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Human Placenta Processed for Encapsulation Contains Modest Concentrations of Fourteen Trace Minerals and Elements
Abstract
Maternal placentophagy has recently emerged as a rare but increasingly popular practice among women in industrialized countries who often ingest the placenta as a processed, encapsulated supplement, seeking its many purported postpartum health benefits. Little scientific research, however, has evaluated these claims, and concentrations of trace micronutrients/elements in encapsulated placenta have never been examined. Because the placenta retains beneficial micronutrients and potentially harmful toxic elements at parturition, we hypothesized that dehydrated placenta would contain detectable concentrations of these elements. To address this hypothesis, we analyzed 28 placenta samples processed for encapsulation to evaluate the concentration of 14 trace minerals/elements using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Analysis revealed detectable concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, rubidium, selenium, strontium, uranium, and zinc. Based on one recommended daily intake of placenta capsules (3300 mg/day), a daily dose of placenta supplements contains approximately 0.018 ± 0.004 mg copper, 2.19 ± 0.533 mg iron, 0.005 ± 0.000 mg selenium, and 0.180 ± 0.018 mg zinc. Based on the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for lactating women, the recommended daily intake of placenta capsules would provide, on average, 24% RDA for iron, 7.1% RDA for selenium, 1.5% RDA for zinc, and 1.4% RDA for copper. The mean concentrations of potentially harmful elements (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, uranium) were well below established toxicity thresholds. These results indicate that the recommended daily intake of encapsulated placenta may provide only a modest source of some trace micronutrients, and a minimal source of toxic elements.
... Gör. Neriman GÜDÜCÜ, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Ebelik Bölümü, İstanbul, e-mail: nerimanteker@windowslive.com suretiyle sağlık alanında kullanılabilmektedir (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
... Progesteron, demir, kalsiyum ve oksitosin gibi bazı bileşenlerin varlığı termde plasentada gösterilmiş olmasına rağmen (4,5,(21)(22)(23), bunların bakımı, hazırlığı ve çiğ dokuda dayanıklılığı, ayrıca doğum sonrası yenilmesinin kadın üzerindeki etkileri demir düzeyi haricinde test edilmemiştir. Plasentanın uyku sorunları, enfeksiyonlar, cilt ve saç sorunları, menstruasyon ve menopoz sırasında yaşanan güçlükler gibi sorunlarda da kullanılabileceği ön görülmekle beraber, bu kullanımı destekleyecek bilimsel veri yoktur (16). ...
... Plasentanın bir fonksiyonu da, fetusu zararlı maddelere maruziyete karşı korumaktır. Selenyum, kadmiyum, cıva ve kurşun gibi elementlerin yanı sıra bakteriler de plasentanın bu süzgeç görevinden dolayı post-term plasental dokularda bulunabilir (4,7,(24)(25)(26)(27). Postpartum dönemde uterus kaynaklı ya da kontaminasyona bağlı olarak bakteri ya da virüsler plasenta dokularında kalabilir. ...
... A single placenta weighing 450 g contains an average of 234 calories, 4 g of fat, 899 mg of cholesterol, 513 g of sodium, 48 g of protein, plus significant quantities of the trace elements iron and selenium [22] along with calcium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc [23]. Furthermore, it contains the essential and non-essential amino acids alanine, aspartic acid, arginine, histidine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine, tryptophan, and valine, as well as vitamins B 1 , B 2 , B 5 , B 6 , B 7 , B 9 , B 12 . ...
... The intake of placenta capsules does not suffice, however, to adequately treat postpartum anaemia and in one randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical study it also effected no significant change in the maternal iron status [19]. Very low concentrations of the potentially toxic elements such as arsenic, lead, cadmium and mercury were found and were below the toxicity threshold [23,28]. ...
... Eine Plazenta von 450 g enthält durchschnittlich 234 Kalorien, 4 g Fett, 899 mg Cholesterol, 513 g Natrium, 48 g Protein, zusätzlich die Spurenelemente Eisen und Selen in signifikanten Mengen [22] wie auch Kalzium, Kupfer, Magnesium, Phosphor, Kalium und Zink [23]. Außerdem sind die essenziellen und nicht essenziellen Aminosäuren Alanin, Asparaginsäure, Arginin, Histidin, Leucin, Lysin, Phenylalanin, Prolin, Tyrosin, Tryptophan und Valin enthalten, zusätzlich die Vitamine B 1 , B 2 , B 5 , B 6 , B 7 , B 9 , B 12 . ...
The use of placenta preparations as an individual puerperal remedy can be traced back to historical, traditional practices in Western and Asian medicine. To evaluate the ingestion of processed placenta as a puerperal remedy, the potential risks (trace elements, microorganisms) and possible benefit (hormones in the placental tissue) of such a practice are discussed in this article based on a literature review.
... Only a small number of reviews [1,[19][20][21] and studies [22][23][24][25][26][27] examining the effect of placentophagy on humans exist and yet the bioavailability of hormones and their possible physiologic effects remain unclear. Current research on placentophagy aims to gain deeper insight into hormone composition and trace element concentration of placental tissue after encapsulation [28,29]. This exploratory study aims to examine the effect of three different preparation methods and the impact of steaming/dehydration on properties of human placental tissue. ...
... Raw dehydrated tissue contains 548.33 mg/kg (SD ± 48.8); this is considerably less iron then detected by Puaphradit [37] et al. in raw dehydrated tissue (980.0 ± 147.4). Steamed dehydrated tissue contains a mean concentration of 481.67 mg/kg (SD ± 75.6) which is nearly the concentration detected by Young [29] et al. (664 ± 161.4). ...
... Potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Hg, Pb) were below the maximum level for contaminants in dietary supplements and foodstuff regarding regulations of the European Union. These findings are consistent with data from Young et al. [29] and Chang et al. [40] who detected concentrations of trace elements below toxicity thresholds in encapsulated placental tissue. The occurrence of symptoms (e.g. ...
Introduction:
Human maternal placentophagy, the behavior of ingesting the own raw or processed placenta postpartum, is a growing trend by women of western societies. This study aims to identify the impact of dehydration and steaming on hormone and trace element concentration as well as microbial contamination of placental tissue.
Methods:
A total of nine placentas have been processed: six were studied for hormone and trace element concentrations; eight were studied for microbial contamination. The concentrations of CRH, hPL, oxytocin and ACTH in samples of raw, steamed dehydrated and raw dehydrated placental tissue were detected using ELISA. A yeast bioassay was performed in order to detect estrogen equivalent (EEQ) and gestagen equivalent (PEQ) active substances. Elements (As, Cd, Fe, Pb, Se, Hg) were analyzed using ICP-MS. Isolated colonies from tissue and placenta swab samples were identified using Vitek MS.
Results:
Following mean hormone concentrations were detected in raw placental tissue: CRH (177.88 ng/g), hPL (17.99 mg/g), oxytocin (85.10 pg/g), ACTH (2.07 ng/g), estrogen equivalent active substances (46.95 ng/g) and gestagen equivalent active substances (2.12 μg/g). All hormones were sensitive to processing with a significant concentration reduction through steaming and dehydration. Microorganisms mainly from the vaginal flora were detected on placenta swab samples and samples from raw, steamed, dehydrated and steamed dehydrated tissue and mostly disappeared after dehydration. According to regulations of the European Union the concentrations of potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Hg, Pb) were below the toxicity threshold for foodstuffs.
Conclusion:
The commonly used protocols for preparation of placenta for its individual oral ingestion reduce hormone concentrations and bacterial contamination.
... It is vital for the intrauterine environment, which is in turn critical for the growth and development of the fetus (Vlahos et al., 2019). In addition, the placenta contains information on gestational exposure to environmental pollutants, such as toxic elements (Young et al., 2016). An animal study suggested that uranium can be transferred to the fetal body through the placental barrier (Simokon and Trukhin, 2021). ...
... To the best of our knowledge, few studies have assessed uranium concentrations in human placental tissue. In our study, the median concentration was 0.218 ng/g dry tissue in the control group, lower than the mean (1 ppm equal to 10 ng/g) in 28 placentas from a study conducted in the United States (Young et al., 2016). In addition, according to the results of another study also conducted in the U.S., the concentrations of uranium in multiple human organs (0.5-1.17 ng/g for the lung, 0.39-1.00 ...
The adverse effects of uranium exposure on human health are well-known; less is known, however, regarding its association with congenital malformations. We conducted a case-control study to examine the association between prenatal exposure to uranium and risk for fetal neural tube defects (NTDs) using the concentration of uranium in placental tissue as an exposure marker in 408 NTD cases and 593 healthy controls. Uranium concentration was quantified with an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. The odds ratios of NTDs for uranium exposure levels, categorized into quartiles, were estimated using logistic regression. The median concentration of uranium in the NTD group (0.409 ng/g) was significantly higher than that in the control group (0.218 ng/g). The risk for NTDs increased 2.52-fold (95% CI, 1.85–3.45) for concentrations of uranium above the median value for all participants. After adjusting for confounders, the risk for NTDs increased 1.36-fold (95% CI, 1.25–6.17), 1.77-fold (95% CI, 1.09–2.85), and 3.60-fold (95% CI, 2.30–5.64) for the second, third, and fourth quartiles of uranium concentrations compared to the lowest quartile, respectively. Prenatal exposure to uranium is a risk factor for NTDs in this population. Prospective studies are needed to further validate this finding.
... Eine Plazenta von 450 g enthält durchschnittlich 234 Kalorien, 4 g Fett, 899 mg Cholesterol, 513 g Natrium, 48 g Protein, zusätzlich die Spurenelemente Eisen und Selen in signifikanten Mengen [22] wie auch Kalzium, Kupfer, Magnesium, Phosphor, Kalium und Zink [23]. Außerdem sind die essenziellen und nicht essenziellen Aminosäuren Alanin, Asparaginsäure, Arginin, Histidin, Leucin, Lysin, Phenylalanin, Prolin, Tyrosin, Tryptophan und Valin enthalten, zusätzlich die Vitamine B 1 , B 2 , B 5 , B 6 , B 7 , B 9 , B 12 . ...
... Um eine postpartale Anämie suffizient zu behandeln, ist die Einnahme von Plazentakapseln jedoch nicht ausreichend und führt auch in einer randomisierten, placebokontrollierten, doppelblinden klinischen Studie zu keiner signifikanten Änderung des maternalen Eisenstatus [19]. Potenziell toxische Elemente wie Arsen, Blei, Kadmium und Quecksilber wurden in sehr geringen Konzentrationen und unterhalb der Toxizitätsgrenze gemessen [23,28]. ...
Die Einnahme der eigenen Plazenta durch die Mutter im Wochenbett geht auf traditionelle Anwendungen in der abendländischen und asiatischen Komplementärmedizin zurück. Hebammen in der Wochenbettbetreuung sehen sich einer gestiegenen Nachfrage gegenüber, jedoch mangelt es an evidenzbasierten Empfehlungen zur sogenannten Plazentophagie. Die Autoren der vorliegenden Übersichtsarbeit recherchierten Risiken und potenziellen Nutzen, um die Einnahme der verarbeiteten Plazenta als Heilmittel im Wochenbett zu bewerten.
... A recently published study found cadmium, a heavy metal, in a low but detectable amount within processed placenta pills. 69 Women who ingest multiple pills may risk cumulative dosing. Accordingly, toxic components of tobacco, alcohol, or controlled substances could accumulate, and harm the mother and the newborn M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 13 infant through placenta consumption. ...
... Accordingly, toxic components of tobacco, alcohol, or controlled substances could accumulate, and harm the mother and the newborn M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 13 infant through placenta consumption. [69][70][71] The frequently reported headaches by women who consume placenta could be associated with the accumulation of these toxic substances. 4 Young et al. 23 reported that bioactive hormones such as estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone can survive the encapsulation process and might reach effect thresholds after placenta consumption. ...
Placentophagy or placentophagia, the postpartum ingestion of the placenta, is widespread among mammals; however, no contemporary human culture incorporates eating placenta postpartum as part of its traditions. Nevertheless, there is an increasing interest in placentophagy among postpartum women, especially in the United States. The placenta can be eaten raw, cooked, roasted, dehydrated, encapsulated, or through smoothies and tinctures. The most frequently used preparation appears to be placenta encapsulation after steaming and dehydration. Numerous companies offer to prepare the placenta for consumption. The evidence for positive effects of human placentophagy is anecdotal, and limited to self-reported surveys. Without any scientific evidence, individuals promoting placentophagy, especially in the form of placenta encapsulation, claim that it is associated with certain physical and psychosocial benefits. We found that there is no scientific evidence of any clinical benefit of placentophagy among humans, and no placental nutrients and hormones are retained in sufficient amounts after placenta encapsulation to be potentially helpful to the mother, postpartum. In contrast to the belief of clinical benefits associated with placenta encapsulation, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently issued a warning owing to a case where a newborn infant developed recurrent neonatal group B Streptococcus sepsis after the mother ingested contaminated placenta capsules containing Streptococcus agalactiae. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended that the intake of placenta capsules should be avoided owing to inadequate eradication of infectious pathogens during the encapsulation process. Therefore, in response to a woman who expresses an interest in placentophagy, physicians should inform her about the reported risks and the absence of clinical benefits associated with the ingestion. In addition, clinicians should inquire regarding a history of placenta ingestion in cases of postpartum maternal or neonatal infections such as group B Streptococcus sepsis. In conclusion, owing to the harmful effects of placentophagy, there is no professional responsibility on clinicians to offer placentophagy to pregnant women. Moreover, because placentophagy is potentially harmful with no documented benefit, counseling women should be directive: physicians should discourage this practice. Healthcare organizations should develop clear clinical guidelines to implement a scientific and professional approach to placentophagy.
... Although improved energy, mood, and lactation are common self-reported benefits, 9 few studies have investigated the hormone content or presence of toxic minerals in the encapsulated human placenta. [36][37][38] Available data suggest that several hormones (e.g., estradiol, estriol, progesterone, testosterone) 36,37 and trace minerals (e.g., arsenic, iron, manganese) 38 remain integral in the encapsulated placenta. The mean concentrations of most hormones are low, and the potential to produce a physiologic response that supports claimed benefits are inconclusive. ...
... A recent pilot study identified 14 trace minerals in samples from 28 placentas from healthy female donors that were encapsulated (i.e., dehydrated and pulverized) through a standardized process. 38 Concentrations of iron were high, and potentially toxic elements, such as arsenic and lead, were below established toxicity levels. These data confirm the presence of potential nutrients and toxins, but whether the concentrations are enough to achieve a therapeutic benefit or an adverse effects remains unclear. ...
Purpose:
Placentophagy (maternal consumption of the placenta) has become increasingly prevalent in the past decade among women seeking to promote health and healing during the postpartum period. The purpose of this study was to assess patient and provider familiarity with and attitudes toward placentophagy, as well as patients' willingness to try placentophagy.
Methods:
Two cross-sectional surveys with questions regarding placentophagy practice were distributed to healthcare providers and patients. The provider survey was distributed via email listservers to international perinatal professional organizations and to obstetrics and gynecology, nurse midwifery, family medicine, and psychiatry departments at three urban hospitals. Patient surveys were administered in person at an urban hospital in Chicago, Illinois.
Results:
Approximately two thirds (66%; n = 100) of patients and most (89%; n = 161) of providers were familiar with placentophagy. Patients with a history of a self-reported mental health disorder were more likely to be willing to consider placentophagy and to believe that healthcare providers should discuss it with their patients.
Conclusions:
Most providers and patients have heard of placentophagy but are unsure of its benefits and/or risks. Further research examining the potential therapeutic efficacy and/or risks of placentophagy is needed.
... En un estudio realizado con placentas humanas se evidencio la presencia de oligoelementos y minerales, entre ellos el hierro (Young et al., 2016). ...
Introducción. En la actualidad son escasos los estudios de la placentofagia en animales y cuáles son los beneficios que podrían conllevar el consumo de placentomas, sean de la misma especie u otra diferente. Objetivo. Esta investigación tiene como objetivo evaluar el efecto que tienen los placentomas bovinos en tratamientos de anemias por deficiencia de hierro en perros, el estudio se llevó a cabo en la ciudad de Guayaquil. Materiales y métodos. Los placentomas fueron extraídos del centro de faenamiento de la ciudad de Guayaquil, siendo cocidos completamente a temperatura de 160° Fahrenheit y luego deshidratados durante 8 horas, para pulverizarlos y proceder a encapsularlas y suministrarle a un grupo experimental de los perros (grupo A), mientras al grupo testigo (grupo B), se le suministro tabletas multivitamínicas existente en el mercado, las cuales contenían oligoelementos como el hierro en su composición. Resultados. Los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación fueron que el 60% de los animales que se le suministro los placentomas salieron de su amenia de tipo ferropénica. Conclusiones. Se demostró que el consumo de los placentomas si tiene efectos favorables en pacientes con anemias por deficiencia de hierro.
... Irrespective of the chemical, nutrient, hormonal, or mineral content of placenta and amniotic fluid (Sánchez Suárez, 2015;Young et al., 2016aYoung et al., , 2016bYoung et al., , 2022, some of which are touted by pro-placentophagy professionals (e.g., True Harmony Wellness [website], 2022; Evidence Based Birth [website], 2022), the important issue is whether placentophagy produces detectable physiological or emotional changes in the mother. One well-controlled study examined the steroid hormone content of the saliva of postpartum mothers as a consequence of ingesting commercially prepared, cooked, encapsulated placenta. ...
Placentophagia, ingestion of placenta and amniotic fluid, usually during parturition, is a behavioral feature of nearly all nonaquatic, placental mammals, and is a nexus for several interlocking behavioral phenomena. Placentophagia has not been typical of human cultures, but in recent years, some women in affluent societies have engaged in it, thereby bringing publicity to the behavior. First, we summarized benefits of placentophagia for nonhuman mammals, which include increased attractiveness of neonates, enhanced onset of maternal behavior, suppression of pseudopregnancy, and enhancement of opioid hypoalgesia by Placental Opioid-Enhancing Factor (POEF), a benefit that may extend well outside the context of parturition. The research on POEF in animals was discussed in detail. Then we discussed placentophagia (placentophagy) in humans, and whether there is validity to the claims of various benefits reported primarily in the pro-placentophagy literature, and, although human afterbirth shows POEF activity, the POEF effect has not yet been tested in humans. Finally, we discussed the general possible implications, for the management of pain and addiction, of isolating and characterizing POEF.
... Human placentophagy studies have focused on hormones 8,9 , microorganisms 9 and trace elements 9,10 , and potential effects placentophagy may have on fatigue 11 , iron-status 12 and mental health status 11 of postpartum mothers. These studies include self-reported survey data of placentophagic participants 2 , in addition to laboratory placental tissue analyses 8,10 and a phase 1 randomized clinical trial [11][12][13] . In light of the limited number of studies assessing the safety of placentophagy, some practitioners advocate discouraging the practice 14 . ...
A mother’s postpartum ingestion of raw or processed placental tissue—referred to as human maternal placentophagy—is an emerging health trend observed in industrialized nations. Placenta is commonly consumed as small pieces of raw tissue, or as raw or steamed dehydrated pulverized and encapsulated tissue. To investigate the potential neonatal health risks of this behavior, the present study focused on microbial colonization of processed placenta preparations with potentially pathogenic bacteria Streptococcus agalactiae (Group-B-Streptococci; GBS) and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ). In the clinical approach placentas from 24 mothers were analyzed. Two placentas, from 13 mothers with confirmed positive maternal GBS status, showed GBS-growth on their surface (2/13; 15.4%) independent from delivery mode or antibiotic treatment. All processed samples (n = 24) were free from GBS. In the experimental approach, a standardized inoculation protocol was introduced to resemble ascending vaginal and hematogenous colonization. Six placentas from elective term C-sections of GBS negative mothers were collected and artificially inoculated with highly concentrated suspensions of GBS and E. coli . Heat processing significantly reduced the number of colony forming units (CFU) for GBS and E. coli . Our results suggest placentophagy of processed tissue is an unlikely source of clinical infection.
... Dans une etude sur la composition nutritionnelle du placenta aucuns m etaux lourds (cadmium, arsenic, plomb ou mercure) n'ont et e d etect es; la teneur en fer du placenta est inf erieure a celle du foie d'oie, mais sup erieure a celle du boeuf hach e et seules d'infimes quantit es de min eraux ont et e d ecel ees. Toutefois, la taille des echantillons etait limit ee (n = 38) 3,4 . Une etude r ecente a evalu e la pr esence d'hormones dans le placenta et a r ev el e que, dans les 28 placentas mis en capsules qui ont et e analys es, seuls l'estradiol, la progest erone et l'allopr egnanolone pouvaient potentiellement atteindre les taux physiologiques avec la dose que d eterminent les fournisseurs de services d'encapsulation 5 . ...
RÉSUMÉ
La consommation du placenta humain a récemment été mise en évidence. Toutefois, aucune donnée probante ne fait état des bienfaits qui seraient liés à cette pratique. De plus, elle peut nuire à la santé. Par conséquent, la SOGC ne recommande pas la pratique de la placentophagie.
... However, the sample sizes were limited (n = 38). 3,4 A recent study evaluated the presence of hormones in the placenta and demonstrated that within the 28 placentas encapsulated that were tested, only estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone could potentially reach physiologic levels at the dose prescribed by encapsulation providers. 5 However, following the process of dehydration and handling, it is unclear whether any proportion of these hormones would remain biologically active. ...
Consumption of human placenta has recently been highlighted; however, there is no evidence of benefit from its consumption. In addition, there is potential for harm. Therefore the SOGC does not recommend the practice of placentophagy.
... An analysis of samples of placenta prepared "raw", "steamed and dehydrated and "raw and dehydrated" found all hormones were sensitive to processing and only progesterone remained stable after dehydration, though its bioavailability is unknown [49]. Risks appear minimal; analysis of placental tissue has found trace amounts of toxic elements such arsenic, selenium and lead but these are below the toxicity thresholds for foodstuffs set by the European Union [50]. Bacterial contamination could occur, and potentially pathogenic organisms can be found in raw placental tissue, but processing appears to reduce this risk [49]. ...
Background: The post-partum consumption of the placenta by the mother (placentophagy) has been practiced since the 1970s in the global North and is seemingly increasing in popularity. Maternal placentophagy is not known to have been practiced in any other time period or culture, despite being near-ubiquitous in other placental mammals. An in-depth qualitative exploration as to the reasons for the practice, its increasing popularity and how it is narratively incorporated into discourses surrounding "ideal" natural and medical births are given in this paper.
Methods: 1752 posts from 956 users across 85 threads from the parenting forums Mumsnet and Netmums were identified for inclusion. A thematic discourse analysis was performed using NVivo.
Results: Three main themes were identified: women recounted predominantly positive attitudes towards their own experiences of placentophagy, and they were respectful of others' views and experiences; some had negative views, particularly around the concept of disgust, but again, they were respectful of others' experiences. By far the most common method of consumption of the placenta was encapsulation.
Conclusions: This paper identifies the motivation for placentophagy to almost universally be for medical benefits, most commonly the prevention or treatment of post-natal depression (PND). Whilst disgust is a common reaction, discussion of risks is rare, and positive experiences outweigh negative ones. The increasing popularity of the practice is ascribed in part to the comparative palatability of encapsulation and the use of the internet to share resources and remove barriers. Parenting forums are important spaces to negotiate normative birth practices, including placentophagy, and act to build communities of women who value personal experience over medical evidence and highly value personal choice and bodily autonomy. Placentophagy is discussed in terms of its relation to natural and medical births with arguments being made using both discourses for and against the practice. This paper argues that placentophagy is practiced as a resistance to medicalisation as an assertion of control by the mother, whilst simultaneously being a medicalised phenomenon itself.
... Guo et al. [35] analyzed the Pb-Ni correlation in the placenta but the coefficient cofactor was lower than in our study. However, the authors analyzed placentas from a population living in an e-waste recycling town in China [35], therefore the comparisons should be interpreted with caution as the geographic location and environmental pollution are known to affect elemental exposure, uptake and distribution [61]. ...
The aim of the study was to investigate relationships between the concentrations of macroelements (Ca), microelements (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sn, Sr, V, Zn) and heavy metals (Ag, Cd, Pb) in the placenta, fetal membrane and umbilical cord. Furthermore, we examined relationships between the concentrations of these metals in the studied afterbirths and maternal age, gestational age, placenta parameters (breadth, length, weight) and newborn parameters (length, weight and Apgar score). This study confirms previously reported Zn-Cd, Pb-Cd and Ni-Pb interactions in the placenta. New types of interactions in the placenta, fetal membrane and umbilical cord were also noted. Analysis of the correlations between metal elements in the afterbirths (placenta, fetal membrane and umbilical cord) and biological parameters showed the following relationships: maternal age and Mn (in the fetal membrane); gestational age and Cr, Fe, Zn (in the fetal membrane), Ag and Cu (in the umbilical cord); newborn’s length and Sr (in the placenta), Ag (in the umbilical cord); newborn’s weight and Sr (in the placenta), Cu (in the fetal membrane), Ag (in the umbilical cord); Apgar score and Ca, Cr and Ni (in the umbilical cord); placenta’s length and Cr and Sn (in the fetal membrane), Cu (in the umbilical cord); placenta’s width and Mo, Pb (in the placenta) and placenta weight and Sr (in the placenta), Ag, Fe, Mn (in the fetal membrane). The results show the influence of metals on the placenta, mother and newborn parameters, and the same point indicates the essential trace elements during the course of pregnancy.
... Little scientific evidence exists related to the potential benefits or harms of placentophagy (Farr, Chervenak, McCullough, Baergen, & Grunebaum, 2017). Modest amounts of beneficial micronutrients (copper, iron, selenium, and zinc) and extremely low levels of toxic elements (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and uranium) were found in encapsulated placental tissue (Young, Gryder, David, et al., 2016). Hormones found in encapsulated placental tissue included relatively low concentrations of estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone (Young, Gryder, Zava, Kimball, & Benyshek, 2016). ...
Objective:
To evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of women during pregnancy and the postpartum period related to placentophagy.
Design:
Mixed methods study (cross-sectional survey and online discussions).
Setting:
We used social media to advertise the study to mother/parenting groups. Online discussion groups were conducted through Google Groups.
Participants:
Women during pregnancy and in the postpartum period and placenta encapsulation specialists with Internet access.
Methods:
We summarized descriptive data and analyzed subgroups with the use of chi-square tests. We conducted a binary logistic regression to compare placentophagy with demographic variables and used constant comparative analysis to analyze online discussion group themes.
Results:
Overall, 271 of 1,088 (24.9%) respondents consumed their placentas. Canadian respondents and those who experienced pregnancy/birth-related complications were significantly (p < .05) less likely to consume their placentas than respondents from the United States (odds ratio = 0.48, 95% confidence interval [0.28, 0.82]) and those who had no complications (odds ratio = 0.56, 95% confidence interval [0.37, 0.85]). Increased iron stores (521/1,030, 50.6%), prevention of postpartum depression (519/1,030, 50.4%), and increased energy/decreased fatigue (460/1,030, 44.7%) were the most commonly listed perceived benefits. Infection and improper handling/preparation of the placenta were important concerns, and hospital policy was noted as a barrier to placentophagy.
Conclusion:
Respondents who engaged in placentophagy were primarily motivated by unproven benefits, such as the prevention of postpartum depression and anemia, for which there are other management alternatives. Although placentophagy is gaining popularity, it remains unregulated, and safety and efficacy data are limited. A safe, standardized preparation process is needed to minimize potential harm before further efficacy studies can be done. Targeted educational material surrounding placentophagy is needed to improve woman-centered care.
... Although the determination of antidepressants in whole blood will represent the most realistic approach for monitoring these compounds, some drawbacks, such as the presence of potential interferences (e.g. trace minerals and other elements) must be overcome with an efficient extraction and their subsequent selective and sensitive detection [31]. ...
A simple, rapid, selective and sensitive monitoring method for the simultaneous determination of the widely-prescribed antidepressants agomelatine, bupropion, citalopram, fluoxetine, mirtazapine, paroxetine, trazodone in just a human blood drop is here developed and validated. This methodology is based on the use of lab manufactured poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene)-coated glass (PS-DVB) blood spot for the extraction of the analytes and their subsequent separation and detection by capillary liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (CLC-MS). Briefly, 10 mm-side squares were punched out from blood spots collected on glass substrate coated by 10 µg of the PS-DVB polymer and eluted with 1.0 mL of 2.0% acetic acid in methanol. The analytes were then separated and detected in less than 20 minutes by capillary CLC-MS using a Jupiter 4 µ Proteo 90 A column and water: acetonitrile (20:80 v/v) and ammonium acetate (5 mM, pH 3.0) as mobile phase. Limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.018 to 0.038 µg mL−1, and remarkable precision values for the responses and retention times lower than 5.89% and 1.92% were calculated, respectively. Moreover, accuracy values ranging between 85% and 104% were obtained.
... In der Muttermilch konnten kei- ne Streptokokken nachgewiesen werden, weshalb von einer Übertragung durch Kon- tamination auszugehen ist. Es wird ange- nommen, dass es in diesem Fall nicht zu [10]. Frauen könnten durch die Einnahme hohe kumulative Dosen von Schadstoffen riskieren. ...
... Recent research has identified concentrations of a suite of micronutrients and hormones present in human placenta processed for encapsulation and consumption. These studies conclude that some micronutrients (e.g., iron) in processed placenta could make modest contributions to recommended daily dietary intakes, 11 while some hormone concentrations (e.g., progesterone) could conceivably reach physiological thresholds, based on the most commonly recommended daily intake of processed placenta (3300 mg). 12 In addition, results of the first randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluating the effects of maternal placentophagy on the concentration of a suite of maternal salivary steroid hormones, 13 maternal iron status, 14 and maternal mood, bonding, and fatigue 15 over a 3-week postpartum period have recently been reported. ...
Background
Limited systematic research on maternal placentophagy is available to maternity care providers whose clients/patients may be considering this increasingly popular practice. Our purpose was to characterize the practice of placentophagy and its attendant neonatal outcomes among a large sample of women in the United States.
Methods
We used a medical records–based data set (n = 23 242) containing pregnancy, birth, and postpartum information for women who planned community births. We used logistic regression to determine demographic and clinical predictors of placentophagy. Finally, we compared neonatal outcomes (hospitalization, neonatal intensive unit admission, or neonatal death in the first 6 weeks) between placenta consumers and nonconsumers, and participants who consumed placenta raw vs cooked.
Results
Nearly one‐third (31.2%) of women consumed their placenta. Consumers were more likely to have reported pregravid anxiety or depression compared with nonconsumers. Most (85.7%) placentophagic mothers consumed their placentas in encapsulated form, and nearly half (49.1%) consumed capsules containing dehydrated, uncooked placenta. Placentophagy was not associated with any adverse neonatal outcomes. Women with home births were more likely to engage in placentophagy than women with birth center births. The most common reason given (58.6%) for engaging in placentophagy was to prevent postpartum depression.
Conclusions
The majority of women consumed their placentas in uncooked/encapsulated form and hoping to avoid postpartum depression, although no evidence currently exists to support this strategy. Preparation technique (cooked vs uncooked) did not influence adverse neonatal outcomes. Maternity care providers should discuss the range of options available to prevent/treat postpartum depression, in addition to current evidence with respect to the safety of placentophagy.
... Specific vitamin B binding sites were demonstrated in the placenta followed by the discovery of vitamin B 1 , B 2 , B 5 , B 6 , B 7 , B 9 ,B 12 in placental extracts which play a role in cell metabolism, cell division, cell development and energy production [7,13]. Young et al. [37] analysed the minerals and trace elements of encapsulated placental extracts by coupled plasma mass spectrometry and reported the presence of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium silicon, sodium and zinc in the extracts. Minerals and trace elements are essential in minute quantities for the normal development of the human body and functioning of the body [38]. ...
... 3,7 Recent analyses of human placenta that has been cooked and processed for consumption in capsule form has shown select placental nutrients and hormones do remain after processing. 10,11 Although placenta is consumed in a variety of ways (e.g., uncooked, incorporated into a cooked mealtime dish, or a blended fruit or vegetable drink), the most commonly-cited preparation method is to dehydrate, pulverize, and encapsulate the organ to be taken as a supplement in the weeks following birth. 4,6,7 Although placentophagy continues to receive significant popular media attention, and is increasingly familiar to the general public and to reproductive health care providers, 12 there are currently no estimates regarding its frequency in the US or in other industrialized nations where it is gaining popularity. ...
Background:
Human maternal placentophagy is gaining popularity among a growing number of women who believe it provides maternal benefits, including prevention of postpartum blues/depression, improved maternal bonding, and reduced fatigue.
Methods:
We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study (N=27) in which participants consumed either their processed, encapsulated placenta (n=12), or similarly prepared placebo (n=15). Maternal mood, bonding, and fatigue were assessed via validated scales across four time points during late pregnancy and early postpartum. Psychometric data were analyzed for changes between and within both groups over time.
Results:
No significant main effects related to maternal mood, bonding, or fatigue were evident between placenta and placebo group participants. However, examination of individual time points suggested that some measures had specific time-related differences between placenta and placebo groups that may warrant future exploration. Though statistical significance should not be interpreted in these cases, we did find some evidence of a decrease in depressive symptoms within the placenta group but not the placebo group, and reduced fatigue in placenta group participants at the end of the study compared to the placebo group.
Conclusions:
No robust differences in postpartum maternal mood, bonding, or fatigue were detected between the placenta and placebo groups. This finding may be especially important for women considering maternal placentophagy as a 'natural' (i.e., non-pharmacological) means of preventing or treating blues/depression. Given the study limitations, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary. Small, time-related improvements in maternal mood and lower fatigue post-supplementation among placenta group participants may warrant further research.
... Iron concentrations were determined for the contents of both participant placenta and beef placebo capsules using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (methods described in detail elsewhere). 36 The average iron concentration of the participant placenta capsules was 0.664 mg/g, while the iron concentration of the beef placebo capsules was 0.093 mg/g, representing a 7-fold higher concentration in the placenta capsule content. The average amount of iron this provided placenta group participants, however (based on the study's maximum daily intake of 3300 mg/day), was only 2.2 mg/day, or roughly 24% of the RDA for iron among lactating women aged 19 to 50 years. ...
Introduction:
Advocates of human maternal placentophagy report that encapsulated placenta is an excellent source of dietary iron. Our study compared the effect of ingested encapsulated placenta on maternal postpartum iron status versus that of a beef placebo.
Methods:
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study (N = 23) was conducted among healthy human research participants experiencing a normal pregnancy. Maternal iron status was measured via hemoglobin, transferrin, and ferritin taken from blood samples drawn in the participants' homes at 4 time points: the 36th week of pregnancy, within 96 hours of parturition, between days 5 and 7 postpartum, and during week 3 postpartum. Iron concentrations in the encapsulated placenta and encapsulated beef placebo were compared using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
Results:
Seventy-eight percent (18/23) of study participants' hemoglobin concentrations were above the World Health Organization cutoff for gestational iron deficiency (≥ 11.0 g/dL) during the 36th week of pregnancy. Results revealed no statistically significant differences (hemoglobin, P = .603; ferritin, P = .852; transferrin, P = .936) in maternal iron status (including postpartum iron rebound in the first week postpartum) between women in the placenta supplement (n = 10) and placebo (n = 13) groups. Average iron concentrations were considerably higher in encapsulated placenta (0.664 mg/g) compared to the encapsulated beef placebo (0.093 mg/g) but provided only 24% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for iron among lactating women based on the study's maximum daily intake.
Discussion:
The current study suggests that encapsulated placenta supplementation neither significantly improves nor impairs postpartum maternal iron status for women consuming the RDA of dietary iron during pregnancy and lactation, compared to a beef placebo. This may be an especially important finding for women who are iron deficient postpartum and whose only source of supplemental dietary iron is encapsulated placenta, as this may provide an inadequate source of supplemental iron in cases of deficiency.
The human placenta is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for housing, protecting, and nourishing the fetus across gestation. The placenta is essential as it functions among other things as the liver, lungs, and gut while also playing key immunological and endocrine roles [1]. The structure and transport capacity of this temporary organ must evolve as gestation progresses while also adapting to possible alterations in maternal nutrient availability. All nutrients needed by the developing fetus must cross the human placenta. Iron (Fe) is one such nutrient that is both integral to placental function and to successful pregnancy outcomes. Iron deficiency is among the most common nutrient deficiencies globally and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable. Data on the partitioning of Fe between the mother, placenta and fetus are evolving yet many unanswered questions remain. Hepcidin, erythroferrone and erythropoietin are regulatory hormones that are integral to iron homeostasis. The mother, fetus and placenta independently produce these hormones, but the relative function of these hormones varies in each of the maternal, placental, and fetal compartments. This review will summarize basic aspects of Fe physiology in pregnant women and the maternal, fetal, and placental adaptations that occur to maintain Fe homeostasis at this key life stage.
Aim: To measure maternal blood elements namely, aluminium (Al), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), tin (Sn), and zinc (Zn) in pregnant women complicated by preterm prelabor rupture of the membranes (pP-ROM) and to compare the results with healthy controls.
Materials and Methods: Maternal blood levels of Al, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn were evaluated in the pP-ROM group, which included 55 pregnant women complicated by pP-ROM and 60 healthy participants (control group) with respect to gestational weeks and maternal age. The maternal serum levels of trace elements and heavy metals in both groups were measured using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and compared.
Results: No significant differences regarding gestational week, body mass index, gravidity, parity, and maternal age were observed (p≥0.05). The mean serum white blood cell level was higher in the pP-ROM group compared with the healthy controls (12.2±3.5 µL/mL vs. 10.1±2.6 µL/mL, respectively; p=0.001). The mean serum C-reactive protein level was higher in the pP-ROM group than in the healthy group (0.99±1.47 mg/L vs. 0.40±0.27 mg/L, respectively; p=0.003). There were no differences in terms of mean maternal serum levels of Al, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn between the study and control group (p≥0.05).
Conclusion: The selected trace elements and heavy metals in maternal serum are not involved in the pathogenesis of pP-ROM.
Iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) are microelements essential for the proper functioning of living organisms. These elements participatein many processes, including cellular metabolism and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory defenses, and also influence enzyme activity, regulate gene expression, and take part in protein synthesis. Fe, Cu, and Zn have a significant impact on the health of pregnant women and in the development of the fetus, as well as on the health of the newborn. A proper concentration of these elements in the body of women during pregnancy reduces the risk of complications such as anemia, induced hypertension, low birth weight, preeclampsia, and postnatal complications. The interactions between Fe, Cu, and Zn influence their availability due to their similar physicochemical properties. This most often occurs during intestinal absorption, where metal ions compete for binding sites with transport compounds. Additionally, the relationships between these ions have a great influence on the course of reactions in the tissues, as well as on their excretion, which can be stimulated or delayed. This review aims to summarize reports on the influence of Fe, Cu, and Zn on the course of single and multiple pregnancies, and to discuss the interdependencies and mechanisms occurring between Fe, Cu, and Zn.
This article examines the recent influx of post-partum placenta encapsulation, especially in a US context. I analyze placental reuse, and its biomedical risk narratives, through an interwoven exploration of the curative and toxic aspects of human placenta, to understand increased cultural value placed upon this organ as an object of nutritional interest and tension. Placenta consumption as vitamin source pushes the socio-cultural boundaries of disgust through its discard (re)commodification. I argue that attempts to market and eat otherwise wasted material as functional food source raise important feminist questions about the vitality of this discarded matter and the paucity of research on one of the most crucial mediators of early human nutrition.
Objective
Although empirical studies investigating its effects are scarce, postpartum placentophagy is increasing in popularity because of purported benefits on mood, energy, lactation, and overall nutrition. Therefore, this study sought to test the hypotheses that women who consumed their placenta (placentophagy exposed [PE]) would have (1) fewer depressive symptoms, (2) more energy, (3) higher vitamin B12 levels, and (4) less pharmaceutical lactation support during the postpartum than women who did not consume their placenta (non–placentophagy exposed [NE]).
Methods
Using data from a large, longitudinal study of gene × environment effects involving perinatal women with a history of mood disorders, the study investigators identified a PE cohort and matched them 4:1 (by psychiatric diagnosis, psychotropic medication use, supplementation, income, and age) with an NE cohort from the same dataset. The study investigated differences between the PE and NE cohorts with respect to scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Sleep-Wake Activity Inventory, vitamin B12 levels, and the use of pharmaceutical lactation support (Canadian Taskforce Classification II-2).
Results
The sample of 138 women (28 in the PE cohort, matched to 110 in the NE cohort) provided 80% power at α = 0.0125 to detect an effect of moderate magnitude (which can be used to approximate an effect of clinically significant magnitude).There were no differences in Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scaleor Sleep-Wake Activity Inventory scales (P = 0.28 and P = 0.39, respectively), vitamin B12 levels (P = 0.68), or domperidone use (P = 1) between the PE and NE cohorts.
Conclusion
These data provide no support for the idea that postpartum placentophagy improves mood, energy, lactation, or plasma vitamin B12 levels in women with a history of mood disorders.
Despite the vital and diverse roles of the placenta, remarkably little is known about its actual composition. Moreover, as placentophagy becomes increasingly popular, understanding the nutritional and heavy metal composition of the human placenta has practical implications. Here we evaluated the carbohydrate, sugar, protein, fat, cholesterol, vitamin, and heavy metal composition of the human placenta from uncomplicated singleton pregnancies and found that it contains a significant amount of cholesterol (Xg), protein (Xg), iron (Xg), and selenium (Xg), but no detectable levels of cadmium, arsenic, or mercury.
Human maternal placentophagy is a rare but growing practice in several industrialized countries among postpartum mothers seeking a variety of purported health benefits attributed to the practice. These postpartum mothers typically consume their placenta as a processed, encapsulated supplement. To determine whether free (unconjugated) steroid hormones and melatonin in placenta can survive the encapsulation process (namely steaming and dehydration), we analyzed 28 placenta samples processed for encapsulation using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to evaluate the concentration of 17 hormones. The results revealed detectable concentrations for 16 of the hormones analyzed, some in concentrations that could conceivably yield physiological effects.
The use of normalized procedures designed for soil and sediment samples (like US-EPA 3051) to chemically prepare some kind of organic samples is a common practice in some laboratories. However, the performance of this method for other matrices has to be demonstrated. Three microwave-assisted digestion procedures with 0.5 g of sample and simplified reagents (10 mL HNO3 alone and mixtures of HNO3/HCl- and HNO3/H2O2 procedures A, B, and C, resp.) were compared for quantitative determination of 25 elements (Be, B, Al, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Sr, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, Tl, Pb, Th and U) in three biological reference materials provided by NIST (mussel tissue (MT), tomato leaves (TL), and milk powder (MP)) by ICP-MS. From scaling masses (from 0.1 up to 0.9 g at 0.1 g interval) in procedure A, a linear relationship among instrumental signal and mass of digested sample could be constructed at 99% CL for most of the target analytes. The slope of this linear fit provided the estimation of sample concentration, while the ordinate in origin allowed the identification of matrix interferences which were absent in the reagent blank.
In order to assess mercury (Hg), selenium (Se) and arsenic (As) exposure in the Mediterranean area, total mercury (THg), monomethylmercury (MeHg), Se and As levels were measured in umbilical cord blood and breast milk from Italian (n=900), Slovenian (n=584), Croatian (n=234) and Greek (n=484) women. THg, MeHg, As, and Se levels were also determined in blood samples of the same mothers from Italy and Croatia. In addition, THg and MeHg were determined in the same women's hair from all the countries involved in this study and As and Se levels were determined in the mother's urine samples from Italy, Croatia and Greece. Besides recording the consumption of other food items, the frequencies of fish consumption were assessed by detailed food frequency questionnaires, since fish represents an important source of Hg, Se and As in humans. The highest levels of THg and As were found in cord blood (Med(THg)=5.8 ng/g; Med(As)=3.3 ng/g) and breast milk (Med(THg)=0.6 ng/g; Med(As)=0.8 ng/g) from Greek women, while the highest Se levels were found in cord blood (Med=113 ng/g) from Italy. Significant linear correlations were found between Hg, Se and As in blood, cord blood and breast milk. In addition, significant relations were found between the frequencies of total fish consumption and biomarkers of As, MeHg and Se exposure, with the strongest Spearman rank coefficients between frequencies of total fish consumption and THg levels in cord blood (rs=0.442, p<0.001) or THg levels in hair (rs=0.421, p<0.001), and between frequencies of total fish consumption and As levels in cord blood (rs=0.350, p<0.001). The differences in Hg and As exposure between countries were probably due to different amounts of fish consumption and the consumption of different species of fish of different origin, while the highest Se levels in women from Italy were probably the consequence of the more frequent consumption of different non specific food items. Moreover, fish consumption, the possible common source of As, Hg and Se intake, could explain the correlations between the elements determined in cord blood, mother's blood or breast milk.
The role of the placenta was assessed by comparing the profiles of methylmercury (MeHg), inorganic mercury (I-Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) in freeze-dried chorionic tissue of the placenta and umbilical cord tissue. The significance of the placenta and cord tissue as predictors of prenatal exposure to these trace elements in pregnant women and newborns was also examined by comparing the element profiles among placenta and cord tissue, and maternal and cord blood red blood cells (RBCs). The samples were collected from 48 mother-child pairs at birth in the general population of Japanese. The concentrations of all elements, except for MeHg, were significantly higher in placenta than in cord tissue. In particular, the Cd showed the highest placenta vs. cord tissue ratio (59:1), followed by I-Hg (2.4:1), indicating that the placental barrier works most strongly against Cd among the examined toxic elements. Contrary to the other elements, the MeHg concentration in cord tissue was significantly higher (1.6 times) than that in placenta, indicating its exceptionally high placental transfer. The MeHg in placenta showed significant correlations with total mercury (T-Hg) in maternal and cord RBCs (rs=0.80 and 0.91, respectively). The MeHg in cord tissue also showed significant correlations with T-Hg in maternal and cord RBCs (rs=0.75 and 0.85, respectively). Therefore, both placenta and cord tissue are useful for predicting maternal and fetal exposure to MeHg. The Se concentration in placenta showed significant but moderate correlations with that in maternal and cord RBCs (rs=0.38 and 0.57, respectively). The Pb, Zn, and Cu concentrations in placenta and cord tissue showed no significant correlations with those in maternal and cord RBCs. As an exception, the Cd concentration in placenta showed a moderate but significant correlation (rs=0.41) with that in maternal RBCs, suggesting that the placenta is useful for predicting maternal exposure to Cd during gestation.
Afterbirth ingestion by nonhuman mammalian mothers has a number of benefits: (1) increasing the interaction between the mother and infant; (2) potentiating pregnancy-mediated analgesia in the delivering mother; (3) potentiating maternal brain opioid circuits that facilitate the onset of caretaking behavior; and (4) suppressing postpartum pseudopregnancy. Childbirth is fraught with additional problems for which there are no practical nonhuman animal models: postpartum depression, failure to bond, hostility toward infants. Ingested afterbirth may contain components that ameliorate these problems, but the issue has not been tested empirically. The results of such studies, if positive, will be medically relevant. If negative, speculations and recommendations will persist, as it is not possible to prove the negative. A more challenging anthropological question is "why don't humans engage in placentophagia as a biological imperative?" Is it possible that there is more adaptive advantage in not doing so?
Although ingestion of the afterbirth during delivery is a reliable component of parturitional behavior of mothers in most mammalian species, we know almost nothing of the direct causes or consequences of the act. Traditional explanations of placentophagia, such as general or specific hunger, are discussed and evaluated in light of recent experimental results. Next, research is reviewed which has attempted to distinguish between placentophagia as a maternal behavior and placentophagia as an ingestive behavior. Finally, consequences of the behavior, which may also be viewed as ultimate causes in an evolutionary sense, are considered, such as the possibility of beneficial effects on maternal behavior or reproductive competence, on protection against predators, and on immunological protection afforded either the mother or the young.
This paper discusses metal exposure in the male, the nonpregnant female, and the maternal-offspring unit. In the first two situations, the primary targets are the gonads. In the mother-offspring unit, consideration must be given to effects on the fertilized ovum, the growth of the embryo, and, finally, to the fetal and perinatal stages. The central nervous system may be especially vulnerable during development. The placenta also undergoes development, and either the placenta or the fetus may be the primary target. In humans, certain metals may cause abortion or other effects on the conceptus. Effects may also be produced by metal exposure both in utero and in the suckling infant. For example, methylmercury gives rise to a range of effects on the central nervous system at doses lower than those producing damage to the mature nervous system. Effects of lead and arsenic are associated mainly with postnatal exposures during infancy and early childhood, but there is reason to believe from animal experiments that some effects may occur from prenatal exposures to certain metal compounds.
Cadmium and zinc levels in placentae of 688 women who delivered their children in two university hospitals in Brno and in the regional hospital in Znojmo during January-June 1992 were determined using AAS analytical method. Average value of zinc (54.6 micrograms/g) and cadmium (18.02 ng/g) concentrations found out in our file are in accord with those ones reported in literature. Individual differences in zinc contained in placentae occur uniformly. Very low concentrations prevail for cadmium; values exceeding 100 ng/g of dry basis are sporadic only. Zinc vs. cadmium concentrations values in placenta are mutually positively correlated [correlation coefficient (factor) r = +0.13, p < 0.001]. Cadmium content in placenta depends on mothers' age and it is significantly higher in older women. No changes in zinc contained in the placental tissue depending on mothers' age were found out. The mutual ratio of zinc vs. cadmium content in a placental tissue is significantly decreased in older mother (23.8 in older women, 41.2 in younger women, p < 0.01).
Cadmium (Cd(2+)) is a common environmental pollutant and a major constituent of tobacco smoke. Exposure to this heavy metal, which has no known beneficial physiological role, has been linked to a wide range of detrimental effects on mammalian reproduction. Intriguingly, depending on the identity of the steroidogenic tissue involved and the dosage used, it has been reported to either enhance or inhibit the biosynthesis of progesterone, a hormone that is inexorably linked to both normal ovarian cyclicity and the maintenance of pregnancy. Thus, Cd(2+) has been shown to exert significant effects on ovarian and reproductive tract morphology, with extremely low dosages reported to stimulate ovarian luteal progesterone biosynthesis and high dosages inhibiting it. In addition, Cd(2+) exposure during human pregnancy has been linked to decreased birth weights and premature birth, with the enhanced levels of placental Cd(2+) resulting from maternal exposure to industrial wastes or tobacco smoke being associated with decreased progesterone biosynthesis by the placental trophoblast. The stimulatory effects of Cd(2+) on ovarian progesterone synthesis, as revealed by the results of studies using stable porcine granulosa cells, appear centered on the enhanced conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone by the cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage (P450scc). However, in the placenta, the Cd(2+)-induced decline in progesterone synthesis is commensurate with a decrease in P450scc. Additionally, placental low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R) mRNA declines in response to Cd(2+) exposure, suggesting an inhibition in the pathway that provides cholesterol precursor from the maternal peripheral circulation. Potential mechanisms by which Cd(2+) may affect steroidogenesis include interference with the DNA binding zinc (Zn(2+))-finger motif through the substitution of Cd(2+) for Zn(2+) or by taking on the role of an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) that could mimic or inhibit the actions of endogenous estrogens. Divergent, tissue-specific (ovary vs. placenta) effects of Cd(2+) also cannot be ruled out. Therefore, in consideration of the data currently available and in light of the potentially serious consequences of environmental Cd(2+) exposure to human reproduction, we propose that priority should be given to studies dedicated to further elucidating the mechanisms involved.
The placenta is an ephemeral materno-fetal organ with chorionic (fetal) villi bathed in maternal blood spaces, which allows restricted transfer of metabolites and drugs across specialized transfer areas. The placenta develops respiratory, nutritive and excretory functions while the fetal organs mature, and is also an important endocrine organ.
Maternal placentophagy, although widespread among mammals, is conspicuously absent among humans cross-culturally. Recently, however, advocates for the practice have claimed it provides human postpartum benefits. Despite increasing awareness about placentophagy, no systematic research has investigated the motivations or perceived effects of practitioners. We surveyed 189 females who had ingested their placenta and found the majority of these women reported perceived positive benefits and indicated they would engage in placentophagy again after subsequent births. Further research is necessary to determine if the described benefits extend beyond those of placebo effects, or are skewed by the nature of the studied sample.
Maternal placentophagy, the consumption of the placenta or "afterbirth" by the mother following parturition, is an ubiquitous behavior among eutherian mammals, including non-human primates. Here we report on a cross-cultural survey of 179 human societies regarding the consumption, treatment, and disposal of human placenta, in addition to accompanying cultural beliefs and perceptions about the organ. The conspicuous absence of cultural traditions associated with maternal placentophagy in the cross-cultural ethnographic record raises interesting questions relative to its ubiquitous presence among nearly all other mammals, and the reasons for its absence (or extreme rarity) among prehistoric/historic and contemporary human cultures.
The placenta is an ephemeral materno-fetal organ with chorionic (fetal)
villi bathed in maternal blood spaces, which allows restricted transfer
of metabolites and drugs across specialized transfer areas. The placenta
develops respiratory, nutritive and excretory functions while the fetal
organs mature, and is also an important endocrine organ.
A comparison is presented of six methods involving nitric acid in conjunction with other reagents to digest three certified marine biological samples (DOLT-3, DORM-3, IAEA-407) and a fish bone homogenate (prepared from Merluccius australis). An inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer with an octopole collision cell was used to determine up to 40 elements (Li, B, Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Y, Ag, Cd, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Pb, Th, U) in the digests. These results were assessed in terms of their accuracy and precision, and a flow chart was developed to aid the selection of the optimal digestion method. Although none of the methods was found to give accurate determinations for all elements in the different reference materials, a relatively simple method involving nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide heated in a domestic microwave oven gave the most acceptable results.
The concentrations of the trace elements Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se during the perinatal period in human placenta and in the blood of the mother and the newborn (cord blood) were determined. Breast milk (colostrum and mature milk) was also included to permit correlations between the different compartments. For Cd, a placental barrier exists, in accord with previous observations. For Pb, a strong correlation between the concentrations in the blood of the mother and of the newborn was found. The concentration of Hg was in most cases below the detection limit. Its concentration in colostrum was higher than in the mature milk. The results for Se reflect the knowledge about an essential trace element. Strong positive correlations were noted between maternal blood and cord blood and maternal milk.
Anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) was used for the determination of Cd and Pb, cold vapor AAS (CVAAS) for the determination of Hg, and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) for the determination of Se.
Iron deficiency is widely observed worldwide, yet, paradoxically, iron is the most plentiful heavy metal in the earth's crust. Although absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract is strictly controlled, excretion is limited to iron lost from exfoliation of skin and gastrointestinal cells, customary and abnormal blood loss, and menses. Individuals highly vulnerable to iron deficiency have high iron needs, as during growth or pregnancy; high iron loss, as during marked hemorrhage or excessive and/or frequent menstrual losses; or diets with low iron content or bioavailability. Food iron is classified as heme or nonheme. Approximately half of the iron in meat, fish, and poultry is heme iron. Depending on an individual's iron stores, 15% to 35% of heme iron is absorbed. Food contains more nonheme iron and, thus, it makes the larger contribution to the body's iron pool despite its lower absorption rate of 2% to 20%. Absorption of nonheme iron is markedly influenced by the levels of iron stores and by concomitantly consumed dietary components. Enhancing factors, such as ascorbic acid and meat/fish/poultry, may increase nonheme iron bioavailability fourfold.
This study investigated the influence of the location of the sampling site during elemental analyses of 21 human term placentae. The levels of iron, zinc, copper and calcium in fetal membranes, umbilical cords and placental discs were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and compared. The disc samples were obtained from central (peri-insertion and mid-disc fetal and maternal halves), and peripheral regions. Significant variations were found. Copper was present in highest levels (17.2 +/- 2.0 micrograms/g dry weight) in the fetal membranes. Calcium levels were highest (712 +/- 47 micrograms/g dry weight) in the periphery of the placental disc. Iron levels were highest (558 +/- 14 micrograms/g dry weight) in the central regions of the disc. Zinc levels were lower (50.3 +/- 1.4 micrograms/g dry weight) in the fetal half of the mid-disc regions than in the maternal half (56.0 +/- 1.2 micrograms/g dry weight). This study demonstrates the importance of defining the location of the sampling site in studies involving elemental analysis of the placenta.
The concentrations of mercury (total and organic) and selenium in samples of human placentae obtained after normal births from 22 women living in Genova (Italy), were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentration of total mercury was between less than 0.005 and 0.230 microgram Hg/g dry weight, and the average value was 0.076 microgram Hg/g dry weight. For the same samples, the average percentage of organic mercury as mercury was 65%, with a maximum of 95%. Smaller variations were observed for selenium, i.e. concentrations ranging between 0.38 and 1.03 microgram Se/g dry weight, with an average value of 0.77 microgram Se/g dry weight. The ratio between wet weight and dry weight was determined for each sample and the average value found was 6.32. The placental selenium concentration did not correlate with total and organic mercury content, which is in accordance with the results of other researchers.
This cross-sectional study was to assess the nutrients in terms of protein, fat, minerals, and hormones in heat-dried human placenta. Thirty heat-dried human placentas, 15 from male and 15 from female, were analyzed for protein (amino acids), fiber, fat, moisture, minerals (sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, copper, manganese), hormones (estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, growth hormone). Heat-dried female human placentas had slightly higher fiber content than male, but protein and fat components were not different. Mineral levels in placentas were high especially sodium, potassium and phosphorus. There were no significant differences in the amount of minerals and hormonal profile between female and male placentas. However, hormone levels in heat-dried placenta were low compared to physiologic level in human beings. The results of this study suggest that the amount of nutrients particularly protein and minerals in heat-dried human placentas were enriched.
A report from the World Health Organization estimates that 46% of the world's 5- to 14-year-old children are anemic. In addition, 48% of the world's pregnant women are anemic. A majority of these cases of anemia are due to iron deficiency. Our aim here is to review the latest data on iron regulatory mechanisms, iron sources and requirements. Human and animal studies have shown that amino acids and peptides influence iron absorption from the intestinal lumen. Inter-organ transport and uptake of nonheme iron is largely performed by the complex transferring-transferring receptor system. Moreover, the discovery of cytoplasmic iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) has provided a molecular framework from which we understand the coordination of cellular iron homeostasis in mammals. IRPs and the iron responsive elements (IREs) to which they bind allow mammals to make use of the essential properties of iron while reducing its potentially toxic effect. Physiologic iron requirements are three times higher in pregnancy than they are in menstruating women (approximately 1200 mg must be acquired from the body's iron store or from the diet by the end of pregnancy). The administration of iron supplements weekly instead of daily in humans has been proposed and is being actively investigated as a viable means of controlling iron deficiency in populations, including pregnant women.
Cadmium and progesterone concentrations were evaluated in term placentas collected from 56 healthy parturients in the city of Zagreb. Concentrations of lead, iron, zinc, and copper in placentas were analyzed. Data collected by questionnaire identified 29 nonsmoking and 27 smoking women. From each placenta, three samples from different locations were taken. Metals were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry. Progesterone was determined by specific radioimmunoassay in homogenized and lyophilized tissue samples after steroid extraction with ethanol. No effect of sample location was found. In placentas of smoking women an increase in cadmium, reduced progesterone and a decrease in iron concentrations were found. Placental copper and zinc concentrations were not altered. In conclusion, the results present new evidence that maternal smoking reduces placental progesterone content and support the established association of smoking with placental cadmium.
The human placenta as a body component is exposed to several harmful substances, depending upon the environmental conditions encountered. In the case of toxic metals, placental tissue can be regarded as a dual biomarker to assess maternal and fetal health. The average range of concentrations for toxic trace elements in placenta based on wet weight are found to be: cadmium 1-6 ng/g; total mercury 2-13 ng/g; methyl mercury 1-14 microg/g; and lead 5-60 ng/g. The placenta appears to be at least a partial barrier for Cadmium. Cadmium transport includes a broad variety of mechanisms. Once in circulation, it mainly interferes with Ca and Zn transportation. On the other hand, placenta appears to be a weaker harrier for Pb than for Cd. In the case of Hg, predominantly the organic form is absorbed and readily crosses the placenta. In fetal blood, the organic mercury content is equal or even greater than in maternal blood, raising questions on normal fetal development. Placenta as a biomarker could be taken as an alternative to repeated maternal blood sampling for assessing lead exposure in utero. Placenta samples are usually obtained at the time of parturition, a one-time event. Hence, each pregnancy has to be looked upon as an RTM (real time monitoring) process since the affected species is exposed to the placental source of pollutants only during the course of that particular pregnancy.
Maternal and umbilical cord blood levels of mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and the trace elements copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se) are reported for Inuit, Dene/Métis, Caucasian, and Other nonaboriginal participants from Arctic Canada. This is the first human tissue monitoring program covering the entire Northwest Territories and Nunavut for multiple contaminants and establishes a baseline upon which future comparisons can be made. Results for chlorinated organic pesticides and PCBs for these participants have been reported elsewhere. Between May 1994 and June 1999, 523 women volunteered to participate by giving their written informed consent, resulting in the collection of 386 maternal blood samples, 407 cord samples, and 351 cord:maternal paired samples. Geometric mean (GM) maternal total mercury (THg) concentrations ranged from 0.87 microg/L (SD = 1.95) in the Caucasian group of participants (n = 134) to 3.51 microg/L (SD = 8.30) in the Inuit group (n = 146). The GM of the Inuit group was 2.6-fold higher than that of the Dene/Métis group (1.35 microg/L, SD = 1.60, n = 92) and significantly higher than those of all other groups (P<0.0001). Of Inuit women participants, 3% (n = 4) were within Health Canada's level of concern range (20-99 microg/L) for methylmercury (MeHg) exposure. Of Inuit and Dene/Métis cord samples, 56% (n = 95) and 5% (n = 4), respectively, exceeded 5.8 microg/L MeHg, the revised US Environmental Protection Agency lower benchmark dose. GM maternal Pb was significantly higher in Dene/Métis (30.9 microg/L or 3.1 microg/dL; SD = 29.1 microg/L) and Inuit (31.6 microg/L, SD = 38.3) participants compared with the Caucasian group (20.6 microg/L, SD = 17.9) (P < 0.0001). Half of all participants were smokers. GM blood Cd in moderate smokers (1-8 cigarettes/day) and in heavy smokers (> 8 cigarettes/day) was 7.4-fold higher and 12.5-fold higher, respectively, than in nonsmokers. The high percentage of smokers among Inuit (77%) and Dene/Métis (48%) participants highlights the need for ongoing public health action directed at tobacco prevention, reduction, and cessation for women of reproductive age. Pb and THg were detected in more than 95% of all cord blood samples, with GMs of 21 microg/L and 2.7 microg/L, respectively, and Cd was detected in 26% of all cord samples, with a GM of 0.08 microg/L. Cord:maternal ratios from paired samples ranged from 0.44 to 4.5 for THg, from 0.5 to 10.3 for MeHg, and 0.1 to 9.0 for Pb. On average, levels of THg, MeHg, and Zn were significantly higher in cord blood than in maternal blood (P < 0.0001), whereas maternal Cd, Pb, Se, and Cu levels were significantly higher than those in cord blood (P < 0.0001). There was no significant relationship between methylmercury and selenium for the range of MeHg exposures in this study. Ongoing monitoring of populations at risk and traditional food species, as well as continued international efforts to reduce anthropogenic sources of mercury, are recommended.
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