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Part 10
Strand 10
Science curriculum and educational policy
Co-editors: Andreas Redfors & Jim Ryder
Strand 10 Science curriculum and educational policy
CONTENTS
Chapter
Title & Authors
Page
174
Introduction to Strand 10
Andreas Redfors & Jim Ryder
1442
175
Science education in Egypt based on integrating ecological needs
and STEAM education
Heba EL-Deghaidy
1445
176
Two teaching styles in a French science partnership
Vincent Voisin, Nathalie Magneron & Maryline Coquidé
1457
177
Scientific school research: in-service teachers assessment of
educational contents and strategies
Teresa Lupión Cobos & Carolina Martín Gámez
1466
178
COTEX: A checklist for competence-oriented textbooks in science
Katrin Bölsterli Bardy, Markus Wilhelm & Markus Rehm
1473
179
Teachers' perceptions of isolation and educational policies. Insights
from a four year empirical study
Francesco Cuomo, Emilio Balzano, Ciro Minichini &
marco Serpico
1482
180
The rationality island as a promising model for theoretical
generalization
Sylvie Barma, Marie-Caroline Vincent & Julie Massé-Morneau
1494
181
Educational policies and science education in Brazil: A case study
Paulo Sérgio Garcia & Nelio Bizzo
1506
182
Implementation of new teaching concepts by teacher training as a
process of recontextualization
Cornelia Stiller, Andreas Stockey & Matthias Wilde
1512
183
Teaching for competence in science education in Denmark
Seth Chaiklin
1523
Strand 10 Science curriculum and educational policy
Chapter
Title & Authors
Page
184
Implementing IBL and WOW in primary science in Norway
Maria Immaculata Maya Febri & Ragnhild Lyngved Staberg
1535
INTRODUCTION TO STRAND 10
SCIENCE CURRICULUM AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY
Policy involves the authoritative identification and practice of values (what counts as
important), attention (what gets noticed), goals (what we are trying to do) and resources
(Colebatch, 2009; Kogan, 1975). Following such a frame, education policy includes the
organisation of schooling institutions, funding models and resource allocation, the
representation of ‘aims’ in policy documents, curriculum requirements at national or regional
level, assessment procedures and the uses of assessment in national contexts. Within this we
can identify strong themes of science education policy, e.g. reforms to the science curriculum
and policies on national assessment practices in science. These education policies have a
huge impact on the experiences of science teachers and science learners. For example,
national high stakes testing of student attainment (Au, 2007), PISA shock in Germany (Ertl,
2006), science curriculum reforms (Tytler, 2007; Dede, 2010).
What is the role of ESERA within this education policy world? ESERA is an organisation of
researchers, with an international perspective. Thus, we would argue that within the
membership of ESERA there should be an explicit research focus on science education
policy. In our view this is not the same as saying that researchers within ESERA should seek
to influence science education policy. Arguably all, or at least most, researchers should seek
to engage policy makers with the findings of their research. Rather, we are highlighting here
a need for researchers to develop a better understanding of the processes and outcomes of
science education policy through empirical and theoretical studies. This section of the
ESERA eProceedings represents some of the work addressing the above goals within the
ESERA community.
Several of the contributions take a broad focus on national education policy within specific
country settings. El-Deghaidy explores two themes often represented within education policy:
education for sustainable development, and ‘STEM’ education policy. These policies are then
‘localised’ or ‘customised’ to the national context of Egypt. An explicitly historical analysis
is taken by Chaiklin who explores the development of ‘competence goals’ as a policy theme
in Denmark. He identifies the different meanings of competence within policy texts,
suggesting that this makes it difficult for teachers to work with competence goals in their
school settings. Garcia and Bizzo provide a distinctive study that explores science education
policy and its relation to education policies in Portuguese and mathematics within Brazil.
Their study includes a large-scale survey of students’ perspectives on the relevance of these
different subjects, identifying links between the framing of these three subjects in national
assessment policies and students’ perceptions of relevance. This latter study usefully
highlights the ways in which policies interact, with multiple policies being experienced ‘all at
once’ by teachers and students.
Other contributions present empirical studies of ‘what happens’ when policies are enacted in
specific education contexts. Here we draw attention to the distinction between the terms
policy ‘implementation’ and ‘enactment’. Many scholars prefer the term ‘enactment’ since
this emphasises a process over time, working with a policy within specific education settings,
and an ongoing activity to ‘shape’ policy in relation to the detail of the setting. By contrast,
the term ‘implementation’ can suggest that a policy can be delivered ‘as is’, with minimal
adaptation, in different settings (an extreme case of this would be ‘teacher proof’ curriculum
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materials). Although these terms are not used in all contributions in this section, or
consistently in this way, the overall framing of the studies is an enactment model of policy.
Thus, Cobos and Gamez provide an analysis of teachers’ perspectives on the teaching of
science research processes in the province of Malaga, Spain. The relevant policy theme here
is that of ‘scientific literacy’. Barma et al. provide case studies of how two teachers in
Quebec, Canada, enact an open-ended learning task (‘the rationality island’) that encourages
students to work together on exploring specific science themes (e.g. climate change). The
authors see this as a ‘formative intervention’; an intervention that is open to adapt to input
given by students and teacher during enactment. They locate the intervention as coherent with
prescriptions within the Quebec science curriculum. In a similar style Voisin et al. provide
two case studies of the enactment of partnerships between high schools and science research
centres. The focus is on the detail of tutoring as high school students work with doctoral
students within science research settings, highlighting two different tutoring styles.
Bardy et al. focus on school textbooks as ‘tools for implementing new curricula’. This is
consistent with other policy researchers who identify textbooks as a key lever, or mediator, of
policy; as a ‘policy technology’ (Ball, 2003). This distinctive study uses practitioner
responses to develop a set of standards that can be used to ‘conceptualise or assess
competence-oriented textbooks’.
Three of the contributions focus on the detail of teachers’ experiences as they enact education
policies. Stiller et al. examine the enactment of a teacher education course on scientific
literacy. Their analysis is sensitive to interactions of the designed course with local teacher
contexts. They suggest that such courses are best seen as supporting ‘a guided re-invention of
a developed concept under local conditions’. Febri and Staberg examine the enactment of
‘inquiry-based learning linked to the world of work’ in Norway at primary school level. Their
analysis identifies specific supporting and challenging factors as reported by teachers,
focusing very strongly on the significance for the teachers of students’ responses in the
classroom. Cuomo et al. report on a four-year mixed methods study of teachers’ reflections
on their professional lives. One focus of their analysis is on teachers’ interactions with
education research; a theme of clear significance within ESERA. They report that ‘interaction
[with research and researchers] should be contextual to teachers’ work reality, relevant, long-
term and consistent’. Their study also reports that teachers can often feel constrained by
systemic curriculum policies and would welcome ‘broader’ curriculum prescription, which
then invites local adaptation. These three contributions explore in detail the factors
underpinning teachers’ responses and in some cases how these change over time. They also
examine the characteristics of policy that support, or constrain, teachers’ responses. An
implication across these three studies is that designing flexibility within a policy can support
and encourage teachers to adapt policies to suit local contexts (Ryder, 2015).
The meanings of ‘policy’, as represented across the contributions in this section, are varied.
At one level studies explore national, systemic education reforms. In other contributions such
systemic policies are more in the background, and the research focus is more on the
enactment of specific interventions on a very local scale. This suggests that there is an
important debate to be had within, and likely beyond, ESERA on the meaning of ‘policy’ and
its relation to our work. We hope that this section of the ESERA eProceedings will encourage
and enrich such debates.
Andreas Redfors1 and Jim Ryder2
1Kristianstad University, Sweden
2University of Leeds, UK
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REFERENCES
Au, W. (2007). High-Stakes Testing and Curricular Control: A Qualitative Metasynthesis.
Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258-267.
Ball, S. J. (2003). The teacher's soul and the terrors of performativity. Journal of Education
Policy, 18(2), 215-228
Colebatch, H. K. (2009). Policy (3rd ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Dede, C. (2010). Comparing frameworks for 21st century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt
(Eds.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 51-76). Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.
Ertl, H. (2006). Educational Standards and the Changing Discourse on Education: The
Reception and Consequences of the PISA Study in Germany. Oxford Review of
Education 32(5), 619-634.
Kogan, M. (1975). Educational policy-making: A study of interest groups and parliament.
London: George Allen and Unwin.
Ryder, J. (2015). Being professional: accountability and authority in teachers’ responses to
science curriculum reform. Studies in Science Education 51(1), 87-120.
Tytler, R. (2007). Re-imagining Science Education. Engaging students in science for
Australia’s future. Australian Education Review, 51. ACER Press
https://www.acer.edu.au/aer
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SCIENCE EDUCATION IN EGYPT BASED ON
INTEGRATING ECOLOGICAL NEEDS AND STEAM
EDUCATION
Heba EL-Deghaidy
Faculty of Education - Suez Canal University
Graduate School of Education - American University in Cairo
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to review and highlight some recent efforts to reform
science education. The focus is to present science education in ways that are meaningful and
reflective of the needs and interests of learners and their societies. Two main initiatives are
presented that have picked up momentum and both emphasise interdisciplinary learning and a
focus on developing 21st century skills as a global requirement. One of them is Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) while the other is Science, Technology, Engineering and
Math (STEM) education. The paper illustrates international efforts of these two main
initiatives with an aim to precisely review the board spectrum of how science education is
interpreted within ESD and STEM practices. Moreover, the paper presents a more recent
debate, which focuses on the deliberate shift from STEM to STEAM education. The focus of
inquiry of this paper, therefore, is to research the possible models of introducing science
education to the educational system in Egypt, within a framework that meets international
calls for ESD and STEM/STEAM education. The paper contributes to the literature as it looks
at a region at a transformational stage both politically and socially. This calls for a need for
education transformation with innovative ideas to meet the requirements of this stage.
Infusing ESD/STEM/STEAM education through an innovative model of STE2AM education
based on Freire’s Liberatory Education in the educational system is a radical view but could
be met with caution, preparation and readiness of all stakeholders in the system. With such
view, this calls for political and practical changes in science teaching and learning in a
country that is lagging behind in many developmental areas, where education is one of them.
Keywords: Education for sustainable development, STEAM education, Egypt
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide and in the Arab region, many efforts have taken place to introduce new reform
initiatives to science education. The reason behind such initiatives is a need for learners in K-
12 classrooms to do more science and be actively engaged in the scientific process with an
emphasis on quality teaching and learning. Yet, there is evidence of a decline in the number
of learners with an interest in entering career pathways in the sciences (Wyss, Heulskamp, &
Siebert, 2012) adding pressure to the governments that want to perceive their countries in a
better place nationally and globally and to those who want to take leadership roles
technologically and economically.
Huffman, (2006) claims that reforming science teaching is difficult because of the complex
nature of science learning environments. Various studies echoed this view as they noted that
both pre-service and in-service teachers find it challenging to implement and shift to inquiry
based and constructivist teaching (i.e. Beck, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 2000). BouJaoude and
Dagher (2008) stated that the problem with science education in the Arab states is manifested
in the lack of qualified science teachers and the gap between science and science educators
which could be due to the separation of science and science education faculties in universities.
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Moreover, in the Arab states, there is evidence of the low quality of science education as there
is out-dated curricula and teaching pedagogies (e.g. focusing on concepts rather than hands-
on) in addition to lack of sufficient budgets for improving the quality of science education.
RESEARCH PROBLEM AND QUESTIONS
One of the main problems facing the educational system in the Arab region and Egypt is a
mismatch between the outputs of the education system and the needs of the job market. When
looking at how to link education to employment through disciplines such as science, it seems
inevitable to analyse how science is taught in schools. One of the major issues about science
education in schools is that it has a limited focus on critical thinking, problem solving and
discovery learning (Abdel Hafez, 2009; El Baz, 2009; EL-Deghaidy, 2006) which employers
tend to request when offering a job. Harvey (2000) mentioned that graduate skills are the
main source for finding a job especially with the organisational changes and over supply of
graduates which resulted in a change from hiring those with a degree to hiring those with
‘graduate attributes’ that include a range f intellectual and personal attributes needed for the
job market. Science education, as currently presented, is far from the mentioned teaching and
learning strategies and much more linked and associated to a dominant rigid memorization
system of a rote learning approach that uses chalk and talk. With limited opportunities to have
hands-on experiential learning in rich learning environments or laboratory settings, and since
there is great emphasis on grades and testing (Hargreaves, 1997), this is seen to have a
backlash on how teachers ‘teach’ and what students ‘learn’. With scarce facilities in schools,
poor infrastructure and overcrowded classrooms reaching in some places to over sixty
students this emphasizes mass education over quality. With schools given the same textbook
for each subject in September of each year, with the official syllabus in which the Ministry of
Education (MoE) states which unit of the book is taught each month, in addition to frequent
visits by MoE inspectors to ensure that teachers are not juggling the material around, all of
this paints a picture of a bureaucratic educational system.
Teachers, who have an unfavourable financial position (Zewail, 2011), are seen as experts
while students’ roles are confined to passive receptors of knowledge. Neglecting thinking
skills and learning through positive learning environments where learners are engaged and
interactive through critical thinking and problem solving, cramming curricula with factual
knowledge (Loveluck, 2012) seem to have led to explain the reason Egypt is placed 90th out
of 145 countries in the World Bank’s Knowledge Economy Index (Bond et al. 2012). Science
education through the current practices in schools is therefore far from what the Nature of
Science (NoS) is calling for. Science education practices need to take place in authentic
learning contexts to help develop cultural scientific literacy. Hodson (2003) made an explicit
call to construct new science and technology curriculum specifically for the 21st century with
a mix of local, regional and global issues. Seven areas were of concern; human health; food
and agriculture; land, water and mineral resources; energy resources and consumption;
industry (including manufacturing industry, the leisure and service industries, biotechnology);
information transfer and transportation; freedom and control in science and technology (ethics
and social responsibility). Based on the current status of science education and the argument
above, the central premises of this paper is to answer the following research question:
1. How could science education be customised to meet the ecological and societal
needs in Egypt?
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The work of Freire and his view of human’s ability to change their condition and existential
situation through education serve as the philosophical basis for this change in what education
should provide and how to provide it. Freire actually provides a framework for how education
helps societies learn and move forward with social change. It is therefore, the work of Freire
which can provide this paper with a philosophical grounding to change to a sustainable future.
The aim of Freire’s Liberatory Education allows individuals to become informed citizens
regardless of their socioeconomic status or social identity (Dale & Hyslop-Margison, 2010)
that stresses on forming new relationships between students and teachers, students and
learning, and students and society (McLaren, 1993). Having said that, the pedagogy suggested
by Freire requires problem posing, bottom up approaches, action research opportunities,
systemic and critical thinking through environmental and social action within the autonomy of
both teacher and students. This forms a recipe essential for political and social change and
above all a paradigm change that can lead to transformative actions. He also stresses the role
of culture and context where learners work within various local contexts while acknowledging
the larger whole of which they are part. According to Freire, his suggested Liberatory
pedagogies dissocializes students against anti-intellectual and authority-dependence culture in
an attempt to expose students to democratically engaging practices (Rodriguez, 2008).
ESD and science education
Taking into consideration the ecological problems and the social issues related to it were the
main reasons for having the United Nations conference in the 1990’s to address and develop
what is known by education for sustainable development (ESD). Concerns grew even further
along the years until a recent conference in 2012 titled Rio+20 highlighted the concern for
searching for solutions and suggestions for a better future where environmental, social,
economic and cultural considerations are balanced. With human’s constant unsustainable
practices, carbon emissions and high consumption rates, future generations will be facing
dramatic issues to deal with more than what we are currently facing. From these issues are
poverty, climate change, global warming, inequality and others all of which relate to the
concept of globalization. According to Hopkins (2010) an expected increase of 50 percent
more people on the planet than what is already there is yet another dramatic issue in terms of
the need to provide for water, land and energy. Arab countries, alone, are expected to reach to
395 million people by 2015 (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2009). With
less than 1 percent of the world’s renewable fresh water and high population rates, these tend
to lead to accelerate water scarcity and desertification (Kanbar, 2012).
In the Arab countries, including Egypt, there is strong evidence to suggest that they are
lagging behind in practices related to sustainable development (EL-Deghaidy, 2012). Even
when analysing the national standards and the content of science textbooks at the primary
stage in Egypt (MoE 2006/2007 textbooks), findings illustrate that there is great emphasis on
content about environmental issues and a lack of relevant values and attitudes. The analysis
specifically showed the lack of aesthetic values and environmental values that help form
environmental peace and sustainability (Othman & EL-Deghaidy, 2007). Although education
is the first step towards a successful future and nurturing the human mind to foster a
generation renowned for creativity, innovation, leadership and achievement, educational
systems in the Arab countries are facing numerous challenges themselves and this decreases
their capacity to achieve the desired goals of ESD (UNESCO, 2008). EL-Deghaidy (2012)
believes that education is the first step towards a successful future. ESD, which is distinct
from environmental education yet complementary (McKeown & Hopkins, 2003), requires a
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combination of teaching strategies that together allow for transformative learning in a course
with an ESD philosophy and practice.
As for the ESD pedagogies, there is a variety of pedagogical techniques that promote
participatory learning and higher-order thinking skills. The pedagogies are known to be
locally relevant and culturally appropriate as they are mainly based on local needs,
perceptions and conditions, and furthermore acknowledge that fulfilling local needs has
global consequences (Kanbar, 2012). From these pedagogies are those that are known to be
under the umbrella and philosophy of student centred pedagogies, such as place-based and
problem/issue-based learning. In general, ESD pedagogies encourage critical thinking, social
critique and analysis of local contexts. They also involve discussion, analysis and application
of values drawing on Arts such as drama, play, music and design that stimulate creativity and
imagination. This helps develop students’ perceptions towards positive change and a sense of
social justice and self-efficacy as community members (UNESCO, 2012, p.1). Furthermore,
pedagogies and assignments that require students to work collaboratively are also seen
relevant to ESD pedagogies especially as most environmental, social and economic
challenges can be solved by teams of people working together. Two ESD pedagogies are
specially starting to become more and more known to educationalists and stand out in ESD.
These are ‘Issue Analysis’ suggested by Clark (2000) especially in upper elementary and
middle school and the ‘Multiple perspective approach’ suggested by UNESCO (2012).
Despite these suggested pedagogies, studies have documented a number of barriers to
effectively infusing and embedding ESD in various disciplines (Adomssent, 2006). From
these barriers are over packed curricula, limited institutional commitment and perceived
irrelevance (Hopkinson & James, 2010). Yet it should be noted that such pedagogies would
only make sense when teachers who adopt them have beliefs and attitudes to make such
transformation take place (Fien, 2004). Nonetheless, Hopkinson and James stated four main
factors that could help infuse ESD in STEM disciplines in an educational institution. These
are: a top down institutional vision and academic policy for ESD in addition to an academic
implementation strategy; bottom-up approach that supports and provides incentives for good
ESD practices; evidence of professional accrediting bodies that can put pressure on staff to
embed ESD; an institutional and educational curriculum architect who can work across
disciplines and handle conflicts when faculty are to consider curriculum change.
STEM/STEAM and science education
STEM education is certainly becoming one of the buzzwords these days in education. It is an
acronym commonly known to present a combination of four main disciplines of Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. The integrated model of STEM education
removes the traditional borders known between each discipline and provides opportunities to
integrate disciplines in a cohesive meaningful experience where science and mathematics
(main disciplines in the acronym) are learnt in a personalized context while developing
various skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication skills, inductive and
deductive reasoning and inquiry skills (Thompson, 2013). According to Vasquez, Comer, and
Sneider, (2013) STEM education is not a curriculum by itself, but it is an approach for
teachers to organize and deliver instructions in a way that helps students apply their
knowledge with their peers in meaningful situations. Especially as real life problems are not
found in separate disciplines (Wang, 2012).
Despite adopting STEM in various educational settings worldwide, there are efforts to move
from STEM education to other models in a means to renewing the well-known buzzword.
Renewing the focus on STEM education is an unobjectionable worthwhile endeavour. Harvey
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White, co-founder of Qualcomm, says this is a ‘national emergency’. Total reform of the
current educational curriculum with a marriage of the arts and sciences must happen. Tarnoff
(2010) and Pomeroy (2012) echo this view and claim that STEM education is missing a set of
creativity components and skills that are summarized under the letter “A” for Arts. This set of
skills comes particularly essential to jobs where the ‘flattening or ‘levelling effect’ are taking
place in the world’s current workforce (Friedman, 2007).
One of the examples of putting science in an integrated perspective is ‘Full STEAM AHEAD’
where the ‘A’ stands for integrating Arts to the other four disciplines. Within this model,
STEAM education aims to lead to a meaningful comprehensive and effective education.
There are claims that it promotes bridging the gap between business and educational goals
where the main aim is to create a more productive and sustainable global culture based on
teamwork. Looking at the combination of ‘A’ STEAM education skills and links to brain-
based-research shows an emphasis on both hemispheres of the brain (right brain hemisphere
responsible for creativity and left brain hemisphere responsible for academia and logic) as a
whole brain system. Unfortunately most science education teaching and learning practices in
the States (White, 2010) and in the Arab countries focus on the left hemisphere and neglect
the right side of the brain.
METHODS
Research question one
This section is an attempt to answer the research question aiming to localize STEAM and
ESD in Egypt. Localizing STEAM education and customizing it is the main aim of this paper
as there are many innovative models for integrated science learning but the question that will
always stand valid is the feasibility and applicability of this customization. Enah (2014)
examined how STEM instructors and administrators in Egypt perceived and understood
STEM education as an adopted foreign model and how they customized such imported model.
This followed Ibrahim’s (2010) assertion that the success of any adopted foreign model,
policy or practice depends not on what is borrowed from the donor, but on how it is re-
conceptualized and customized in the recipient community. In customizing STEAM
education it is important for educators not to lock the definition, content, scope, and
methodology into a static time frame. One of the examples of unlocking STEAM education is
that from Purdue University. At Purdue University, STEAM education is the integration of
science, technology, engineering, agriculture and mathematics as it is socially-relevant and
culturally-inclusive. Because agriculture is recognized as being a STEM-related discipline,
the acronym is referred to as STEAM because of the inclusion of agriculture as contextualized
STEM learning (Purdue University, 2012). In a similar manner to customizing and localizing
STEAM education in Purdue University, Egypt is in urgent need to a customized STEAM
education model based on science contemporary pedagogical practices and ecological local,
regional and global needs. The following section looks at the main ecological problems facing
Egypt that helps set the scene to a localized STEAM model different to that in other locations
and educational systems.
Why STE2AM education: Nature of ESD issues in Egypt
Customizing education requires teaching and learning knowledge, skills, perceptions, and
values that will guide and motivate people to pursue sustainable livelihoods, to participate in a
democratic society and to live in a sustainable manner. In customizing education to address
sustainability, programme developers need to balance between looking forward to a more
sustainable society with looking back to traditional ecological knowledge. Hence, it is not
only a question of quantity of education, but also one of appropriateness and relevance that
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takes into account what ESD encompasses through an integrated vision of environment,
economy, and society or what (Roberts, 2007) calls ‘Vision II’. Looking back into the history
of Egypt, the sun was worshiped and there was high concern for understanding the
environment. Ancient Egyptian were known to be dependent upon nature and its natural
rhythms for their survival (Lawson, 2004), but by following up on environmental issues that
Egypt is currently facing there seems to be an enormous change in faith. Water scarcity is one
of the significant problems facing Egypt and other Arab countries. In Egypt, however, it is
even more challenging as 95% of the water supply is from the river Nile which is currently
being challenged by Uganda, Ethiopia and other countries. With agricultural needs, an
average of 80% of the water supply is being used and with a growing population and limited
resources innovative means (i.e. desalination) to providing water have to be thought out. It
should also be noted that the ‘percentage of agricultural land (including arable, forests and
rangeland) to the total land area ranges from 2.6 percent in Egypt to 77.4 percent in Morocco’
(UNEP, 2006, p.105) for instance. One of the suggestions to overcome problems in water is
the re-use of treated wastewater and desalination of seawater in coastal areas.
Another global challenge that Egypt faces directly is the rise of sea level due to climate
change. This is due to Egypt’s geography which makes it vulnerable. The impact is bigger
than expected as livestock animals and crops are threatened. Egypt’s capital, Cairo is known
to have poor air quality, where the average inhabitant ingests more than 20 times the level of
accepted air pollution. When this is manifested as smog – known to Egyptians as the Black
Cloud – health problems ensue (Evans, 2004). To help Egypt with such problems, the
National Cleaner Production Centre plans to set up centres similar to those already established
in both Morocco and Tunisia. These centres aim to raise awareness and help industries
integrate environmental consideration into industrial development (UNEP, 2006). To help
Egypt protect its natural resources from environmental issues and threats, the country is part
of two main parties of a framework of integrated management of coastal resources. These are
the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (the Barcelona
Convention) and Jeddah Convention for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (UNEP, 2006).
Having illustrated the ecological issues facing the country, there are urgent calls for
introducing education for sustainable development (ESD). In presenting ESD, one of the main
features is the interdisciplinary nature and connectedness to real life situations in order to
present meaningful experiences that are relevant for all subjects and all levels of education
(Madsen, 2013). This takes place through developing integrated units that help bend the
boundaries among disciplines. From the well-known traditions associated with how ESD
features interdisciplinary learning is science-technology-society (STS) and socio-scientific
issues (SSI). By taking a closer look at the process of infusing ESD in any educational
system; Fukukawa, Spicer and Burrows (2013) stated a three stage agenda starting from
initiation, implementation and ending with integration to the institution by academic agents of
change. The agents of change are the teachers who show ownership and responsibility to the
current generation and those to come.
Lately on a global level, the rise of environmental and resource problems has been a major
highlight of various countries for example in Kosovo (Spahiu, Korca, & Lindemann-Matthies,
2014) Lebanon (Kanbar, 2012) and Jordan (Qablan, Abu AL-Ruz, Khasawneh, & Al-Omari,
2009). Knowledge from scientific research and the implementation of many technologies are
designed to reduce the scale of such problems but with the escalation of these problems
locally and globally, science and technology are perceived as both the cause and ironically the
solution. STEAM disciplines relate closely to this discussion as they have become factors in
political and economic decision-making and relate to global commons similar to ESD (Bybee,
2013). It has been stated that more than any time in history, science, technology, engineering,
mathematics and the environment now have direct links to human health and the goods and
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services that contribute to personal and social welfare (Bybee, 2013, p. 36). Yet, human
decisions are the main influence in the direction rate and scale of any change that usually has
economic motives with detrimental environmental consequences. Thus the concept of
sustainability serves as a ‘counterpoint’ to current economic perspectives and connections to
STEM education (Holbrook, cited in Bybee 2013, p. 36). This brings us back to Freire’s
concept of change and the theoretical framework guiding this paper.
In an attempt to integrate ESD with STEAM education, Hopkinson and James, (2010) found
that there are a number of practical ways to do so. From their view, Hopkinson and James
claim that successful implementation requires linking teaching activities to the core activities
of the STEM discipline. Reformist approaches to curriculum re-orientation are more likely to
be successful than calls for radical, transformational models. Students studying STEAM
disciplines are likely to contribute to greening the campus and in the future to the creation of a
greener lifestyle thus greening STEAM education. This suggested model of STEAM
education where ‘E’ stands for ‘ESD’ could meet the requirements and needs of a country like
Egypt, as there is an emphasis on environmental and social changes that are currently taking
place in the country. With all the political turmoil happening, Egypt is facing many challenges
economically, socially and environmentally. One of the venues that developed countries took
on board is an emphasis on the role of education as a springboard for change, as proposed by
Freire’s theoretical framework in this paper. Therefore the interdisciplinary nature of STEAM
education could require a different shift of attention on ESD in addition to the emphasis on
engineering design processes. Interestingly, there was an attempt to embed ESD into an
engineering education program in Denmark through a comprehensive sustainability course to
fit all students in various faculties under the acronym EESD (Engineering ESD) after
reviewing various options of stand-alone courses and others that are integrated (Arsat,
Holgaard, & Graaff, 2011). Bybee (2013) suggested various means needed to bring about
change through his following statement: ‘our globe needs citizens who understand and are
ready to address STEM-related challenges’ through:
● Economic stability and the development of a 21st century workforce;
● Energy efficiency and adequate responses for a carbon-constrained world;
● Environmental quality and the need for evidence-based responses to global
climate change;
● Resource use and the need to address continuing conflicts over limited natural
resources;
● Mitigation of natural hazards by preparing for severe weather, earthquakes and
fires;
● Health maintenance and the need to reduce the spread of preventable diseases;
● Public understanding of the role of scientific advances and technological
innovations in health and human welfare.
What Bybee is actually suggesting shows the interconnectedness between ESD and
STEM/STEAM education, which strengthens the relationship between disciplines in a
meaningful manner to learners and their communities.
Science education within the STE2AM education integrated model
This paper presents a model that presents science education in a model known by STE2AM
where STEAM education is integrated with ESD as a local need rather than a readymade
imported education model. For Eijck and Roth, (2007) ‘high-quality science education is
required not only for sustaining a lively scientific community that is able to address global
problems like global warming and pandemics, but also to bring about and maintain a high
level of scientific literacy in the general population’ (p. 2763). With concerns of disturbing
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the educational ecological system with a foreign educational model, the ‘E’ in STE2AM is
represented by ‘ESD’ in addition to the original ‘E’ that represents ‘engineering design’.
Figure 2 shows the possible pedagogical approaches that could be implemented to present
science education in the new STE2AM model where interdisciplinary learning is at the core.
The figure also illustrates two main pillars that the model is built upon. These are the 21st
century skills that are essential for STE2AM learning in addition to the concept of
‘globalization’, which helps learners and citizens think globally, yet act locally. STE2AM
education in its localized framework seems therefore an applicable model in the educational
system in Egypt to facilitate linking education to the community and real-life situations
through ‘E’ for engineering in addition to ‘E’ for ESD. In this way students will become
accustomed to seeing sustainability and will carry those expectations with them to their future
places of employment. Nevertheless, one of the major success factors is the readiness of the
teachers, schools, curricula, assessment and moreover a policy maker to ensure that such
transition is possible. The following recommendations are presented to develop a customized
STE2AM education model as follows:
1. Develop STE2AM education standards and indicators according to research-based
standards that align with both STEM/STEAM and ESD education.
2. Design professional preparation programmes in science teacher pre-service programs
that present STE2AM education integrated modules on pedagogical practices (i.e.
place based learning and issue analysis) and integrated curricula design units using the
backward design approach and project based learning, especially as this is not the
customary means found in teacher education programs in Egypt (Biasutti & EL-
Deghaidy, 2014).
3. Design professional development programs for in-service teachers to develop their
capacity with the various pedagogies applicable to STE2AM education which
emphasises a student-centred approach and link to meaningful real life issues. There
should be consideration to what teachers need in terms of their pedagogic content
knowledge PCK, content knowledge CK and knowledge of context KC (Shulman,
1987).
4. Continuous professional development programmes (CPD) need to take into account
teachers’ needs rather than follow a top-down approach in the design process. Studies
show those taking teachers’ voices into account in the planning and design stages are
fatal (Mansour et al., 2014).
(STE2AM= STEM +Arts +ESD)
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5. Design curricula units based on the backward design that emphasizes on core
problems of relevance to ESD issues and problems and are articulated as a sequence of
topics and units. Table 1 illustrates examples of how to infuse STE2AM education at
the various stages including community and technical schools.
6. Ensure there is time allocated to the STE2AM units to be presented to learners either
as elective courses or extra-curricular activities.
7. Develop a STE2AM school culture based on dialogue and mutual understanding
between learners, teachers, administrators and parents.
8. Develop effective systems of assessment that shift from traditional pencil and paper
tests to authentic-assessment based on performance and understanding and that align
with the suggested STE2AM model and standards.
9. STE2AM community engagement and partnership based on university professional
development programs as educators’ partnership.
10. Bridge the gap between business and educational goals to create a more productive
and sustainable global culture based on teamwork and workforce partners whether
private or public.
11. Establish a network among higher education institutions that appreciates cross-
institutional courses and teaching.
CONCLUSION
Education for Sustainable development is based on the idea that communities and educational
systems within communities need to dovetail their sustainability efforts. Throughout the paper
various examples of innovative science education approaches were illustrated. The paper ends
with a model on STE2AM education where there is integration between STEAM and ESD
disciplines. The urgent need for Egypt to cater for ecological issues is the main reason for this
shift of attention from STEAM where the ‘E’ represents engineering only to that which
represents engineering in addition to ESD. Moreover, STE2AM education has at its core
integrated disciplines where learners are engaged in collaborative meaningful contexts that
relate to everyday life issues in the local, regional or global community to address major ESD
concepts. Yet, it has to be noted that the model could be applicable if teachers, students and
administrators are aware of such shift and show empathy towards it.
Table 1. Examples of infusing STE2AM education in the educational system in Egypt
STE2AM Education Framework
Conceptual
ization
Means of
infusing
STE2AM
education
for each
school
stage/type
Middle & High
school
Stages
Elementary
Stage
Community
Schools
Technical schools
Block schedules
&
interdisciplinary
activities
STE2AM related
subjects’ lessons,
interdisciplinary
projects, and extra
curricula
activities
Community based
real life problems
to be solved using
interdisciplinary
learning/ low
technology
Partnership
interdisciplinary
projects with
public and private
industries and
career guidance
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