Content uploaded by Jeff Wilks
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jeff Wilks on Jun 12, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
Beach safety education for primary school children
Abstract and Figures
Childhood drowning remains a serious public health problem worldwide. The Australian Water Safety Council has set as one of its highest priorities the reduction of drowning deaths in children aged 0-14 years. However, concerns have recently been raised that many students completing primary school still lack the ability to recognize potential aquatic risks, cope with emergencies or assist someone else in danger. In this study, 107 primary school children aged 11-12 completed a one day training programme led by surf lifesaving instructors. Pre, post and eight week follow-up measures showed statistically significant improvements in recognition of the red 'beach closed' flag, aquatic safety signs, how to identify a rip current and choosing the safest place to swim at a beach that included a rip current in the picture. Following training students were more willing to provide first aid assistance to family members and friends in an emergency situation. Findings reinforce the value of school-based training that provides a general foundation for aquatic safety, with the caveat that current programmes must be evaluated to ensure their content has a robust prevention focus.
Figures - uploaded by Jeff Wilks
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Jeff Wilks
Content may be subject to copyright.
... However, a paucity of studies have documented the effectiveness of these types of direct beach safety interventions . Exceptions include a study of a small cohort of Australian primary school children aged 11-12 by Wilks et al. (2017), who found significant improvements in recognition of beach flags, safety signs and how to identify rip currents after completing a one-day training program led by surf lifesaver instructors. Barcala-Furelos et al. (2019) evaluated a pilot pre-school education program in Spain which utilised illustrated stories to show that learning and retention of beach safety information can be retained by children as young as five years of age. ...
... The latter are the recommended swimming location on Australian beaches patrolled by lifeguards and lifesavers. While many beach safety presentations are given to a variety of audiences, both in Australia and globally, there is a paucity of evidence-based research which has evaluated the effectiveness of this type of intervention (Wilks et al., 2017;Barcala-Furelos et al., 2019;Koon et al., 2021). ...
... This is true for most of the images used in the surveys in this study (Figs. 3 and 4). Static imagery also does not necessarily replicate real world rip current conditions Wilks et al., 2017;Menard et al., 2018). This is potentially problematic as evident from the results of Pitman et al. (2021) who found that a significant proportion of beachgoers surveyed at a beach in New Zealand, who were able to identify a rip current in photographs, were unable to spot an actual rip current operating on the beach. ...
This study evaluates the effectiveness of a science-based beach safety presentation given to multiple audiences in Sydney, NSW, Australia. A total of 383 attendees aged 14 years and over completed pre- and post-intervention surveys associated with 10 Science of the Surf (SOS) presentations with 121 completing a follow-up survey. Following the presentation, attendees showed a significant improvement in their choice not to swim at beaches unpatrolled by lifeguards, intention to check for common hazards such as rip currents, knowledge of what a rip current looked like and ability to identify rip currents in photographs. These improvements were retained at least four weeks after seeing the presentation. However, there was evidence to suggest that perceived improvement of rip current identification led to over-confidence in terms of choosing appropriate swimming locations. Overall, these findings suggest that direct presentations may improve community understanding of beach safety practice and rip current awareness and identification. However, it is recommended that future presentations be given by trained and skilled communicators, use video footage and time lapse imagery of dye releases into rip currents, and use the finding of over-confidence as a cautionary tale when designing beach safety presentations for the public.
... As 13 publicações incluídas no estudo foram produzidas de 2013 a 2018. Cinco (38,46%) [9,12,16,19,20] foram publicadas nos Estados Unidos da América, quatro (30,76%) [11,14,17,21] no Reino Unido, três (23,07%) [13,15,18] lives", que é um treinamento anual de reanimação de duas horas para escolares [22]. ...
... As principais intervenções encontradas nesta revisão foram: elaboração de situações problemas [9,10,13,14,18], uso de jogos [10][11][12]16,17,19] e manequins [9,[12][13][14]19,21], elaboração de exercícios e discussão em grupo [13,14,16,18], uso do DEA Houve correspondência suficiente e boa adequação na avaliação entre os especialistas. ...
... Os profissionais que mais realizaram as intervenções de ensino de primeiros socorros para escolares foram profissionais da saúde, presentes em 30,8% dos estudos [9,12,13,19], professores (30,8%) [12,16,18,19] e instrutores (23,1%) [10,14,21]. Uma pesquisa de ação concorda com o exposto pelo presente estudo, pois foi realizada por enfermeiras que utilizaram oficinas, simulações de situações de emergência, bonecos, bolsa válvula máscara, luvas e garrote para o ensino de primeiros socorros para as crianças [32]. ...
Introdução: A estratégia educacional deve estar ligada ao estágio de desenvolvimento da criança e as atividades lúdicas podem ser utilizadas no processo ensino-aprendizagem. Objetivo: Identificar as estratégias metodológicas utilizadas no ensino de primeiros socorros para escolares. Métodos: Revisão de escopo realizada em março de 2020, em oito fontes de dados nacionais e internacionais. Seguiram-se as recomendações do Instituto Joanna Briggs. Resultados: Incluíram-se 13 estudos de 2013 a 2018. As estratégias metodológicas mais observadas foram: treinamento teórico associado às habilidades práticas, uso do PowerPoint, vídeos, fotos, manequins, desfibrilador externo automático, objetos lúdicos como gaze, ataduras e curativos, roda de conversa interativa, elaboração de situações problemas fictícias, simulação de feridas e queimaduras com xarope e maquiagem, entrega de panfletos informativos, pintura de desenhos, kits de autoinstrução, jogos digitais, de tabuleiro e show de dramatização com marionetes. Quem mais utilizou essas metodologias foram profissionais da saúde, professores e instrutores. Conclusão: Principais estratégias encontradas: elaboração de situações problemas, utilização de jogos e manequins.
... Globally, it is recognised that engaging communities through active forms of public participation is necessary for risk prevention (Few et al., 2022;Satizábal et al., 2022), yet methods of community engagement in the context of beach risk management often rely on top-down practices that aim to educate the community Warton & Brander, 2017;Wilks et al., 2017) or raise awareness of risk (Cooper et al., 2021;De Nardi & Wilks, 2007;Surf Life Saving Australia, 2022). These practices are synonymous with the 'knowledge deficit model' to community engagement (Cook & Overpeck, 2018;Jasanoff et al., 1998;Wynne, 2006), which has been criticised in risk research for its foundational assumption that lacking awareness is the basis for poor decision-making and that the one-way transfer of expert knowledgefrom experts to the publiccan prompt lasting behaviour change (Cook & Melo Zurita, 2019). ...
... As an example, the success of community engagement for beach drowning risk prevention can be viewed through three separate lenses (Cvitanovic et al., 2021): the first is through the lens of the risk management sector, which tends to use the multiple actions performed by lifeguards (e.g. rescues, first aids, preventative actions) and evaluation of education programmes (Calverley et al., 2021;Wilks et al., 2017) as a measure of services provided/undertaken to 'successfully' prevent drownings (Surf Life Saving Australia, 2022). Second, researchers in this study may deem reported changes in learning, risk-taking behaviours, and skill development that spills over to non-participants as a 'successful' impact of community engagement. ...
Despite reduced drowning incidence at lifeguard patrolled beaches, 71 drowning fatalities occurred on Australian beaches last year (2021–2022). Prevailing drowning prevention practices on beaches include patrolling lifeguards positioning safety flags in less hazardous locations and encouraging beachgoers to swim between them. Such methods represent a ‘deficit based’ approach to community engagement, in which experts determine acceptable behaviours and encourage adherence using a one-way transfer of information. Deficit based approaches can be useful, but participatory forms of community engagement are hypothesised to support learning that can transfer to other locations and through non-participants’ social networks. Using a lifeguard patrolled beach in Gerroa, Australia as a case study, we employed a ‘relationship building’ methodology to explore whether engagements on the beach can prompt transformational learning and whether such learning spills over to non-participants or to unpatrolled locations. Findings from 49 survey-interview engagements and 15 follow-up interviews suggest that building relationships with researchers is an enjoyable form of community engagement that contributes to learning about risk; simultaneously, findings suggest that learning can transform beachgoers’ intentions and practices at unpatrolled beaches. This paper provides a broadened theoretical and empirical model of community engagement aimed at beach drowning risk prevention via relationship building.
... There are few beach safety presentations in China, despite the fact that they are available to beachgoers on numerous beaches in many different nations. Both in Australia and globally, there is a paucity of evidence-based research which has evaluated the effectiveness of this type of intervention [46][47][48]. Hatfield et al. [49] publicized knowledge of rips to the public through issuing posters, postcards, and brochures with the message of "Don't get sucked in by the rip", and achieved good intervention effects in the selection of swimming areas by beach visitors. Brander et al. [50] conducted a science-based beach safety presentation to increase public understanding of beach safety and awareness of hazards, confirming that direct presentations improved community understanding of beach safety practice and rip current awareness and identification, but might lead to overconfidence in the ability of identification. ...
... This is true for most of the images used in the surveys in this study ( Figures A2 and A3 in Appendix A). Moreover, static imagery also does not necessarily replicate real scenarios of rip conditions [46,49,53]. In light of this circumstance, we employed a video clip as part of our educational method, and rip-containing footage enables a more accurate and visual explanation of the rip current shape and properties. ...
Among many coastal hazards, rip currents have gradually become one of the most noticeable hazards. Studies have demonstrated that most drowning accidents at beaches around the world are related to rip currents. In this study, online and field questionnaires were combined for the first time to reveal beachgoers' awareness of rip currents in China from four aspects: demographic characteristics, swimming ability, information about visiting beaches, and knowledge about rip currents. One educational strategy was introduced to the field survey. The results suggest that (i) the proportion of online and field respondents who have heard of "rip currents" and seen warning signs of rip currents is extremely small. This reflects that beachgoers lack awareness of rip current hazards. Thus, China needs to strengthen the safety education of rip current knowledge. (ii) The level of awareness of rip currents can significantly affect the community's ability to identify the location of rip currents and their choice of escape direction. (iii) In the field survey, we implemented an educational strategy as an intervention for respondents, and the accuracy of identifying rip currents and choosing the correct escape route improved by 34% and 46.7%, respectively. This implies that the intervention of educational strategy can significantly deepen beachgoers' awareness of rip currents. It is recommended that more educational strategies about rip current knowledge be implemented on Chinese beaches in the future.
... Beach hazard knowledge and survival skills developed at younger ages, frequently in school programs, are foundations for risk assessment and decisionmaking as children move through adolescence and into young adulthood-life stages characterised by decreasing parental/adult supervision and increasing risk-taking behaviour. 12 There is some evidence that school-based beach safety education programs increase knowledge for younger children 13,14 and those in early adolescence. 15 Tipton et al identified that pre-teens and younger teenagers are old enough to appreciate water safety messaging 15 and are the age group before coastal drowning rates begin to increase. ...
Issue addressed:
School-based beach safety education programs are common, but best practice guidance and information on their design and development is limited.
Methods:
Researchers, professional ocean lifeguards, and students participated in a co-design process to inform a lifeguard-delivered, school-based beach safety education program for a coastal community in New South Wales, Australia. Lifeguards and researchers (experts) provided structured feedback about the program in a survey and facilitated workshop; students (n=26) aged 11-13 years participated in focus group sessions intended to garner in-depth understanding of their experiences at the beach and knowledge of, and attitudes towards, beach safety.
Results and discussion:
The co-design process provided a novel and inclusive model for beach safety education program development, and valuable lessons for future efforts. Specifically, student focus groups identified several facets of pre-teens and younger teenagers' beach experience that prompted revision of the education program, primarily framing of program content and safety messages. Peers are a primary motivator for this age group and students' burgeoning independence emerged as an important theme. While knowledgeable about beach hazards and risks, students conveyed mixed safety attitudes and self-reported safety practices, highlighting the importance of designing programs to motivate behaviour and promote safe decision-making versus raising awareness alone. Findings illustrate the value of adopting co-design processes for all beach safety programs, school or otherwise. SO WHAT?: Beach safety programs may not be delivering information that is needed, wanted, or useful. Structured consultation with the priority population must become standard practice in beach safety education program development. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... A inserção de modalidades esportivas, na vida das crianças trazem inúmeros benefícios, não somente no desenvolvimento motor, cognitivo e afetivo-social, mas também na iniciação nas habilidades competitivas (CARVALHO; CARDOSO, de aprender os quatros estilos da natação é preciso saber nadar.Ou seja, se locomover de forma independente. Muitas das crianças ainda não têm a capacidade de reconhecer os riscos aquáticos(WILKS et al., 2017), nesse sentido, é importante que o praticante se ambiente com o meio líquido, estabelecendo relação segura entre o seu corpo e a água (MELLO-FIORI et al., 2019). Assim, de acordo com Nunes e Franco (2020) é fundamental, o professor apresentar outros caminhos que favorecem o aprendiz, com intuito de instigar o aluno a controlar o próprio corpo, no ambiente aquático, de forma satisfatória. ...
Beach safety flags form an internationally adopted warning system intended to prevent adverse incidents, including drownings. However, little is known about people’s familiarity with these flags. In this study we tested the recognition and understanding of beach warning flags in the Netherlands, a country which welcomes millions of beach visitors every year. A convenience sample (N = 174) of the Dutch population was interviewed using a structured survey which asked for the meaning of eight different flags, the respondents’ confidence in their choice, as well as their intention with regard to entering the water. The results show an overall poor understanding of the meaning of all flags except for the red flags (which indicate high hazard). The level of confidence largely followed the same pattern, with low confidence for most flags except the red ones. Strikingly, the yellow flag (which indicates potential hazard and is meant to discourage bathing) evoked a considerable proportion of opposite associations (i.e., safety), combined with moderately high confidence and intentions to enter the water. More people were in fact inclined to enter the water under a yellow flag than under a red & yellow flag (which indicates a patrolled beach). Direct or indirect experience with danger in the sea did not affect people’s knowledge of the flags but did reduce the intention to enter the water. We conclude that familiarity with the flag system in the Netherlands is wanting and we propose a number of recommendations to improve public understanding.
The aim of this paper is to analyse the meaning of beach safety flags and their management along the Northern Spanish coast. There are more than 1000 small beaches, which are often in high demand by tourism during the summer season. To carry out the research, most of main beaches have been visited to observe and analyse the meaning of all the safety flags and their correct use depending on the oceanographic and meteorological conditions. The influence of the beach safety management and regulations on the use of beach safety signage has been also analysed. The results show that safety flag systems differ even between very close beaches where safety management is in the hands of different local governments. Outdated and local legal framework and the absence of an agreed system between the different organizations that provide lifeguarding services seem to be behind this lack of uniformity. A specific guide for beach safety flags and signage within a national safety beach plan agreed by all the autonomic or provincial governments may be a solution.
Background Rip currents are narrow, strong currents that move seaward through the surf zone. Rip currents are the number one drowning hazard on surf beaches globally. A comprehensive review of rip current related drowning and rescue has not been reported to date.
Aims To describe rip current related drowning deaths and rescues in Australia from 2004 to 2011.
Methods A retrospective search was undertaken for fatal and non-fatal rip related drowning incidents in Australia from the National Coroner's Information System (NCIS), SurfGuard Incident Reporting Database (IRD), and Media Monitors, between 1 July 2004 and 30 June 2011.
Results There were 629 fatal coastal drowning deaths recorded and rip currents were a factor in 145 fatalities (22.9%), an average of 21 per year. There were a total of 1246 ‘major rescues’, lifesavers reported the involvement of rip currents in 602 rescues (48.3%), an average of 86 per year.
Significance Using similar data sets from life saving organisations in the USA, UK, and NZ an international range of 48.3%–57.9% of all rescues are rip related, which is comparable to Australia. Rip related events are common though preventable. Priority strategies for rip related drowning prevention include educating beachgoers to: swim between the flags; identify rip currents; and appropriate responses if caught in a rip. Interventions should target young males in particular, as they are overrepresented in rip related drowning and rescue incidents.
Objective The aim of the present study was to determine whether a 1-day basic life support (BLS) training program can significantly increase emergency response readiness for primary school children. Methods One hundred and seven children aged 11-12 years completed a program led by surf lifesaving instructors. A 50-item quiz was administered 1 week before and 1 and 8 weeks after training. Results Significant improvements were gained in knowledge of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR; P<0.001), the response sequence for emergency situations (DRSABCD action plan) and various emergency scenarios, including choking (P<0.001) and severe bleeding (P<0.001). Knowledge and understanding were retained at the 8-week follow-up. Stud.s reported increased confidence in assisting others after training, consistent with previous studies. Conclusions A 1-day training program can significantly increase BLS knowledge and confidence to provide assistance in an emergency situation. Findings reinforce the value of school-based training that provides a general foundation for emergency response readiness.
Background: There has been limited analysis and exploration of drowning deaths that occur in children aged 5-19 years.
Aims/Objectives/Purpose: To undertake an analysis of drowning deaths of children 5-19 years in Australia and to explore strategies for prevention.
Methods: Information was collected for the period July 2002 to June 2011 on all drowning deaths in Australia using multiple sources including the National Coronial Information System. Cases were excluded if the death was intentional (i.e. suicide, homicide), from natural causes, or from animal attack (e.g. shark, crocodile), or hypothermia where known.
Results/Outcome: Over the 9 years there were 271 (46%) deaths of 5-19 year olds. As children aged, the predominant locations of drowning deaths transitioned from home environments (swimming pools and bathtubs) to open waterways (rivers, creeks and streams). A related transition occurred in activity prior to drowning, where younger children were more likely to fall into water and be bathing, older children drowned in more active pursuits such as swimming and recreating, using watercraft and intentionally entering the water. Gender plays a key role, with 87% of all drowning victims being male in the 15-19 years age group. As adulthood approaches the number of deaths increase.
Significance/Contribution to the Field: Drowning in children aged 5 to 19 years is a significant issue that has been largely neglected in Australia. Royal Life Saving believes that these drowning deaths are preventable and that the increase in drowning deaths in late adolescence points to the importance of swimming and water safety education during the school years.
The purpose of this study was to examine the risk factors for injuries on a beach. It is important to know all the risk factors for injuries that can happen in a beach to prevent accidents. Risk factors were grouped in four main categories: beach morphology (BM), beach equipment (BE), lifeguard service (LS), and miscellaneous aspects (MA). All of them were evaluated according to their importance using a survey by Spanish and International experts. Descriptive analysis showed that LS is the main mechanism by which to reduce injuries on a beach. Lifeguard service in-service train-ing is very important as are the affluence and activities developed by the beach patrons, the influences of weather and climate on the beach, and other infrastructures as risk factors for dangers on beaches. The interest in aquatic activities is a social phenomenon that has increased in recent years, due to the increases in leisure time, according to the Spanish National Statistics Institute (2004). Over the last 10 years, Spanish people have spent around 48 min per day in sport practice or physical activities. During that same period, the number of people involved in the national federation of aquatic activi-ties increased from 194,013 in 1993 to 267,125 in 2003. The leisure time increases during holidays lead to a higher involvement in aquatic activities, especially during the summer and spring seasons due to the favorable climate conditions in Spain. This same increase in aquatic participation also can explain the increase in aquatic accidents (American Red Cross, 1995; Branche & Stewart, 2001; Brewster, 1995; Edmonds & Walker, 1999; Graver, 2004; Grenfell, 2002; Thanel, 1998: YMCA, 2001). An accident is defined as an important damage or injury to humans that is associated with high economic costs in some cases and that could have been prevented (Girsek, 1999; Langley, 2004; Saluja et al., 2004). According to the World Health Organization (2003), the most negative effects on health associated with the practice of aquatic activities are eye injury, lacerations, slipping and falling injuries, spinal cord injuries leading to paralysis, head injuries, and drowning. Drowning, defined as the impossibility to breathe due to immersion in water, is the most serious problem related to beach and water use (Bierens, 2005; OMS, J. Arturo Abraldes works in the Department of Physical Activity and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, at the University of Murcia, Spain. Jorge Pérez-Gómez works in the Teaching of Musical Expression and Plastic Body Department, Faculty of Sports Sciences, at the University of Extremadura in Spain.
Rip currents are a common hazard to beachgoers found on many beaches
around the world, but it has proven difficult to accurately quantify the
actual number of rip current related drowning deaths in many regions and
countries. Consequently, reported estimates of rip current drowning can
fluctuate considerably and are often based on anecdotal evidence. This
study aims to quantify the incidence of rip current related drowning
deaths and rescues in Australia from 2004 to 2011. A retrospective
search was undertaken for fatal and non-fatal rip-related drowning
incidents from Australia's National Coronial Information System (NCIS),
Surf Life Saving Australia's (SLSA, 2005-2011) SurfGuard Incident Report
Database (IRD), and Media Monitors for the period 1 July 2004 to 30 June
2011. In this time, rip currents were recorded as a factor in 142
fatalities of a total of 613 coastal drowning deaths (23.2%), an average
of 21 per year. Rip currents were related to 44% of all beach-related
drowning deaths and were involved in 57.4% of reported major rescues in
Australian locations where rips occur. A comparison with international
operational statistics over the same time period describes rip-related
rescues as 53.7% of the total rescues in the US, 57.9% in the UK and
49.4% in New Zealand. The range 49-58% is much lower than 80-89%
traditionally cited. The results reported are likely to underestimate
the size of the rip current hazard, because we are limited by the
completeness of data on rip-related events; however this is the most
comprehensive estimate to date. Beach safety practitioners need improved
data collection and standardized definitions across organisations. The
collection of drowning data using consistent categories and the routine
collection of rip current information will allow for more accurate
global comparisons.
Introduction Drowning remains a leading cause of preventable death in children across the world. This systematic review identifies and critically analyses studies of interventions designed to reduce fatal and non-fatal drowning events among children and adolescents or reduce the injury severity incurred by such incidents.
Methods A systematic search was undertaken on literature published between 1980 and 2010 relating to interventions around fatal and non-fatal drowning prevention in children and adolescents 0–19 years of age. Search methods and protocols developed and used by the WHO Global Burden of Disease Injury Expert Group were applied.
Results Seven studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Interventions were categorised into three themes of Education, Swimming Lessons and Water Safety, and Pool Fencing. All are possible effective strategies to prevent children from drowning, particularly young children aged 2–4 years, but very little evidence exists for interventions to reduce drowning in older children and adolescents. There were methodological limitations associated with all studies, so results need to be interpreted in the context of these.
Conclusions Relatively few studies employ rigorous methods and high levels of evidence to assess the impact of interventions designed to reduce drowning. Studies are also limited by lack of consistency in measured outcomes and drowning terminology. Further work is required to establish efficacy of interventions for older children and adolescents. There is a need for rigorous, well-designed studies that use consistent terminology to demonstrate effective prevention solutions.
Objectives: To compare attitudes and knowledge of beach safety in Australia of beachgoers, rural inland residents and international tourists.
Method: This analysis is part of the 2007 baseline survey for the Science of the Surf project and involved interviews of 367 people on beaches in New South Wales (NSW), 62 rural residents of a moderate-sized inland town and 73 international tourists visiting Sydney beaches. Participants were asked about various aspects of beach safety and shown photographs of beaches and asked to indicate where they would swim and to identify the location of any rip currents. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the predictors of swimming choice.
Results: Most beachgoers were aware that swimming between flags indicating a patrolled section of beach was the safe swimming option, but a significant proportion chose not to swim there. Rural residents were more likely than the other two groups to make safe choices about where to swim in the presence of flags. The odds of international tourists making a safe swimming choice in the vicinity of a rip current were three times lower than usual beachgoers and rural inland residents.
Conclusions and Implications: Improving beach safety will require more refined strategies for specific target groups rather than a series of one-size-fits-all approaches.
Aquatic safety signs are widely used to alert potential users to hazards such as strong currents (rips), submerged rocks or dangerous marine life. To assist in providing guidance on the way such signage should be deployed the present study asks to what extent warning signs on the approach to some popular beaches add to the existing knowledge of beachgoers exposed to such signage. Interviews were conducted with 472 users at four beaches in the Australian state of Victoria. Three different signage conditions were used; no signage, a single standard composite signboard, and signage spatially separated into four types of signs; location name and emergency information, safety hazard symbols, lifeguard service information, and prohibitions. The interview investigated hazard identification, signage recalled, comprehension of that signage and, to elucidate a question about the shape of warning signs, whether users noticed whether warnings were in a triangle or diamond shape. Currents/rips was the hazard foremost in respondents minds regardless of whether signage was present warning of this danger. Less than half of the respondents (45.0%) reported observing any signage. Of those that did report observing signage the majority noticed the hazard related symbol signs above any other information provided. Neither composition of the sign (i.e. separated or composite/standard sign) nor symbol shape affected recognition. Strategies to direct beachgoers to read and heed the information on aquatic safety signage are discussed.
