No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Promises kept? A meta-analysis of gang membership prevention programs
Abstract and Figures
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to synthesize the effects of gang prevention programs on gang membership.
Design/methodology/approach
– The authors conducted a systematic literature review across 19 bibliographic databases and a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of these strategies.
Findings
– The database search resulted in 3,850 hits. Of the 162 studies that were screened in full, six involved a prevention program with outcomes commensurate for meta-analysis. Pooled log odds ratios indicate a significant, positive effect of gang prevention programs at reducing gang membership; however, sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the results are driven by the effects of a single study.
Originality/value
– Despite the small sample size, the current study presents the best available evidence regarding the effectiveness of gang membership prevention programs. There is a critical need in the field of gang control for rigorous evaluation of prevention strategies.
Figures - uploaded by Martin Bouchard
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Martin Bouchard
Content may be subject to copyright.
... Another common response to heightened awareness of violence in schools during the latter portion of the twentieth century were various prevention and intervention pro grams that were targeted toward violence in schools -often specifically targeting gang violence -created by federal, state and local governments, as well as various non-profit organizations (Wong et al. 2016). Prevention and intervention programs were attractive to government and community officials because they offered a way to be proactive in addressing gangs (i.e., prevention of gang formation in schools), rather than the reactive responses many schools had traditionally used for addressing gangs (i.e., suppressing the problem, punishing individuals after violence occurs, ignoring small acts of gang crime/violence, etc.) (Thompkins 2000). ...
... Prevention and intervention programs were attractive to government and community officials because they offered a way to be proactive in addressing gangs (i.e., prevention of gang formation in schools), rather than the reactive responses many schools had traditionally used for addressing gangs (i.e., suppressing the problem, punishing individuals after violence occurs, ignoring small acts of gang crime/violence, etc.) (Thompkins 2000). Although Gottfredson and Gottfredson (2001) reported that there are over 941,000 school-based gang prevention and intervention programs, Wong et al. (2016), based on a recent meta-analytic review of the literature, identified the following as undergoing formal evaluation: ...
... Table 10.2 reports the treatment and whether each program increased, decreased, or did not change the level of gang membership. Although nearly all of the programs revealed that their treatment groups maintained lower rates of gang membership, only the second evaluation of GREAT reported a sta tistically significant different likelihood of gang membership between students who completed the GREAT II program and students who did not Wong et al. 2016). The potential shown by GREAT II is important for school adminis trators to consider while determining ways to handle gang presence in their schools; therefore, a more in-depth coverage of the program is provided below. ...
This chapter reviews the relationship between gangs, schools, and violence in the United States. The first section examines the scope of the problem by situating gang membership in the life course. The second identifies the extent to which gangs and gang members are present in schools, and the effects of this presence on schools and the consequences of gang membership for educational attainment. The third section of the chapter reviews what is known about gangs and violence in schools, emphasizing the implications of gangs on fear of victimization. The last two sections review responses to gangs in schools. First, data on gang‐related legislation from the National Gang Center are reviewed and synthesized by policy, programming, punishment, training, and discretion‐based legislation. Second, existing evaluation research on gang programming are reviewed. This chapter concludes by identifying directions for further program development and research.
... Since 2012, several gang-related systematic reviews have been carried out (Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, Wong, & Morselli, 2013;Murphy, Farragher, Keane, Galvin, & Long, 2017;Pyrooz et al., 2016;Raby & Jones, 2016;Tonks & Stephenson, 2019;Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Morselli, & Descormiers, 2012;Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, & Morselli, 2016). ...
... Assessing confidence in the body of evidence of an SR is recommended but not always carried out (E.g. see Papalia, Spivak, Daffern, & Ogloff, (2019); Wong et al., (2012); Wong et al., (2016)). The GRADE 24 approach is increasingly recommended for assessing confidence in the body of evidence in SRs (Shamseer et al., 2015). ...
... A recent systematic review of these types of strategies showed that they are related to reduced gang involvement ( Braga et al., 2018). In addition, a recent meta-analysis provided a summary of evidence related to gang prevention programs (Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descomiers, & Morselli, 2016). They concluded that although gang prevention programs are related to a reduction in gang membership this finding in the literature is driven largely by only a few studies, with more replication needed (Wong et al., 2016). ...
... In addition, a recent meta-analysis provided a summary of evidence related to gang prevention programs (Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descomiers, & Morselli, 2016). They concluded that although gang prevention programs are related to a reduction in gang membership this finding in the literature is driven largely by only a few studies, with more replication needed (Wong et al., 2016). ...
Gang involvement is associated with many negative outcomes. However, the social and emotional development of gang-involved youth has received little empirical investigation. This study examines the social and emotional outcomes of gang-involved youth. Data come from the 2009 Fairfax County Youth Survey administered to eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students ( N = 27,869, 50% female, 55% minority). Hierarchical logistic regression was used to test the associations between victimization and negative emotionality, and the potential moderating effect of age and gang involvement. Results showed a positive relationship between victimization and negative emotionality. Youth involved in gangs were more likely to experience victimization. However, the association between peer victimization and negative emotionality was diminished for youth in gangs compared with those not in gangs. In addition, results showed that negative emotional outcomes from victimization were worse for middle school compared with high school students.
... Yet, very little research has provided any in-depth examination of gang members in school settings. This is somewhat surprising given that schools are an important area for gang prevention and intervention (Esbensen & Osgood, 1999;Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, & Morselli, 2016). ...
... These findings have important implications for gang membership prevention and intervention. Many researchers have argued that better targeting of at-risk youths is necessary to increase the effectiveness of current prevention and intervention strategies (Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, Wong, & Morselli, 2013;Klein & Maxson, 2006;Wong et al., 2016). Social network analysis has been used as a targeting tool in other types of gang control strategies (e.g. ...
Schools are venues in which gang and non-gang involved youth converge. It is therefore a likely venue for gang recruitment. The extent to which this occurs depends upon the ability of gang members to connect with non-gang members. In this study, we compare the social network positions of high social status gang members who are well integrated into school networks with low status members who are not. Using network data from the Add Health study (n = 1,822), we find that not only are high status gang members strongly embedded within school networks, but that this status is driven by their ability to connect with non-gang members rather than other gang members (indicated by the high number of friendship nominations they receive from non-gang members). These gang members are potentially in optimal positions to influence others to join gangs. The implications of these results for school-based gang prevention programs are discussed.
... Suppression strategies are based on deterrence theory and the principle that swift, certain, and severe penalties will deter people from joining gangs and engaging in gang crime (Braga, 2015;Klein, 1995a). By the early-to-mid 1990s, as gang problems spread, policymakers sought alternative strategies, and gang prevention programming flourished Hennigan et al., 2015;Thornberry et al., 2018;Wong et al., 2016). Gang prevention programming aims to reduce risk factors for gang membership and increase protective factors to inoculate youth against joining gangs (Esbensen, 2000;Esbensen et al., 2013). ...
... Of the 38 included studies, only three were controlled but none produced significant results. In a more recent review, Wong et al. identified six prevention programs but only one study demonstrated significant effects (Wong et al., 2016) (searched August 2014). ...
The objective was to assess the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions in preventing gang membership and gang-related crime among children and young adults under the age of 30. We performed a systematic review and synthesized interventions targeting universal, selective, and indicated populations published between January 2000 and April 2023. We included 42 (seven randomized, 12 nonrandomized, 23 controlled interrupted time series) studies evaluating 33 unique psychosocial interventions. Synthesis without meta-analysis found a preventive effect of psychosocial interventions in middle schools on gang membership. Furthermore, meta-analysis found that focused deterrence strategies prevented gang-involved violence, and that psychosocial support during probation decreased crime recidivism. This systematic review found significant effects of four psychosocial interventions compared to control in reducing future criminality, especially gun violence, among children and young adults. The findings are discussed regarding policy implications and ethical considerations.
... Weitere Hindernisse auszusteigen, umfassen persönliche Probleme wie Aggressionsbewältigung, familiäre Konflikte, psychische Probleme und Drogenmissbrauch (Young und Gonzalez 2013). Effektive Aussteigerprogramme zielen darauf ab, diese Hindernisse zu reduzieren und positive Anreize außerhalb der Gang zu schaffen (Wong et al. 2016). Auch intensive kognitiv-behaviorale Behandlungsmaßnahmen im Vollzug, die sich an den Prinzipien effektiver Straftäter:innenbehandlung orientieren (Bonta und Andrews 2024), haben einen positiven Effekt auf das Haftund spätere Legalverhalten von Gangmitgliedern (Di Placido et al. 2006). ...
Organisierte kriminelle Gruppen sind in Deutschland ein aktuelles Thema. Dem steht ein Mangel an wissenschaftlicher Forschung gegenüber. In diesem Buchkapitel wird die Berliner Studie zu jugendlichen und heranwachsenden Straftätern mit Bezügen zur Organisierten Kriminalität (OK), insbesondere zur „Clankriminalität“, vorgestellt. Ziel der Studie war es, die sozialtherapeutische Erreichbarkeit und Rückfälligkeit dieser Gruppe im Jugendstrafvollzug zu untersuchen. Die OK-Zugehörigkeit wurde durch eine Expertinneneinschätzung auf einer vierstufigen Skala (keine bis deutliche Hinweise) erfasst. Jugendliche mit OK-Bezügen wurden früher und häufiger straffällig und zeigten während der Haft deutlich mehr Fehlverhalten, was zu mehr Therapieabbrüchen führte. Hinsichtlich der Rückfälligkeit nach der Entlassung zeigte sich ein weniger eindeutiges Bild. Die OK-Zugehörigkeit war nur mit schweren Gewaltrückfällen innerhalb von 5 Jahren signifikant assoziiert. Auch wenn die Ergebnisse auf eine eingeschränkte therapeutische Erreichbarkeit und eine besondere Herausforderung im Umgang mit dieser Klientel hinweisen, erscheint es verfrüht, daraus eine generelle Kontraindikation für die Sozialtherapie abzuleiten. Weitere Forschung ist nötig, um eine unaufgeregte Diskussion über involvierte Personen zu ermöglichen.
... Generally, this approach is an exercise in exclusion, not inclusion-and is one that is likely to eliminate much, or most, of the available evidence on a topic (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). In fact, it is not unusual to see criminological meta-analyses of 10 or fewer studies, even on bodies of work that are dozens, if not hundreds, of studies deep (see, e.g., the following meta-analyses published in recent years: Badenes-Ribera, S anchez-Meca, & Longobardi, 2019; Batastini, King, Morgan, & McDaniel, 2016;Berghuis, 2018;Bøg, Filges, Br€ annstr€ om, Jørgensen, & Fredrikksson, 2017;Chen, Leith, Aarø, Manger, & Gold, 2016;Evers, Ogloff, Trounson, & Pfeifer, 2020;Jonnson, Bird, Li, & Viljoen, 2019;Kettrey & Lipsey, 2018;Leo, Izadikhah, Fein, & Forooshani, 2019;McIntosh, Tan, Levendosky, & Holtzworth-Munroe, 2019;Piper & Berle, 2019;Reising, Ttofi, Farrington, & Piquero, 2019;Sidebottom et al., 2018;Stephens-Lewis et al., 2019;Walters, 2016;Wilson, 2014;Wilson, Olaghere, & Gill, 2016;Wong & Balemba, 2016, 2018Wong & Gravel, 2018;Wong, Bouchard, Lee, & Gushue, 2019;Wood et al., 2016;Zane, Welsh, & Mears, 2016). 1 There are significant costs to doing things this way. For one, the meta-analysis risks presenting an overly narrow and unrepresentative snapshot of the existing literature. ...
Meta-analyses are appearing more frequently in the criminological literature. Yet the methods typically used are guided by a methodological paradigm that risks producing meta-analyses of limited value. Here we outline three key methodological issues that meta-analysts face and we present a methodological challenge to the dominant meta-analysis paradigm. We focus specifically on: (1) inclusion criteria, (2) analysis of bivariate versus multivariate effect sizes, and (3) methods for handling statistical dependence. Issues of reproducibility and recommendations for moving forward are discussed.
... Targeting moral disengagement, or its components, has been raised as a theoretically sound investment to tackle delinquency, either as an enhancement to existing interventions, or as an intervention in its own right (Alleyne, 2010;Bandura, Underwood, & Fromson, 1975;Dhingra, Debowska, Sharratt, Hyland & Kola-Palmer, 2014;Gibbs, 1993;Lardén, Melin, Holst & Långström, 2005;Palmer, 2007). There are a wide range of "gang interventions" and reviews examining their efficacy across various domains; however, despite growing interest in the psychological processes underlying gangs, such as moral disengagement, no review of interventions specifically targeting relevant processes exists (Cooper & Ward, 2008;Davies, Warnes & Hofman, 2017;Esbensen, 2000;Fisher, Montgomery & Gardner, 2008;Gilbert & Newbold, 2006;Hodgkinson et al., 2009;Huey, Lewine & Rubenson, 2016;Klein & Maxson, 2006;O'Connor & Waddell, 2015;Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, Morselli, 2016;Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Morselli & Descormiers, 2012). ...
This thesis explores moral disengagement and the proposed concept of discriminant moral disengagement (DMD) in gang versus non-gang delinquents in England. Chapter One introduces moral disengagement and how it pertains to gangs in the United Kingdom, then sets out the aims and the content of this thesis. A systematic review of violence-targeted interventions for gang youth utilising a moral-component is presented. The review exposes the lack of consistent language in the area and the failure of successful violence interventions with moral components to be specialised for a gang population or applied in England, despite increased interest in moral disengagement as a topic (Chapter Two). The next two chapters present research findings from an empirical study of moral disengagement in gang versus non-gang delinquents. Chapter Three examines general moral disengagement across these two populations as well as DMD towards outgroups. DMD refers to the proposed process whereby cognitive discrimination is applied to moral disengagement in certain scenarios or towards particular populations, a process which has been alluded to but never named or specifically studied within this context before. Results confirmed Alleyne and Wood’s findings that moral disengagement was not significantly related to gang membership; however, exploratory results indicated that DMD towards outgroups is significantly related to gang membership (2010). The next section examines gang versus non-gang attitudes towards women and DMD towards females (Chapter Four). Gang members were not found to differ significantly from non-gang delinquents on either scale, but possible/affiliate gang members were. Both Chapters Three and Four discuss their findings, implications, limitations, and future directions for research. This is followed up by a psychometric critique of gang membership measures with a focus on the Eurogang Youth Survey and the Eurogang Definition Instrument, highlighting the difficulties of critiquing such measures beyond the definitional debate within gang research (Weerman et al., 2009; Weerman et al., 2010). Chapter Six offers a conclusion, summarising each section’s main points, their cumulative meaning, and potential impact.
... In addition to youth surveys, researchers also interviewed members of law enforcement and obtained official records related to gang involvement and crime for statistical analyses. 4 Recent meta-analyses have examined the state of both quantitative and qualitative gang scholarship, particularly research about the relationship between gang membership and criminal offending (Pyrooz, Turanovic, Decker, & Wu, 2016) and the effectiveness of gang prevention programs (Wong, Gravel, Bouchard, Descormiers, & Morselli, 2016). ...
This paper describes our efforts to systematically generate knowledge from ethnographic and other qualitative scholarship as a way of bridging intellectual gaps found in quantitative research. We ground this scholarly endeavor in the study of gangs, which has a lengthy history in the field of criminology, yet lacks a coherent, coordinated, and comparative understanding of gang dynamics, behavior, and impacts. We discuss the importance of acknowledging the multiple and mixed methodologies used in gang scholarship and detail the inductive, deductive, and iterative process that helped us (1) develop a comprehensive coding instrument for coding a range of qualitative works, (2) establish the instrument’s inter-rater reliability, and (3) remain cognizant and reflexive about the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research. Finally, we share the critical yet informative challenges we faced throughout the project and conclude with reflections on why the project was unsuccessful in the way we originally envisioned.
Objectives: This study investigates whether there is treatment effect heterogeneity in the “gang effect” for both concurrent (offending, drug use) and longer-term (offending, drug use, incarceration, education) outcomes according to baseline risk. Methods : Using panel data from the Rochester Youth Development Study, we first investigate whether the within-individual and between-individual changes in gang membership and deviance are conditional on an individual's baseline propensity to join a gang. Then, we investigate whether the relationships between gang membership and several young adult outcomes are conditional on this baseline propensity to join a gang. Results : Within-individual changes in gang membership status are associated with increased offending and drug use, but the effect does not vary across baseline propensity to join a gang. However, there is between-individual evidence that the effect of gang membership on offending and drug use decreases in magnitude as baseline propensity to join a gang increases. For each longer-term outcome, the negative effects of prior gang membership decrease as baseline propensity to join a gang increases. Conclusions : This study suggests that the average treatment effect of gang membership on several outcomes masks important heterogeneity, indicating it may be misleading to portray it as a general, universal negative turning point.
Obwohl in Deutschland das Thema der Organisierten Kriminalität (OK) viel diskutiert wird, mangelt es dazu noch an empirischen Erkenntnissen. Die vorliegende Studie untersuchte die Gewaltpotenziale von jungen Inhaftierten mit Verbindungen zur OK anhand ihres Verhaltens vor, während und nach der Haft. Die Stichprobe setzt sich zusammen aus n = 77 Jugendlichen und Heranwachsenden im Alter von 15 bis 22 Jahren, die in der sozialtherapeutischen Abteilung der Jugendstrafanstalt Berlin behandelt wurden. Mittels Expertinneneinschätzung wurde die OK-Zugehörigkeit bestimmt, demnach 23 Personen Verbindungen zu kriminellen Gruppen aufwiesen. Es wurde geschlussfolgert, dass hierunter einige der sogenannten „Clankriminalität“ zuzuordnen sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Inhaftierte der OK-Gruppe vor Inhaftierung früher und mehr Gewaltstraftaten begingen. Im Vollzug zeigten Inhaftierte mit OK-Zugehörigkeit ein deutlich auffälligeres und gewalttätigeres Haftverhalten. Sie wiesen mehr Disziplinarverstöße (M = 8,2 bzw. 3,3; p <.01) und Strafanzeigen (M = 2,0 bzw. 0,8; p <..001) auf als die Vergleichsgruppe und fielen in der Beobachtung der Bediensteten vermehrt durch destruktives, antisoziales und subkulturelles Verhalten sowie ein höheres Maß an Aggressivität auf. Auch nach Haft setzte sich dieser Trend fort. So traten die Inhaftierten mit OK-Zugehörigkeit nach Entlassung mit mehr Gewaltdelikten (M = 2,2 bzw. 0,7; p <..05) polizeilich in Erscheinung. In einem Cox-Regressionsmodell zur Vorhersage eines gewalttätigen Delikts war die OK-Zugehörigkeit der einzige signifikante Prädiktor (Hazard ratio = 2,10, p <..05). Die vorliegende Studie zeigt, dass der intramurale Umgang mit dieser Personengruppe eine besondere Herausforderung darstellt. Das andauernde Gewaltpotenzial von jungen Straftätern mit Verbindungen zur OK während und nach Haft wirft Fragen zu deren sozialtherapeutischen Erreichbarkeit und rückfallfördernden Bedingungen im Entlassungsumfeld auf.
Background:
The objective of this study is to systematically review the literature on penal
institution-based gang interventions and management strategies (GIMS) by identifying studies
of effectiveness in reducing institutional misconduct, gang membership or recidivism;
assessing the quality of evidence and synthesising the information to establish effectiveness.
Methods:
Studies had to (1) be available in English; (2) use an experimental research design;
(3) be targeted at adults aged 18 and over, securely held in a penal institution and affiliated
with, or at risk of recruitment into, a gang; and (4) measure institutional misconduct, gang
membership or recidivism as an outcome, using self-reported and/or official administrative
data. Information sources included fifteen electronic databases of peer reviewed literature and
eight databases of grey literature which were searched during May 2020; and citation-chaining
and direct contact of relevant researchers and organisations, which were carried out between
June and September 2020. The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale is used to assess the quality
of study designs, supplemented by the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool to assess the risk of bias
within individual studies.
Results:
The review included eleven articles covering evaluations of twenty-seven GIMS from
New Zealand (n=21), the U.S. (n=4) and Canada (n=2). The vast majority were based in
prisons (n=26), required voluntary participation (n=25), and were partially or fully focused on rehabilitation (n=24). Study samples were primarily composed of males, aged 25 and over,
from ethnic minority groups. Only one evaluation used a randomised controlled trial design,
with the remainder mostly employing various quasi-experimental designs. Ten GIMS are
considered ‘promising’ for reducing recidivism. One GIMS is considered promising for
reducing gang membership, though it is likely in breach of international human rights
standards. And all GIMS evaluated on institutional misconduct, are assessed as having
‘unknown’ effectiveness. Further research is required for ‘promising’ GIMS to confirm or
refute the findings of their original evaluations and their generalisability to other settings and
populations.
Discussion:
Many evaluations are too weak to draw reliable conclusions about effectiveness,
with small unrepresentative samples and poor reporting quality being particularly problematic.
Also, none of the included GIMS have been evaluated more than once, limiting their
generalisability. As such, the evidence for ‘promising’ GIMS is currently restricted to male
gang members who may already be motivated to leave a gang or reduce re-offending post-release. Nevertheless, ‘promising’ GIMS have the strongest evidence-base at present, and
policy-makers and practitioners are encouraged to consider these when seeking GIMS. To
improve the quality of future research, evaluations should be planned as part of the design of a
GIMS, using randomised controlled trials with large samples where possible, and be reported
according to established reporting guidelines for experimental research.
This essay celebrates the contributions of Carlo Morselli to the study of organized crime. Drawing on a review of Morselli’s published work, the main lines of his research are highlighted.
The extensive impact of gang-related harms on communities has led to a broad range of stakeholders investing in attempts to respond to gangs. Resultantly, many gang definitions, typologies, and explanations have been developed and adopted. This uncoordinated multiplicity has presented significant difficulties for developing shared understandings and responses to gangs across relevant parties. To overcome such pitfalls, researchers have begun to pursue a framework of unificationism through the establishment of consensus definitions of gangs, cross-disciplinary research teams, and unified theories for gang occurrences. Drawing upon insights from other disciplines, we argue against the adoption of an overarching unificationist framework instead endorsing a pluralistic approach to gang research. We develop a novel framework – The Conceptual Framework for Gang Research – for guiding the coordinated construction/adoption of a multiplicity of conceptual tools specifically tailored to facilitate the diverse aims of gang researchers and demonstrate the utility of this approach over current conventional approaches.
Raised levels of moral disengagement, the process of disengaging moral reasoning from one’s conduct, have been shown to facilitate antisocial behaviour in both adults and youth. The process has drawn increased interest in gang literature and to some extent programmes, but has yet to fully bridge the research-practice divide. This chapter discusses the place of moral psychology in gang-focused prevention, intervention and research. After an introduction to relevant theories, it introduces the concept of discriminant moral disengagement in gang versus non-gang delinquents in the United Kingdom, as defined by the Eurogang Youth Survey. The implications of how discriminant moral disengagement might influence how we work with gangs are considered, concluding in a discussion of the function, necessity and possible future of moral psychology and gangs.
Gang membership has long been understood to have a disruptive influence on adolescent development and to contribute disproportionately to the rate of delinquent crime. The nature of the impact, and the long-term effects on individuals, have not been well understood. This book uses longitudinal data to examine the developmental consequences of gang membership, and its longer term influence on the life course. This longitudinal approach is made possible by data from a study of antisocial behavior, The Rochester Youth Development Study, which followed one thousand adolescents through their early adult years. The subjects include delinquents who were gang members and others who were not, allowing the authors to compare motives, patterns of behavior, and recurring problems with caregivers and the law, education, peer relations, and career paths. The findings indicate that multiple developmental deficits lead to gang membership and that membership leads to an increase in delinquency.
Research Summary
This article presents results from a randomized control trial of the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) program; 3,820 students enrolled in 195 classrooms in 31 schools in seven cities were surveyed six times over 5 years (pretests and posttests in Year 1 and four annual follow‐up surveys). The results indicate that during the 4 years posttreatment, students who received the program had lower odds of gang membership compared with the control group. The treatment group also reported more prosocial attitudes on several program‐specific outcomes. In addition to examining the effectiveness for the full sample, we also report analyses that examine program effects by (a) site and (b) initial levels of risk for gang membership.
Policy Implications
Effective youth violence‐prevention programs continue to be few in number; effective youth gang‐prevention programs are even rarer. Various rating systems exist (e.g., University of Colorado's Blueprint Model, Helping America's Youth, OJJDP Model Program Guide, and NIJ's Crime Solutions), but even application of the least rigorous standards fails to identify many promising or effective programs. Based on results reported in this article, the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) program holds promise as a universal gang‐prevention program.
This review provides an opportunity to assess the current state of gang research and suggest directions for its future. There has been a dramatic increase in research on gangs, gang members, and gang behavior since the early 1990s, making this review especially timely. We use Short’s three-level framework of explanation to organize the findings of prior research, focusing on individual-, micro-, and macro-level research. Attention is focused on the findings of such research, but we also examine theoretical and methodological developments as well. Drawing from Short and life-course research, we introduce a cross-level temporal framework to guide future directions in gang research.
Objective. Focused deterrence strategies are increasingly being applied to prevent and control gang and group-involved violence, overt drug markets, and individual repeat offenders. Given the growing popularity of this approach, a systematic review and meta-analysis of the extant evaluation evidence is needed to determine the crime reduction benefits of the approach. Methods. Our examination of the effects of focused deterrence strategies on crime followed the systematic review protocols and conventions of the Campbell Collaboration. As a preliminary examination of the effects of focused deterrence strategies on crime, the authors used a vote counting procedure. In our closer examination of program effects, meta-analyses were used to determine the size, direction, and statistical significance of the overall impact of focused deterrence strategies on crime. Results. We identified 10 quasi-experimental evaluations and 1 randomized controlled trial. Our meta-analysis suggests that focused deterrence strategies are associated with an overall statistically significant, medium-sized crime reduction effect. However, the strongest program effect sizes were generated by evaluations that used the weakest research designs. Conclusion. The authors conclude that this approach seems very promising in reducing crime but a more rigorous body of evaluation research needs to be developed. While the results of this review are very supportive of deterrence principles, the authors believe that other complementary crime control mechanisms are at work in the focused deterrence strategies described here that need to be highlighted and better understood.
Despite a long history of youth gang problems in the United States, there remains a paucity of evaluations identifying promising or effective gang prevention and intervention programs. One primary prevention program that has received limited support is Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.). An earlier national evaluation of the G.R.E.A.T. core middle school curriculum reported modest program effects but, importantly, found no programmatic effect on gang membership or delinquency. This manuscript presents results from a second national evaluation of the revised G.R.E.A.T. core curriculum that utilizes a randomized field trial in which classrooms were randomly assigned to treatment and control conditions. Approximately 4,000 students attending 31 schools in seven cities comprise the initial sample. Analyses of one-year post-treatment data indicate that students receiving the program had lower odds of gang membership compared to the control group. Additionally, the treatment group also reported more pro-social attitudes on a number of program-specific outcomes.
The Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) program is a gang- and delinquency-prevention program delivered by law enforcement officers within a school setting. Originally designed in 1991 by Phoenix-area law enforcement agencies to address local needs, the program quickly spread across the United States. In this article, we describe the evolution of the program and its responsiveness to two independent national evaluations funded by the U.S. National Institute of Justice. The first evaluation revealed little program effect and contributed to a critical review and substantial revision of the G.R.E.A.T. “core” or middle-school curriculum. Preliminary findings from the ongoing second evaluation give an initial indication of the extent to which these changes have resulted in the achievement of G.R.E.A.T. program goals of helping youths to (a) avoid gang membership, violence, and criminal activity; and (b) develop a positive relationship with law enforcement.
Research Summary: This manuscript presents results from the National Evaluation of the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) program, a school-based prevention program targeting middle-school students. A longitudinal quasi-experimental research design was conducted from 1995 through 1999. Beneficial program effects emerged gradually over time so that there was, on average, more pro-social change in the attitudes of G.R.E.A.T. students than the non-G.R.E.A.T. students four years following program exposure.
Policy Implications: Two specific policy recommendations stem from this research. First, law enforcement officers can be effective providers of school-based prevention programs. Second, to better assess program effectiveness, evaluations should include design features that allow for assessment of long-term or delayed program effects.
This research uses a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the impact of Project Safe Neighborhood (PSN) initiatives on neighborhood-level crime rates in Chicago. Four interventions are analyzed: (1) increased federal prosecutions for convicted felons carrying or using guns, (2) the length of sentences associated with federal prosecutions, (3) supply-side firearm policing activities, and (4) social marketing of deterrence and social norms messages through justice-style offender notification meetings. Using individual growth curve models and propensity scores to adjust for nonrandom group assignment of neighborhoods, our findings suggest that several PSN interventions are associated with greater declines of homicide in the treatment neighborhoods compared to the control neighborhoods. The largest effect is associated with the offender notification meetings that stress individual deterrence, normative change in offender behavior, and increasing views on legitimacy and procedural justice. Possible competing hypotheses and directions for individual-level analysis are also discussed.
A systematic review may encompass both odds ratios and mean differences in continuous outcomes. A separate meta-analysis of each type of outcome results in loss of information and may be misleading. It is shown that a ln(odds ratio) can be converted to effect size by dividing by 1.81. The validity of effect size, the estimate of interest divided by the residual standard deviation, depends on comparable variation across studies. If researchers routinely report residual standard deviation, any subsequent review can combine both odds ratios and effect sizes in a single meta-analysis when this is justified. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Plain language summary
Cognitive-behavioural interventions for preventing gang involvement in children and young people
Research indicates that youth who join gangs are more likely to be involved in delinquency and crime, particularly serious and violent offences, compared to non-gang youth and non-gang delinquent youth. Research also has found that both delinquent youth and youth who join gangs often show a range of negative thoughts, feelings and beliefs compared to non-delinquent peers. Cognitive-behavioural interventions, designed to address these deficits, have had a positive impact on a variety of behavioural and psychological disorders among children and youth. This systematic review was designed to assess the effectiveness of such cognitive-behavioural interventions for preventing youth gang involvement. A three-part search strategy found no randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural interventions for gang prevention; four excluded studies examining the impact of Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) were of too poor a quality to be included in analysis. The only possible conclusions from this review, therefore, are the urgent need for additional primary evaluations of cognitive-behavioural interventions for gang prevention and the importance of high standards required of the research conducted to provide meaningful findings that can guide future programmes and policies.
The Second Edition of Preventing and Reducing Juvenile Delinquency: A Comprehensive Framework aims to inform students about the latest research and the most promising and effective programs and provides a wealth of information for understanding, preventing and controlling juvenile delinquency. Key Features: Examines the history of current juvenile justice system policies and practices, including the juvenile violence “epidemic” Discusses key myths about juvenile violence and the ability of the juvenile justice system to handle modern-day juvenile delinquents Applies developmental theories of juvenile delinquency to understanding how juvenile offender careers evolve Reviews effective prevention and rehabilitation programs and what does not work Presents a comprehensive framework for building a continuum of effective programs. Intended Audience: This is an ideal supplementary text for undergraduate and graduate courses in juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, and violent offender intervention courses. It is also essential reading for juvenile justice and social services research and development specialists.
In the past two decades, many prevention and suppression programs have been initiated on a national and local level to combat street gangs-but what do we really know about them? Why do youths join them? Why do they proliferate? This book is a crucial update and critical examination of our understanding of gangs and major gang-control programs across the nation. Often perceived solely as an urban issue, street gangs are also a suburban and rural dilemma. The chapters focus on gang proliferation, migration, and crime patterns, and highlight known risk factors that lead youths to form and join gangs within communities. Dispelling the long-standing assumptions that the public, the media, and law enforcement have about street gangs, they present a comprehensive overview of how gangs are organized and structured. They assess the major gang programs across the nation and argue that existing prevention, intervention, and suppression methods targeting individuals, groups, and communities, have been largely ineffective. They then close by offering valuable policy guidelines for practitioners on how to intervene and control gangs more successfully. The book fills an important gap in the literature on street gangs and social control.
This article presents an evaluation of an intervention aimed at youth at risk for joining street gangs. In a quasi-experimental design, targeted youth were assigned to one of two levels of treatment (classroom sessions or a combination of classroom sessions and structured after-school activities) or to a no-treatment control group. To ascertain gang membership following the intervention, the youths' names were compared with gang membership rosters obtained from informants. Four members of the control group and one receiving youth receiving the more intensive intervention were subsequently identified as gang members. Implications of the study for public policy are considered, methodological difficulties in conducting research in this area are discussed, and future research directions are suggested.
Even though substance abuse prevention programs have been studied for more than two decades, outcome studies of programs focused on inner-city youth are rare. Communities with dense populations, low socio-economic conditions and a high degree of neighborhood disorganization are especially vulnerable to high rates of adolescent substance abuse. The goal of this study was to organize a coalition of neighborhood agencies to provide a comprehensive array of school and community-based prevention services to reduce substance use and gang involvement among inner-city Latino youth. An institutional cycles quasi-experimental design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of this project. Participants were 651 pretest cohort students and 667 posttest cohort students attending grades 5–8 in two Chicago elementary schools. The cohorts were from 75–79 percent Latino and from 16–18 percent African American.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Youth delinquent gangs have been given considerable academic and media attention during the past decade. Much of the attention has focused on the violence and drug dealing in which gang members are assumed to be involved. Recent knowledge about gangs has relied primarily on data obtained from police gang units and from observational or case studies. Very little information has been derived from surveys or interviews with a more general sample of youths. In this paper, data from the Denver Youth Survey, a longitudinal study of families, are used to examine: (1) the prevalence and demographic composition of gangs: (2) the degree to which gang members are involved in illegal activities: and (3) the temporal relationship between criminal offending and gang membership.
The events of September 11th have led to massive increases in personal, commercial, and governmental expenditures on anti-terrorism
strategies, as well as a proliferation of programs designed to fight terrorism. These increases in spending and program development
have focused attention on the most significant and central policy question related to these interventions: Are these programs
effective? To explore this question, this study reports the results of a Campbell Collaboration systematic review on evaluation
research of counter-terrorism strategies. Not only did we discover an almost complete absence of evaluation research on counter-terrorism
interventions, but from those evaluations that we could find, it appears that some interventions either did not achieve the
outcomes sought or sometimes increased the likelihood of terrorism occurring. The findings dramatically emphasize the need
for government leaders, policy makers, researchers, and funding agencies to support both outcome evaluations of these programs
as well as efforts to develop an infrastructure to foster counter-terrorism evaluation research.
A systematic review may encompass both odds ratios and mean differences in continuous outcomes. A separate meta-analysis of each type of outcome results in loss of information and may be misleading. It is shown that a ln(odds ratio) can be converted to effect size by dividing by 1.81. The validity of effect size, the estimate of interest divided by the residual standard deviation, depends on comparable variation across studies. If researchers routinely report residual standard deviation, any subsequent review can combine both odds ratios and effect sizes in a single meta-analysis when this is justified.
To compare the performance of different meta-analysis methods for pooling odds ratios when applied to sparse event data with emphasis on the use of continuity corrections.
Meta-analysis of side effects from RCTs or risk factors for rare diseases in epidemiological studies frequently requires the synthesis of data with sparse event rates. Combining such data can be problematic when zero events exist in one or both arms of a study as continuity corrections are often needed, but, these can influence results and conclusions.
A simulation study was undertaken comparing several meta-analysis methods for combining odds ratios (using various classical and Bayesian methods of estimation) on sparse event data. Where required, the routine use of a constant and two alternative continuity corrections; one based on a function of the reciprocal of the opposite group arm size; and the other an empirical estimate of the pooled effect size from the remaining studies in the meta-analysis, were also compared. A number of meta-analysis scenarios were simulated and replicated 1000 times, varying the ratio of the study arm sizes.
Mantel-Haenszel summary estimates using the alternative continuity correction factors gave the least biased results for all group size imbalances. Logistic regression was virtually unbiased for all scenarios and gave good coverage properties. The Peto method provided unbiased results for balanced treatment groups but bias increased with the ratio of the study arm sizes. The Bayesian fixed effect model provided good coverage for all group size imbalances. The two alternative continuity corrections outperformed the constant correction factor in nearly all situations. The inverse variance method performed consistently badly, irrespective of the continuity correction used.
Many routinely used summary methods provide widely ranging estimates when applied to sparse data with high imbalance between the size of the studies' arms. A sensitivity analysis using several methods and continuity correction factors is advocated for routine practice.
Many studies document a robust and consistent relationship between gang membership and elevated delinquency, with gang members disproportionately involved in crime compared to non-gang peers. Research also indicates that both delinquent youth and youth who join gangs often show a wide range of deficient or distorted social-cognitive processes compared to non-delinquent peers. Cognitive-behavioural interventions are designed to address cognitive deficits in order to reduce maladaptive or dysfunctional behaviour, and studies have documented their positive impact on a number of behavioural and psychological disorders among children and youth.
To determine the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural interventions for preventing youth gang involvement for children and young people (ages 7-16).
Electronic searches of ASSIA, CINAHL, CJA, Cochrane Library, Dissertations Abstracts A, EMBASE, ERIC, IBSS, LILACs, LexisNexis Butterworths, MEDLINE, NCJR Service Abstracts Database, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts, to April 2007. Reviewers contacted relevant organisations, individuals, and list-servs and searched pertinent websites and reference lists.
All randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials of interventions with a cognitive-behavioural intervention as the majority component, delivered to youth and children aged 7-16 not involved in a gang.
Searching yielded 2,284 unduplicated citations, 2,271 of which were excluded as irrelevant based on title and abstract. One was excluded following personal communication with investigators. One citation, of a large randomised prevention trial, awaits assessment; personal communication with study authors yielded unpublished reports addressing gang outcomes, but insufficient detail precluded determining inclusion status. Seven remaining reports were excluded as irrelevant because they were narrative reviews or descriptions of programs without evaluations, did not address a gang prevention programme, or did not address a gang prevention program that included a cognitive-behavioural intervention. The remaining four full-text reports excluded because of study design, leading to 0 included studies.
No randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials were identified.
No evidence from randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials exists regarding the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural interventions for gang prevention. Four evaluations of Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) have been conducted, two of which were part of a US national evaluation, but all were excluded based on study design. Reviewers conclude there is an urgent need for rigorous primary evaluations of cognitive-behavioural interventions for gang prevention to develop this research field and guide future gang prevention programmes and policies.
Youth gangs have long been studied in the United States and interest elsewhere is increasing. Many studies document a robust and consistent relationship between gang membership and elevated delinquency. One theory of gang involvement, drawing on anomie and strain theories, proposes that the gang provides a means of fulfilling the economic needs of youth excluded from legitimate labour markets. Opportunities provision is a gang prevention strategy based on this theory and the principle that providing youth with educational and employment opportunities may reduce gang involvement. Common techniques within opportunities provision include tutoring, remedial education, job training, and job placement.
To determine the effectiveness of opportunities provision for preventing youth gang involvement for children and young people aged 7 to 16.
Electronic searches were conducted of ASSIA, CINAHL, CJA, Cochrane Library, Dissertations Abstracts, EMBASE, ERIC, IBSS, LILACs, LexisNexis Butterworths, MEDLINE, NCJR Service Abstracts Database, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts, to April 2007. Reviewers contacted relevant organisations, individuals and list-servs and searched pertinent websites and reference lists.
All randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials of interventions that have opportunities provision as the majority component, delivered to children and youths aged 7 to 16 not involved in a gang, compared to any other or no intervention.
Searches yielded 2,696 unduplicated citations. 2,676 were excluded based on title and abstract. Two were excluded based on personal communication with study authors. Full-text reports for 18 citations were retrieved. 16 were excluded because they were not evaluations, did not address a gang prevention programme, did not include gang-related outcomes, did not include opportunities provision intervention components, or presented preliminary findings for outcomes reported in another citation. The remaining two reports were at least partially relevant to opportunities provision for gang prevention, but methodological flaws excluded both from analysis.
No randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials were identified.
No evidence from randomised controlled trials or quasi-randomised controlled trials currently exists regarding the effectiveness of opportunities provision for gang prevention. Only two studies addressed opportunities provision as a gang prevention strategy, a case study and a qualitative study, both of which had such substantial methodological limitations that even speculative conclusions as to the impact of opportunities provision were impossible. Rigorous primary evaluations of gang prevention strategies are crucial to develop this research field, justify funding of existing interventions, and guide future gang prevention programmes and policies.
Evaluation of Ceasefire-Chicago
- W G Skogan
- S M Hartnett
- N Bump
- J Dubois
Skogan, W.G., Hartnett, S.M., Bump, N. and Dubois, J. (2008), "Evaluation of Ceasefire-Chicago",
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Evaluation of the national youth gang drug prevention program
- M I Cohen
- K Williams
- A M Bekelman
- S Crosse
Cohen, M.I., Williams, K., Bekelman, A.M. and Crosse, S. (1995), "Evaluation of the national youth gang drug
prevention program", in Klein, M.W. and Maxson, C.L. (Eds), Modern Gang Reader, Roxbury Publishing
Company, Los Angeles, CA, pp. 266-75.
Evaluation of the Teens, Crime and the Community and Community Works Program
- F.-A Esbensen
Esbensen, F.-A. (2009), "Evaluation of the teens, crime and the community and community works program",
University of Missouri, St Louis, MO.
The Gang: A Study of 1313 Gangs in Chicago
- F Thrasher
Thrasher, F. (1927), The Gang: A Study of 1313 Gangs in Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Wong can be contacted at: jenwong@sfu.ca For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight
Jennifer S. Wong can be contacted at: jenwong@sfu.ca
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
VOL. 2 NO. 2 2016 j JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH, POLICY AND PRACTICE j PAGE 147
Procedures and Standards Handbook (Version 2.0), What Works Clearinghouse, available Q6 at
- What Works Clearinghouse
What Works Clearinghouse (2008), Procedures and Standards Handbook (Version 2.0), What Works
Clearinghouse, available
Q6
at: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_procedures_v2_
standards_handbook.pdf
Evaluation of gang interventions: final report
- J Sivilli
- R Yin
- E Nugent
Sivilli, J., Yin, R. and Nugent, E. (1996), "Evaluation of gang interventions: final report", US Department of
Justice, Washington, DC.
Targeted Outreach: Boys and Girls Clubs of America’s Approach to Gang Prevention and Intervention
- A J A Arbreton
- W S Mcclanahan
Arbreton, A.J.A. and McClanahan, W.S. (2002), "Targeted outreach: boys and girls clubs of America's
approach to gang prevention and intervention", Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia, PA.
Practical Meta-Analysis, Applied Social Research Methods Series
- M W Lipsey
- D B Wilson
Lipsey, M.W. and Wilson, D.B. (2001), Practical Meta-Analysis, Applied Social Research Methods Series:
Volume 49, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Public policy responses to gangs: evaluating the outcomes
- N Fearn
- S H Decker
- G D Curry
Fearn, N., Decker, S.H. and Curry, G.D. (2006), "Public policy responses to gangs: evaluating the outcomes",
in Egley, A., Maxson, C.L., Miller, J. and Klein, M.W. (Eds.), Modern Gang Reader, 3rd ed., Roxbury
Publishing Company, Los Angeles, CA, pp. 312-24.
Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs
- J C Howell
Howell, J.C. (2010b), "Gang prevention: an overview of research and programs", US Department of Justice,
Office of Justice Programs, OJJDP, Washington, DC.
- M W Lipsey
- D B Wilson
Lipsey, M.W. and Wilson, D.B. (2001), Practical Meta-Analysis, Applied Social Research Methods Series:
Volume 49, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
- T P Thornberry
- M D Krohn
- A J Lizotte
- C A Smith
- K Tobin
Thornberry, T.P., Krohn, M.D., Lizotte, A.J., Smith, C.A. and Tobin, K. (2003), Gangs and Delinquency in
Developmental Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA.
PAGE 146 j JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH, POLICY AND PRACTICE j VOL. 2 NO. 2 2016
Procedures and Standards Handbook (Version 2.0), What Works Clearinghouse
- F Thrasher
Thrasher, F. (1927), The Gang: A Study of 1313 Gangs in Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) (2008), Procedures and Standards Handbook (Version 2.0), What Works
Clearinghouse, US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, Washington, DC, available at:
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_procedures_v2_standards_handbook.pdf
(accessed July 2, 2013).