and semantic relationships with the recruiters’ manual segmentation. Using a training dataset of 150 resumes, our approach achieved an F1-Score of 89% when segmenting 153 new samples.
... Similar works that have been conducted in relation to the topics within this paper are presented below. A study by Rello et al. (2016) suggests that several parameters influence readability for dyslexic individuals. These include font size and type, text colour and background colour. ...
... The results reveal that three out of four ocular metrics tested displayed a statistically significant difference between the dyslexic and control groups. Fixation duration was identified to be longer in the dyslexic group than in the control; this result is in line with research within the area (Rello et al., 2016;Rello & Yates, 2013). Regression count displayed that the dyslexic group on average made more regressions than the control group, although the data was more condensed in the control group than the dyslexic group, these findings are consistent with current literature (Rayner, 1985;Rayner, 1998). ...
... The reinforcements used green for the title bar to signify good productivity and motivate users. The Manrope sans-serif font, size 18, was chosen for all text based on the recommendation from Rello et al. (2016), as larger font sizes improve readability and comprehension. ...
Any behaviour that deviates from the social norms of a wider society and is viewed negatively by society as a whole is considered to be a behavioural problem. In office environments, there is a significant prevalence of behaviour problems, and they have a long-lasting impact on work productivity. Intervention provision is a current component of behavioural problem-solving strategies from which people may benefit through smart environments. While many interventions are presently employed in both smart and non-smart environments, it is unknown how well they work in relation to user preferences. Additionally, change levels are not the foundation of the present intervention methods. The study looked into how providing interventions can help smart environment users to promote good behaviour. The study used the Design Science Research (DSR) Methodology's rigour cycle to deploy the Generic User Model and the Positive Behaviour Change (PBC) model. The PBC Model was examined through an artificial-summative evaluation. The results of the artificial-summative evaluation showed that change-based interventions can be effective for reducing inappropriate behaviour and increasing positive behaviour, and that input from user models can give intervention users personalised effects. The implication of the results from this study is that intervention providers do not only need to focus on modifying negative behaviours, but also strengthening and sustaining good behaviours to motivate continuous future occurrence.
... Their research also indicated that reading speed on LCD screens varies with font size, with larger fonts resulting in increased reading speed and number of fixations but shorter duration of fixations. Rello et al. conducted an experiment to determine the influence of font size and line spacing on objective and subjective readability and comprehension of Wikipedia articles [11]. Their results suggest that readability, as assessed by mean fixation duration, significantly increased with larger font size. ...
The reading experience on a mobile device can be influenced by many external elements that affect the viewing conditions. The user holding position, operating style, and the light conditions of the surroundings can all play a crucial factor in the legibility of the text. Furthermore, the user’s eye conditions may be an extra factor to consider when determining how to improve the reading experience. This study presents a context-aware application that adjusts the text font size based on the distance between the user and the device. The users select their preferred font size at certain distances in the calibration phase, accounting for individual preferences or their eye conditions, and the application uses the device’s front camera to calculate the distance in real time and adjust the font size accordingly. We present implementation details and challenges faced during development and how they were addressed. A two-part experiment ([Formula: see text] = 34) revealed that the application scored an excellent usability score while no differences were found between users with and without eye conditions, showing that both user groups find it equally usable. Additionally, initial results suggest that the visual landmarks used showed a promising start at addressing issues related to our approach.
... Linguists pay attention to the effect of font in conveying language information, including the expressive ability of font, phonetic features and the transfer of grammatical information. Researchers have found that the impact of different typefaces on language expression and the perception and understanding of typefaces may vary among users in different contexts (Rello & Marcos, 2016). In the field of psychology, research on user groups of font design focuses on the effects of typefaces on users' mental states and behaviors. ...
With the development of science and Technology, culture, technology and society need typeface design to reflect the cultural heritage and adapt to the development of technology in the digital age. Research on font design and user groups can better meet the needs of users, but also promote the development and innovation of Chinese typeface design. The problem is how to balance the traditional culture and modern technology in Chinese typeface design, and the needs of the user groups is not very detailed survey. Through the questionnaire to collect a large number of user needs and feedback and the use of data analysis to study the development of font design and user needs. It is found that the rapid development of digital media and technology brings new challenges and opportunities to typeface design. Typography on digital platforms is moving in a more diverse direction, with users paying more attention to the appearance and adaptability of typography on different screens. The research direction in the future can further explore the relationship between font design and culture, traditional art. Research should focus on a more comprehensive understanding of user needs, the integration of technology and design, and adapt to the trend of social diversity.
... A copy of each passage was made so the participant and paraprofessional could both have the text in front of them. The participant copy had the passage in larger font, which Rello, Pielot, and Marcos (2016) found that students prefer and led to positive impacts on readability and comprehension. The paraprofessional copy allowed for space to mark errors as well as designated space to record the time and total deviations from print. ...
... Regarding stylistic simplification and interface design, in other words, how the textual elements are presented to the user, visual design and layout also affect text readability. Works covering font size and line spacing (Rello et al., 2016), highlighting paragraphs (Kobayashi and Kawashima, 2019), or having whitespace between paragraphs to enhance webpage readability (Yu and Miller, 2010), among others, support this view. Additionally, the guidelines provided by the entities and organisations mentioned in Section 2 also cover stylistic aspects. ...
... Again, in this case, the space available in the digital format is an advantage [31]. It must be noted, thus, that at this point the WCAG principle of perceivability is tightly linked to the principle of understandability-hindering reading has an impact on comprehension, as demonstrated in previous research involving the use of Wikipedia (a lexicographic resource) by persons with dyslexia [32]. ...
Information access has been one of the main concerns of lexicography since the first dictionaries were compiled. This paper draws an explicit link between the proposals made from the fields of applied linguistics and website accessibility to enhance the users’ experience in consulting online dictionaries. The paper starts with a reflection on two intertwined notions that are relevant for the discussion: Access and accessibility. After that, it focuses on elements connected to two Web Content Accessibility Guidelines principles, namely perceivability and understandability. It reflects on real practices regarding the way in which information is structured in today’s dictionaries, the use of text alternatives, typographic choice, the writing of definitions, and the use of abbreviations, and proposes measures to tackle the identified challenges. The implementation of easy-to-understand language is highlighted as a relevant resource for prospective lexicographic projects.
... With the advancement of research techniques, some related experiments have taken the form of the eye-tracking experiments to compare the display effects of different fonts. The findings show that the 18-point font size achieves the best readability, comprehension and subjective perception scores in the display of web pages and ensures a certain amount of screen text accommodation (Rello et al. 2016). In the design of user interfaces, besides the setting of font type, size, and spacing for reading text, there are many dynamic and interactive applications of fonts. ...
Driven by the information age, the development of screen display technology has brought new opportunities and challenges for typeface design. Font design has gradually realized multi-dimensional presentation forms and interactive interaction properties. Starting from the application of fonts in user interfaces, this paper analyzes the factors constituting text interactivity and the basic characteristics of font interactivity. It summarizes the expression form of font interactivity in user interface design and its feedback effect. The study shows that, as a fundamental element of user interface design, standardizing the interactive properties in fonts and reading text can ensure the readability of text and improve the efficiency of information communication. At the same time, the application of new digital technologies further expands people's access to text information. The rich media and information dissemination channels have given rise to new patterns of font interactivity applications, shifting the representation of text from static to dynamic, enriching visual variables and application scenarios, and generally broadening the design field. Finally, this paper believes that immersive and interactive typeface design is the future development trend, and the typeface design in user interface should actively break the barriers to seek boundaries and development. The interactive application of fonts with the intervention of new technologies and devices enables designers to convey information and emotions more fully and completely, thus enabling users to obtain a better reading experience and efficient information resources.
... We used a line width of 600 pixels on the desktop and full screen on mobile (see Figure 2). These choices are in alignment with previous readability studies [17,32,33,40,41]. ...
... We also reflected the respondents' difficulties in reading small-sized letters written on products. For this, we provide a text display panel for product information following principles of universal design for older adults (Boyarski et al. , 1998bRello et al. 2016) (Pair 5). ...
Engaging in outdoor daily activities such as shopping is an essential, yet challenging activity for older wheelchair users (OWU). However, little is investigated on how to augment the OWU’s independence during their in-person shopping experiences, specifically by addressing their physical conditions. We first conducted semi-structured interviews and a large-scale survey with 77 people in total to discover OWU’s needs and pain points in comparison with those of general older adults or wheelchair population. Based on these findings, we propose ARbility, a wearable AR-based shopping system for OWU which supports product recognition from seated positions on wheelchairs and one-stop shopping functionality for minimizing physical loads. In our user evaluation with 13 OWU in a real-world environment, ARbility demonstrated 33% decrease in arm movement, with the participants validating its efficacy and usability in qualitative interviews. We conclude with implications on how a wearable AR-based shopping system supports the active aging and inclusion of OWU.
... According to our experiment on a set of snapshots, we set the distance threshold of adjacent contours to 10 pixels. PACTOR discards those contours whose width or height is less than 13 pixels, as researchers suggested that font sizes greater than the traditional 10 points (i.e., 13 pixels) lead to significant improvements in readability and comprehension [22,41]. PACTOR extracts content blocks from the screenshot according to the remaining contours. ...
Web defacement is one of the major promotional channels for online underground economies. It regularly compromises benign websites and injects fraudulent content to promote illicit goods and services. It inflicts significant harm to websites’ reputations and revenues and may lead to legal ramifications. In this paper, we uncover proactive web defacements, where the involved web pages (i.e., landing pages) proactively deface themselves within browsers using JavaScript (i.e., control scripts). Proactive web defacements have not yet received attention from research communities, anti-hacking organizations, or law-enforcement officials. To detect proactive web defacements, we designed a practical tool, PACTOR. It runs in the browser and intercepts JavaScript API calls that manipulate web page content. It takes snapshots of the rendered HTML source code immediately before and after the intercepted API calls and detects proactive web defacements by visually comparing every two consecutive snapshots. Our two-month empirical study, using PACTOR, on 2,454 incidents of proactive web defacements shows that they can evade existing URL safety-checking tools and effectively promote the ranking of their landing pages using legitimate content/keywords. We also investigated the vendor network of proactive web defacements and reported all the involved domains to law-enforcement officials and URL-safety checking tools.
... Although the product has been declared valid, the validator suggests improvements, namely the consistency of using standard or non-standard language, using fonts that are easy for children to read, and increasing the font size so that it is easy for children to read and improvements to HOTS questions. It is known that font size affects legibility (Rello et al., 2016) and is proven to make it easier for someone to remember letters or words (Yang et al., 2018). ...
So far, separating science and religion has brought the world into chaos. In contrast, science and religion do not need to be a dichotomy because they can be integrated constructively to solve problems in human life. This study aims to analyze the validity, practicality, and readability of Islamic Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STEAM) Activities for Early Childhood (AUD), which is part of design research. The research approach uses quantitative methods with a design that refers to the Plomp model. The results of the validity test show that the resulting product is very valid with improvements in standard and non-standard language, use of fonts, enlargement of font sizes, and improvements in Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) questions. After going through the improvement of the prototype, readability, and practicality tests, the results were very good and suitable for use. The results and steps of this study can be used as a reference for other researchers who want to test the validity, practicality, and readability of reading product development for early childhood. In this STEAM Storybook product, more emphasis is placed on integrating Islamic content and activities with the Engineering Design Process.
... The format is exceptionally spotless and productive. The human eyes stream from text component to text component easily, because of the enormous amounts of white space [19]. ...
Thanks to major developments on the Internet, since 1990, the World Wide Web (WWW) has gained a worldwide reputation. The web has become a major source of information for acquiring knowledge, information, entertainment, and the performance of tasks such as booking, online shopping, etc. The readability of content on the web is one of the more significant aspects of Web design usability and accessibility. Readable contents affect how users process the information from the content. Web pages with a low level of readability alarm readers away from the contents. On the other hand, Webpages with a high level of readability allow users to efficiently read and get information from content on the web. In this paper, we have presented the current challenges concerning web readability: font size, font style, color contrast, white space, line spacing, width of the word, length of sentence, graphical contents placements, and relevancy of graphical contents that affect the readability on the websites.KeywordsWeb pageReadabilityAccessibilityRelevancyEvaluationImages
... Referring to a past study by Rello, Pielot, & Marcos (2016), the most prominent factors which led to quick reading speed, short fixation time, and more precise spelling were the font size and font type. It was suggested to use as largest font size possible and avoid using less than 12 pt for the body text. ...
The human brain is a complex structure that allows us to encode and decode various stimuli that incorporate the five senses. In the case of children with dyslexia, this information processing performs inefficiently which resulted in reading, spelling, and/ or writing difficulties. Other related difficulties, such as memorizing, organizing, sequencing, and motor skills deficiency, may also be present. This specific learning difference is a lifetime challenge that cannot be cured, but it can be overcome through structured interventions. For many years, the multi-sensory approach utilized visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile to trigger the senses, which is well known as one of the most compelling aspects of instruction for dyslexic students. By simultaneously training the brain through the senses, it is hypothesized that this approach can enhance the phonetical ability in a more effective and meaningful way through the implementation of an interactive learning kit for dyslexia. This paper is an initial phase of long-term research about an interactive learning kit for dyslexia. It includes the analysis of a multi-sensory approach and how it can be implemented in the design and development process in the next phase. Keywords: dyslexia; multi-sensory; interactive; learning.
... Despite the increased readability of digital texts after a change in font size and line spacing (Rello, Pielot & Marcos, 2016), in the context of push notifications, both features of the text are fixed. Therefore, to enhance communication, clarity and conciseness become relevant. ...
Mobile apps market is a growing market and the main technological enabler of apps are push notifications (PN). Today, users are currently receiving a daily average of 63 PN.
After an introduction that highlights the relevance of PN, this chapter covers the background of its topic –pop-up messages that emerge on the smartphone screen- and its characterization: (1) proactive communication with the user; (2) explicitly authorized through an opt-in request; (3) wide range of content, private and social, sent by social networks, commercial companies, or news publishers from apps or web site; (4) targeted according to the users’ interests, previous behaviors, or time of day; (6) always prompting the user to click on the PN that will land on the sender’s app / web site.
There is a steep competition for the user's attention to click through the PN message. Thus the chapter moves through to discuss the factors that influence the choice of whether to open or ignore a PN: (1) Timing in the delivery, disruption, and systems for managing PN in a non-disruptive way. (2) Top-down factors in PN usage, such as user profile, user reaction times, and user interest in the content (3) Bottom-up factors, such as message textual and visual features as an antecedent of click-through rate.
Before concluding, the chapter suggests future directions for researchers and practitioners: how to increase opt-in rates, user experience of PN, reasons to opt-out …
The chapter ends with a conclusion and a list of references.
... What guidelines can support content creators in producing accessible text that is beneficial for people with various disabilities, not just people with learning difficulties? It is noteworthy that text is still the primary form of information sharing on the web (Kalender et al., 2018), which makes reading the primary form of content interaction (Rello, Pielot, & Marcos, 2016). ...
Accessibility awareness and development have improved in the past two decades, but many users still encounter accessibility barriers when using information technology (IT) artifacts (e.g., user interfaces and websites). Current research in information systems and human-computer interaction disciplines explores methods, techniques, and factors affecting the accessibility of IT artifacts for a particular population and provides solutions to address these barriers. However, design realized in one solution should be used to provide accessibility to the widest range of users, which requires an integration of solutions. To identify the factors that cause accessibility barriers and the solutions for users with different needs, a systematic literature review was conducted. This paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge by revealing (1) management-and development-level factors, and (2) user perspective factors affecting accessibility that address different accessibility barriers to different groups of population (based on the International Classification of Functioning by the World Health Organization). Based on these findings, we synthesize and illustrate the factors and solutions that need to be addressed when creating an accessible IT artifact.
... In contrast, larger point sizes such as 14, 18, 20, and higher are considered headline or display sizes and can convey a stronger emotional connection (Mohd Rezan and N. E. K., 2020). Rello, L., Pielot, M. and Marcos, M. C. (2016) said that expanding the font size is an easy and skilful way to enhance access to textual information. ...
ARTICLE INFORMATION Malaysia's Ministry of Higher Education has instructed all public universities to make entrepreneurship a compulsory subject for all students. In online entrepreneurship learning, learning material such as PowerPoint (PPT) acts as the tools used by lecturers to simplify the communication process in transferring the message to students. Communication through visual design is one of the easiest ways to assist students in better understanding, focusing, and engaging more with the content. However, if the learning material is poorly designed, it distracts the students' learning process, making them more likely to stop. Therefore, to avoid these problems, this study analysed the effectiveness of visual topology elements in entrepreneurship teaching materials in the most prominent university and the pioneer of entrepreneurship education in Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi MARA.
This empirical research study investigates the relationship between the utilization of Universal Design (UD) elements and math performance among eighth graders. We analyzed 2017 National Assessment of Educational Progress process data using Poisson Generalized Linear Mixed-Effects Models to examine how the frequency of UD element usage varies across diverse student demographics. Our findings reveal a great divide: lower achievers, students with disabilities, those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, English Language Learners, and African American students predominantly use text-to-speech, whereas high achievers more frequently employ digital pencils (which allow for manual writing or drawing on the screen) and elimination capacity (which enables students to dismiss incorrect multiple-choice answers). Linear Mixed-Effects Models show that higher levels of utilization of digital pencils and elimination capacity are correlated with improved math performance across various student subgroups. However, frequent changes in color themes, intended to enhance visual differentiation, were associated with lower performance, suggesting that these might serve as distractions rather than aids for some students. We discuss the implications of the findings in terms of the design of UD elements, as well as for equity, accessibility, and math education more broadly.
The natural language capabilities demonstrated by large language models (LLMs) highlight an opportunity for new writing support tools that address the varied needs of people with dyslexia. We present LaMPost, a prototype email editor that draws upon our understanding of these needs to motivate AI-powered writing features, such as outlining main ideas, generating a subject line, suggesting changes, and rewriting a selection. We evaluated LaMPost with 19 adults with dyslexia, identifying promising routes for further exploration (such as the popular “rewrite” and “subject line” features), while also finding that the current generation of LLMs may not yet meet the accuracy and quality thresholds to be useful for writers with dyslexia. In addition, knowledge of the AI did not alter participants’ perception of the system nor their feelings of autonomy, expression, and self-efficacy when writing emails. Our findings provide insight into the benefits and drawbacks of LLMs as writing support for adults with dyslexia, and they offer a foundation to build upon in future research.
This research and development (R&D) study aimed to create “The PunyaPatum digital platform: A shared space for lifelong learning”, serving as a collaborative space for lifelong learning and facilitating the collection and dissemination of information and knowledge derived from the outputs of Rajabhat for Local Development Project in the area of Tumbon Putum, Phroa district, Chiang Mai, Thailand. The methodology employed three key instruments: 1) an interview form to assess the perspectives of 30 teachers and education staff from schools in Tumbon Patum, gathering information on the needed topics, scopes, and content for developing the platform., 2) a quality assessment form for evaluating the platform's quality by three experts., and 3) a questionnaire to investigate the user experiences of 30 teachers and education staff from schools in Tumbon Putum, along with 200 students and 200 interested individuals. Purposive sampling was employed to select thirty teachers and education staff, as well as the three experts, while simple random sampling was used to recruit the participants. Descriptive analysis, encompassing frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation, was employed to interpret quantitative data, while content analysis was utilized to categorize qualitative data into themes.
Findings revealed:
1) Influential factors shaping the needs of teachers and education staff for the development of the PunyaPatum digital platform encompassed interface design, content, and system functionality.
2) The overall quality and suitability of the PunyaPatum digital platform, as assessed by three experts in Information Science and Information Technology and Communication, were deemed to be at a high level (x ̅= 4.50, S.D. 0.645).
3) Participants in this study reported user experiences with the PunyaPatum digital platform across four thematic areas: interface design, usability, barrier-free access, and knowledge utilization.
The PunyaPatum digital platform was devised by integrating web technology and a database system to convert information and knowledge from Tumbom Patum into a digital format. This platform serves as a valuable learning resource for students, teachers, education staff, local residents, and others, facilitating the sharing of information and resources in diverse formats such as learning materials, books, images, infographics, and video clips. This resourcefulness benefits both formal and informal education sectors, enhancing the efficiency of lifelong learning endeavors. Additionally, the insights gleaned from this study can serve as a guide for the development of similar digital learning platforms, thereby fostering advancements in user experiences across various domains of digital learning platforms.
During the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, memes were mass-produced, and it was observed that they featured humor, entertainment, and awareness. This study aimed to analyze the images used and text placements of selected viral COVID-19 memes. Semiology concepts from Saussure (1984) and Peirce (1991) were employed amidst the content analysis of the aforementioned. The images used and text placements were identified as the semiotic patterns of each meme. The study found that the image selection is based on popular culture. Photographs of people and screen capture images from movies and TV/cartoon shows are mostly used. The texts used in the memes are mostly placed in the center, overlaying the image or background used. An all-white Arial typeface with 28-48 pt. is the most used typography. With this text-image relationship, the memes are read more easily, leading to better comprehension and virality. Hence, the study concluded that memes may be utilized to a) associate or represent people, emotions, experiences, and sentiments and b) communicate using another form of media. The study recommends the integration of memes in teaching a lesson, specifically in English at the secondary level, to promote humor and creativity in the language classroom.
When children start to learn how to read in primary school, they are given children’s books, collections of tales, to read in class or at home, but not all children enjoy books to the fullest, and worse, many do not like reading at all. The aim of this paper is to propose a method to adapt such books into video games, hence giving the possibility to read the same stories in a different, interactive medium. Children being familiar with video games, and being avid players, they may more easily enjoy a story through this medium rather than another. But as we work on the matter at hand, two main issues arise, which we will discuss further below. How to adapt from text, often illustrated, to video game? Considering the target audience of this effort, how are we going to make it understandable, legible, and accessible to young children? Said questions are meant to help developers and researchers understand better how to work with children’s literature and children’s games having always their audience in mind.
The success of a web application is closely linked to its performance, which positively impacts user satisfaction and contributes to energy-saving efforts. Among the various optimization techniques, one specific subject focuses on improving the utilization of web fonts. This study investigates the impact of different font formats on client-side resource consumption, such as CPU, memory, load time, and energy. In a controlled experiment, we evaluate performance metrics using the four font formats: OTF, TTF, WOFF, and WOFF2. The results of the study show that there are significant differences between all pair-wise format comparisons regarding all performance metrics. Overall, WOFF2 performs best, except in terms of memory allocation. Through the study and examination of literature, this research contributes (1) an overview of methodologies to enhance web performance through font utilization, (2) a specific exploration of the four prevalent font formats in an experimental setup, and (3) practical recommendations for scientific professionals and practitioners.
Museums and cultural heritage institutions have an important role in presenting accurate information and sharing cultural knowledge, and new technologies are increasingly implemented. For the best results, the appropriateness of a specific technology must be evaluated for each context. Research has shown the need for participatory methods and local knowledge in Indigenous design contexts. We describe a case study where an Indigenous Sámi museum exhibition was augmented with interactive technology through multidisciplinary co-design work with museum experts, designers, and developers. The traditional clothing of the Sámi people was digitized by filming, and information related to it was presented as a touchscreen installation in a renewed exhibition. User tests including interactive tasks and interviews (n = 7) and a questionnaire (n = 27) were completed on-site. The installation was rated interesting and easy to use, while some users struggled to find all the features. Our study shows that a technically relatively simple digital installation can be easy-to-use but interesting for a standard museum visitor. Additionally, the work demonstrates how to build successful collaborations that highlight Indigenous cultural heritage. We discuss the implications of using technology to promote cultural heritage and identities.KeywordsInteractive systemsUser studiesDigital cultural heritageMuseum exhibitionsIndigenous HCI
With the increasing use of large-screen portable devices and the prevalence of list-based user interfaces, it has become critically important to design list interfaces that are visually appealing and user-friendly across various devices and screen sizes. The rules for adapting list-based user interfaces on large screens warrant investigation. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the responsive list width that can enhance visual search efficiency and improve user experience on portable devices with different widths of screen. Two experiments were conducted, in which we manipulated the width of single-column and parent-child lists on portable devices with medium- (Experiment 1; N = 80) and large-width screens (Experiment 2; N = 41), varying the range of list width from very narrow to very wide. Results show that for the single-column lists on a medium-width screen, users demonstrated the highest level of preference and gave the highest ratings for satisfaction and visual aesthetics when the lists were moderately wide. For the single-column lists on a large-width screen, users preferred both the moderately-narrow and moderately-wide lists. However, for parent-child lists, the results show that both the moderately-wide and very-wide lists were favored on both the medium-width and large-width screens. These findings may be attributed to users’ preference for the appropriate white space on different screens, thereby providing useful guidelines for the responsive design of lists on portable devices.
INTRODUCTION
I have not been trained to teach.
However, I teach, and I have been an architect-educator at the University of Portsmouth (UoP) for
nearly twenty years.
Is my situation anomalous in architectural education (AE)?
The answer is, “No”.
This situation is not unusual in AE, in fact it is the norm.
In 1995 Kevin Rhowbotham stated, “It is customary amongst practising architects to assume that those
who have achieved some degree of experience are somehow automatically equipped to teach. Nothing
could be further from the truth”.1
Initially, I expressed an interest to my former tutors to review the work of undergraduate students for
one-off, day-long studio assessments, known traditionally as the ‘Crit’2 while I was practicing as an
architect in the public sector.
Almost two decades later, I transitioned from being a guest of Portsmouth School of Architecture (PSA),
to being a full-time member of staff who sat on the School Executive Group, where I helped to make
decisions which guided the future of the Department.
In this time, I learned how to teach through my own experiences of being taught, observation, intuition
and from being mentored by colleagues.
Weaver et al. suggested, “Yet none of them is trained to be a teacher. Once upon a time they could
perhaps have relied on memories of their own education, in which however hit-and-miss the tutoring,
the student was carried along by the traditional design project”.3
Weaver et al. went on to state that this situation needs to change because, “there has been increased
pressure to account for the quality of provision and a move to professionalise teaching”.4
This piece of reflective writing recounts my own personal journey that led me to become a full-time
architect-teacher, the pitfalls and advantages that I have experienced along the way and the potentials
for improving how teachers in AE are taught. The suggestions that I make here will are being further
developed in the research and writing that I am undertaking as part of the Professional Doctorate in
Education (EdD) at UoP.
The design and construction of buildings are responsible for 40% of the EU's energy use with an
associated 36% CO2 emissions,1
significantly contributing to the climate emergency. Thus, the EU aims
for climate neutrality by 2050,2
but this needs to be achieved much sooner to avoid exacerbated damage
and other related crises and to ensure climate justice.3 However, in architectural education, a significant
gap in Climate Change Design CCD) knowledge, skills and competencies exist for both students and
educators and is one of the biggest challenges in the construction industry, as noted by the IPCC.4 Over
4000 architects in 18 countries declared 'a biodiversity and climate emergency'5 with over 2500
architecture students and teachers globally signing the ‘architecture education declares’ action with a
‘call for a curriculum change'.6
This paper, as part of the transnational ARCH4CHANGE EU Erasmus + funded project ‘Digital climate
change curriculum for architectural education: methods towards carbon neutrality, presents findings
from a systematic literature review, focusing on the barriers and successful pedagogical methods to
meet this urgent challenge in architecture education.
Background
Cognitive impairments are well-documented in multiple sclerosis (MS), while speech impairments are often overlooked despite their significant effect on quality of life. For effective clinical management of multisystem conditions such as MS, consideration should be given to the interaction between deficits in multiple domains, such as speech and cognition. To evaluate speech rate measures of spontaneous and read speech, in people with MS and to examine the link between speech and cognition.
Methods
Forty-five people with MS and 25 controls underwent an extensive cognitive battery, including executive functioning, information processing and memory tasks, and completed two speech tasks: a reading task and a picture description task, from which speech rate measures were derived.
Results
The progressive MS cohort had reduced articulation ( p < 0.04) and speech rate ( p < 0.02) compared to controls and those with relapsing MS. Regression models also revealed information processing speed accounted for 18% to 30% of the variance of spontaneous speech rate measures, and 27% of read speech. Executive functioning accounted for a further 10% of the variance of speech rate in those with MS.
Conclusions
The present study suggests that speech production is contingent on cognitive ability, with information processing speed and executive functioning linked with speech timing patterns.
As soon as the COVID-19 outbreak started, memes were mass produced, portraying emotions and experiences amidst the pandemic. It is observed from these memes that they are not only featuring humor and entertainment. This study aimed to analyze the images used and text placements of the viral COVID-19 memes. Semiology concepts from Saussure (1984) and Peirce (1991) were used as the processes for the content analysis on the viral COVID-19 memes used in the study. The images used and text placements were identified as the semiotic patterns of each meme. These patterns were analyzed to determine the overall characteristics of the memes. The study found out that the selection of the images used is based on popular culture. Photographs of people and screen capture images from movie and TV/cartoon shows are mostly used. The texts used in the memes are mostly placed in the center, overlaying the image or background used. An all-white Arial typeface with 28-48 pt. is the mostly used typography. With this text-image relationship, the memes are read easier leading to better comprehension and being viral. Hence, the study concluded that memes have the capability to become classroom tools to: a) associate or represent people, emotion, experience, and sentiment; and b) communicate using another form of media. The study recommends the integration of memes in teaching a lesson, specifically in English at secondary level, to promote humor and creativity in the language classroom.
The advent of variable font technologies---where typographic parameters such as weight, x-height and slant are easily adjusted across a range---enables encoding ordinal, interval or ratio data into text that is still readable. This is potentially valuable to represent additional information in text labels in visualizations (e.g., font weight can indicate city size in a geographical visualization) or in text itself (e.g., the intended reading speed of a sentence can be encoded with the font width). However, we do not know how different parameters, which are complex variations of shape, are perceived by the human visual system. Without this information it is difficult to select appropriate parameters and mapping functions that maximize perception of differences within the parameter range. We provide an empirical characterization of seven typographical parameters of Latin fonts in terms of absolute perception and just noticeable differences (JNDs) to help visualization designers to choose typographic parameters for visualizations that contain text, as well as support typographers and type designers when selecting which levels of these parameters to implement to achieve differentiability between normal text, emphasized text and different headings.
The majority of research into web accessibility has focused on identifying and eliminating the problems that people with disabilities encounter when interacting with the Web. In this paper we argue that we need to move away from studying user problems to studying how people with disabilities apply interaction strategies while browsing the Web. In this paper we present a study of 19 print disabled users, including blind, partially sighted and dyslexic people, interacting with a variety of interactive Web 2.0 web applications. The participants undertook tasks using concurrent and retrospective protocols to elicit information about how they interact with web content. The result of this study was a collection of 586 strategic action sequences that were classified into seven different types of strategy. Differences in the application of strategies between the user groups are presented, as well as the most frequent strategies used by each user group. We close the paper by discussing some implications for the design of websites and assistive technologies as well as the future directions for empirical research in accessibility.
This study examined the effects of line length on reading speed, comprehension, and user satisfaction of online news articles. Twenty college-age students read news articles displayed in 35, 55, 75, or 95 characters per line (cpl) from a computer monitor. Results showed that passages formatted with 95 cpl resulted in faster reading speed. No effects of line length were found for comprehension or satisfaction, however, users indicated a strong preference for either the short or long line lengths.
This study examined passages containing two serif and sans serif fonts at 12 and 14-point sizes for differences in legibility, reading time, and general preference when read by an older population. A significant main effect of size was found for font legibility in that 14-point fonts were more legible to read than 12-point fonts. A marginal interaction was also found for reading time in that participants read 12-point serif fonts significantly slower than 14-point serif or sans serif fonts. Moreover, participants significantly preferred the 14-point to the 12-point font size. Font recommendations are discussed.
Capturing and analyzing the detailed eye movements of a user while reading a web page can reveal much about the ways in which web reading occurs. The WebGazeAnalyzer system described here is a remote-camera system, requiring no invasive head-mounted apparatus, giving test subjects a normal web use experience when performing web-based tasks. While many such systems have been used in the past to collect eye gaze data, WebGazeAnalyzer brings together several techniques for efficiently collecting, analyzing and re-analyzing eye gaze data. We briefly describe techniques for overcoming the inherent inaccuracies of such apparatus, illustrating how we capture and analyze eye gaze data for commercial web design problems. Techniques developed here include methods to group fixations along lines of text, and reading analysis to measure reading speed, regressions, and coverage of web page text.
This study examined the readabiity.and subjective preferences of a set of fonts designed for screen display. Two new binary bitmap fonts performed well, suggesting that designers should consider incorporating similar attributes into default fonts for on- line type. This study examines reading for comprehension and users' pref- erences of fonts designed sp&icaUy for computer screens. Since the introduction of the personal computer and the more recent increase in the use of on-line sources of information (on- line help, database searching, and especially hypertext resources on the World Wide Web), the option of reading from paper rather than from computer screens has been drastically reduced and in some cases eliminated. A substantial literature on the legibility, readability, and users' preferences for fonts exists (see (2) for a relatively recent com- prehensive review). Recent work has studied users' performance on high resolution bit-mapped displays for a range of reading u&s such as proof-reading (3,4,5J, reading for comprehension and skimming IS). These studies indicate that there is no differ- ence., at least under some circumstances, between paper and high quality screen displays. Nevertheless, reading from screens remains anecdotally problematic. In part, this situation may be due to differences between the conditions of the experiments and conditions of typical on-line presentation (e.g., (4,5) studied anti-aliased text whereas actual practice for many long passages of on-line information is binary bitmap text; (S) studied text set in boldface whereas actual practice is regular face - strokes may appear thinner on a screen than on paper-with boldface reserved for cuemg of highlights). The current study was designed to look at users' performance with text as it is typically presented on-line - using fonts that were not designed speciically for screen display - with text that is likely to be presented on computer screens in the near future - using fonts designed spec-tically for screen display. The goal of the study was not to determine whether the newly designed screen fonts are better than those appearing on paper,
We report on an explorator y study analyzing preferred reading regions on a monitor using eye tracking. We show that users have indi vidually preferred reading regions, varying in location on the screen and in size. Furthermore, we explore how scrolling interactions and mouse movements are correlated with position and size of the individually pref erred reading regions.
Post-task ratings of difficulty in a usability test have the potential to provide diagnostic information and be an additional measure of user satisfaction. But the ratings need to be reliable as well as easy to use for both respondents and researchers. Three one-question rating types were compared in a study with 26 participants who attempted the same five tasks with two software applications. The types were a Likert scale, a Usability Magnitude Estimation (UME) judgment, and a Subjective Mental Effort Question (SMEQ). All three types could distinguish between the applications with 26 participants, but the Likert and SMEQ types were more sensitive with small sample sizes. Both the Likert and SMEQ types were easy to learn and quick to execute. The online version of the SMEQ question was highly correlated with other measures and had equal sensitivity to the Likert question type. Author Keywords
In order to maximize online reading performance and comprehension, how should a designer choose typographical variables such as font size and font type? This paper presents an eye tracking study of how font size and font type affect online reading. In a between-subjects design, we collected data from 82 subjects reading stories formatted in a variety of point sizes, san serif, and serif fonts. Reading statistics such as reading speed were computed, and post-tests of comprehension were recorded. For smaller font sizes, fixation durations are significantly longer, resulting in slower reading - but not significantly slower. While there were no significant differences in serif vs. san serif fonts, serif reading was slightly faster. Significant eye tracking differences were found for demographic variables such as age group and whether English is the subject's first language.
Though there have been many studies of computer based text reading, only a few have considered the small screens of handheld computers. This paper presents an investigation into the effect of varying font size between 2 and 16 point on reading text on a handheld computer. By using both older and younger participants the possible effects of age were examined. Reading speed and accuracy were measured and subjective views of participants recorded. Objective results showed that there was little difference in reading performance above 6 point, but subjective comments from participants showed a preference for sizes in the middle range. We therefore suggest, for reading tasks, that designers of interfaces for mobile computers provide fonts in the range of 8-12 point to maximize readability for the widest range of users.
We present an eye tracking study to measure if and how including pictures – relevant or irrelevant to the text – affects online
reading. In a between-subjects design, 82 subjects read a story on a computer screen. The text was accompanied by either:
(a) pictures related to the text, (b) pictures unrelated to the text (advertisements), or (c) no pictures. Reading statistics
such as reading speed and regressions were computed, as well as measures of picture gazes. When pictures related to the text
were replaced with advertisements, we observed a number of significant differences, including speed, regressions, and re-reading.
Font type and size characteristics play an important role in understanding the complexities of visual information in human-computer interface. India has emerged as the fastest growing personal computer (PC) user in the Asia pacific region. Studies and guidelines on the use of font type and size on screen for computer users are limited in the literature. Present work evaluates the influence of font type and size on reading on a computer screen in a group of young adults. Forty subjects volunteered for the study. Two types of fonts were used. Serif fonts included Times New Roman (TNR), Georgia and Courier New. Sans serif fonts included Arial, Verdana and Tahoma. These fonts were presented in 10, 12 and 14 point sizes. Subjects read eighteen passages (same length and reading level). Reading time, ranking and mental workload were measured. Readability was better for Serif compared to Sans serif. Reading time was minimum for Courier New 14 point. Sans serif fonts were preferred more than Serif fonts. Subjects’ ranking was highest and mental workload was least for Verdana 14 point. The present study recommends using 14 point sized fonts for reading on computer screen. Courier New is recommended based on reading time while for making onscreen presentation more attractive, Verdana is recommended based on subjects’ ranking and mental workload scoring.
This article details a study which predicted that across a wide range of print sizes dyslexic reading would follow the same curve shape as skilled reading, with constant reading rates across large print sizes and a sharp decline in reading rates below a critical print size. It also predicted that dyslexic readers would require larger critical print sizes to attain their maximum reading speeds, following the letter position coding deficit hypothesis. Reading speed was measured across twelve print sizes ranging from Snellen equivalents of 20/12 to 20/200 letter sizes for a group of dyslexic readers in Grades 2 to 4 (aged 7 to 10 years), and for non-dyslexic readers in Grades 1 to 3 (aged 6 to 8 years). The groups were equated for word reading ability. Results confirmed that reading rate-by-print size curves followed the same two-limbed shape for dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers. Dyslexic reading curves showed higher critical print sizes and shallower reading rate-by-print size slopes below the critical print size, consistent with the hypothesis of a letter-position coding deficit. Non-dyslexic reading curves also showed a decrease of critical print size with age. A developmental lag model of dyslexic reading does not account for the results, since the regression of critical print size on maximum reading rate differed between groups.
This paper presents a user study which compares reading performance versus user preference in customization of the text. We study the following parameters: grey scales for the font and the background, colors combinations, font size, column width and spacing of characters, lines and paragraphs. We used eye tracking to measure the reading performance of 92 participants, and questionnaires to collect their preferences. The study shows correlations on larger contrast and sizes, but there is no concluding evidence for the other parameters. Based on our results, we propose a set of text customization guidelines for reading text on screen combining the results of both kind of data.
In 2012, Wikipedia was the sixth-most visited website on the Internet. Being one of the main repositories of knowledge, students from all over the world consult it. But, around 10% of these students have dyslexia, which impairs their access to text-based websites. How could Wikipedia be presented to be more readable for this target group? In an experiment with 28 participants with dyslexia, we compare reading speed, comprehension, and subjective readability for the font sizes 10, 12, 14, 18, 22, and 26 points, and line spacings 0.8, 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8. The results show that font size has a significant effect on the readability and the understandability of the text, while line spacing does not. On the basis of our results, we recommend using 18-point font size when designing web text for readers with dyslexia. Our results significantly differ from previous recommendations, presumably, because this is the first work to cover a wide range of values and to study them in the context of an actual website.
Web usability measures the ease of use of a website. This study attempts to find the effect of three factors - font size, italics, and colour count - on web usability. The study was performed using a set of tasks and developing a survey questionnaire. We performed the study using a set of human subjects, selected from the undergraduate students taking courses in psychology. The data computed from the tasks and survey questionnaire were statistically analysed to find if there was any effect of font size, italics, and colour count on the three web usability dimensions. We found that for the student population considered, there was no significant effect of font size on usability. However, the manipulation of italics and colour count did influence some aspects of usability. The subjects performed better for pages with no italics and high italics compared to moderate italics. The subjects rated the pages that contained only one colour higher than the web pages with four or six colours. This research will help web developers better understand the effect of font size, italics, and colour count on web usability in general, and for young adults, in particular.
A special arrangement of the Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading Test was employed and shown to yield equivalent scores on Forms A and B. Thus varying amounts of leading could be inserted in Form B, and scores on B compared with performance on Form A, set solid. 400 college students were used, none of whom had previously taken the tests. It was found that: 1-point leading does not facilitate speed of reading as compared with text set solid; 2-point leading facilitates speed of reading by 7.5%; 4-point leading facilitates speed of reading by 5%. 10-point type and 19-pica line width were employed as printing specifications, and it may be that the advantage of two-point leading may hold only for this size of type and width of line. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading Tests printed in alternate forms (Form A with black type on white and Form B with white type on black) were used with 280 students to test the effect on speed of reading. Significant differences were found to give a 10.5% advantage in speed of reading in favor of black type on white. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The writers continue previous work, using the Chapman-Cook Speed of Reading tests. Speed of reading records obtained from 320 college students for texts set up in 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, and 14-point type with line length constant at 80 mm. show that 10-point type yields the fastest reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Royal National Institute of the Blind (RNIB) has produced a Clear Print booklet, which contains recommendations for the
production of Clear Print for the blind and partially sighted. The British Dyslexia Association (BDA) has produced a Dyslexia
Style Guide, which covers similar issues. Both focus on producing text, which is clear and therefore more easily read, and
there is significant overlap between the two. By comparing the two, a set of specifications for the production of text has
been generated. Using the specifications should produce clear text for both dyslexic and visually impaired readers. It should
improve readability for all. The text specifications plus additional recommendations from the BDA are considered with respect
to an existing set of web site design guidelines for dyslexic readers to produce an enhanced set of guidelines compatible
with both. These guidelines are recommended to be followed as standard, both for their benefits to visually impaired and dyslexic
readers, promoting accessibility for these groups, and for their potential to improve accessibility for all.
Times New Roman and Arial typefaces in 10- and 12-point, dot-matrix and anti-aliased format conditions were compared for readability (accuracy, reading speed, and accuracy/reading speed), as well as perceptions of typeface legibility, sharpness, ease of reading, and general preference. In assessing readability, the 10-point anti-aliased Arial typeface was read slower than the other type conditions. Examining perceptions of typeface legibility, sharpness, and ease of reading detected significant effects for typeface, size, and format. Overall, the 12-point dot-matrix Arial typeface was preferred to the other typefaces. Recommendations for appropriate typeface combinations for computer-displayed text are discussed.
With such a large volume of material accessible from the World Wide Web, there is an urgent need to increase our knowledge of factors in#uencing reading from screen. We investigate the e!ects of two reading speeds (normal and fast) and di!erent line lengths on comprehension, reading rate and scrolling patterns. Scrolling patterns are de"ned as the way in which readers proceed through the text, pausing and scrolling. Comprehension and reading rate are also examined in relation to scrolling patterns to attempt to identify some characteristics of e!ective readers. We found a reduction in overall comprehension when reading fast, but the type of information recalled was not dependent on speed. A medium line length (55 characters per line) appears to support e!ective reading at normal and fast speeds. This produced the highest level of comprehension and was also read faster than short lines. Scrolling patterns associated with better comprehension (more time in pauses and more individual scrolling movements) contrast with scrolling patterns used by faster readers (less time in pauses between scrolling). Consequently, e!ective readers can only be de"ned in relation to the aims of the reading task, which may favour either speed or accuracy. ( 2001 Academic Press
This paper provides a tutorial introduction to numerical cognition, with a review of essential findings and current points of debate. A tacit hypothesis in cognitive arithmetic is that numerical abilities derive from human linguistic competence. One aim of this special issue is to confront this hypothesis with current knowledge of number representations in animals, infants, normal and gifted adults, and brain-lesioned patients. First, the historical evolution of number notations is presented, together with the mental processes for calculating and transcoding from one notation to another. While these domains are well described by formal symbol-processing models, this paper argues that such is not the case for two other domains of numerical competence: quantification and approximation. The evidence for counting, subitizing and numerosity estimation in infants, children, adults and animals is critically examined. Data are also presented which suggest a specialization for processing approximate numerical quantities in animals and humans. A synthesis of these findings is proposed in the form of a triple-code model, which assumes that numbers are mentally manipulated in an arabic, verbal or analogical magnitude code depending on the requested mental operation. Only the analogical magnitude representation seems available to animals and preverbal infants.
Two experiments investigated whether lexical complexity increases a word’s processing time. Subjects read sentences, each
containing a target word, while their eye movements were monitored. In experiment 1, mean fixation time on infrequent words
was longer than on their more frequent controls, as was the first fixation after the Infrequent Target. Fixation Times on
Causative, factive, and negative verbs and ambiguous nouns were no longer than on their controls. Further analyses on the
ambiguous nouns, however, suggested that the likelihood of their various meanings affected fixation time. This factor was
investigated in experiment 2. subjects spent a longer time fixating ambiguous words with two equally likely meanings than
fixating ambiguous words with one highly likely meaning. The results suggest that verb complexity does not affect lexical
access time, and that word frequency And the presence of two highly likely meanings may affect lexical access and/or postaccess
integration.
Presents a model of reading comprehension that accounts for the allocation of eye fixations of 14 college students reading scientific passages. The model deals with processing at the level of words, clauses, and text units. Readers made longer pauses at points where processing loads were greater. Greater loads occurred while readers were accessing infrequent words, integrating information from important clauses, and making inferences at the ends of sentences. The model accounts for the gaze duration on each word of text as a function of the involvement of the various levels of processing. The model is embedded in a theoretical framework capable of accommodating the flexibility of reading. (70 ref)
The investigation of visual word recognition has been a major accomplishment of cognitive science. Two on-line methodologies, eye movements and event-related potentials, stand out in the search for the holy grail - an absolute time measure of when, how and why we recognize visual words while reading. Although each technique has its own experimental limitations, we suggest, by means of review and comparison, that these two methodologies can be used in complementary ways to produce a better picture of the mental action we call reading.
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