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Life course regimes in Europe: Individual employment histories in comparative and historical perspective

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Abstract

This study develops an empirically based typology of life course regimes using data on life histories of individuals in 14 European countries from the third wave of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARELIFE). The concept of life course policy serves as a theoretical basis to describe the impact of welfare state regime differences and long-term historical developments on the structure of individual employment histories. Sequence and cluster analysis are applied to generate aggregate life course indicators for the degree of labour market inclusion, the degree of career volatility and the heterogeneity of employment histories. The resulting life course regime typology is only partly consistent with commonly applied welfare state typologies. Contrary to these, the life course regime typology also reflects long-term economic and political developments in the countries under examination. Large variation exists within the ‘Conservative’ and the ‘Post-Socialist’ welfare state types with regard to the standardisation and gender inequality of careers.

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... Specifically, we ask if the ECEC reform reduced differences in mothers' employment behavior across East and West Germany. With this approach, we follow studies that investigate differences in family and employment trajectories across countries (i.e., place) (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2017;Möhring, 2016) and birth cohorts (i.e., time) (Cabello-Hutt, 2020;Fauser & Kim, 2023), but relate our findings to one specific policy change. ...
... Other life-course studies already highlighted how welfare regimes and policy settings related to differences in family and employment trajectories from a country-comparative perspective (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2017;Möhring, 2016). For Europe, they showed that differences in the configuration of welfare policies (e.g., the level of state regulation and to what extent the provision of social security is tied to the "standard" full-time work biography) were associated with typologies of employment patterns that differed in their level of standardization (continuous full-time work career), volatility (number of employment transitions), and gender specialization (Möhring, 2016). ...
... Other life-course studies already highlighted how welfare regimes and policy settings related to differences in family and employment trajectories from a country-comparative perspective (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2017;Möhring, 2016). For Europe, they showed that differences in the configuration of welfare policies (e.g., the level of state regulation and to what extent the provision of social security is tied to the "standard" full-time work biography) were associated with typologies of employment patterns that differed in their level of standardization (continuous full-time work career), volatility (number of employment transitions), and gender specialization (Möhring, 2016). In contrast, studies on the US showed that a lack of family supportive policies (e.g., short and unpaid parental leave and expensive public childcare) in combination with wide use of full-time nannies, facilitated continuous maternal employment and resulted in employment trajectories that were more stratified along class than gender lines (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2017). ...
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Objective Aiming to generate evidence on how contextual conditions shape individuals' opportunities and constraints and, ultimately, life courses, we focus on a period of childcare expansion in reunified Germany. We investigate differences in employment trajectories around mothers' first childbirths to identify potential East–West convergence. Background During Germany's division (1949–1990), universal public childcare and female full‐time employment were the norm in East Germany, while the male breadwinner model was dominant in the West. These differences, although declining, persisted even decades after reunification. In 2008, a reform aimed at expanding childcare availability to facilitate mothers' employment throughout the country. Methods We measure East–West differences in employment trajectories around childbirth pre‐ (1990–2007) and post‐reform (2008–2021) in terms of timing, order, and duration of events over time. We use data on 359 East and 986 West German first‐time‐mothers from the German Socio‐Economic Panel and sequence analysis tools. Results Before the reform, employment trajectories between East and West German mothers differed both in timing and duration of employment states. After the reform, these differences decreased, showing a general convergence in the prevalence of post‐birth part‐time employment. Nonetheless, longer maternity leave is still more prevalent among West German mothers, while East German mothers are more likely to maintain full‐time jobs. Conclusion Our findings show how policy settings and reforms shape life courses in a context‐dependent fashion. They illustrate the importance of a methodological approach that focuses on process outcomes and supports a theoretical perspective that highlights how historical time and place shape life courses.
... When it comes to the family domain, conservative regimes seem to be between familialistic and defamilialistic, since caring responsibilities are often attributed to women, although childcare provisions are also available. Yet, gender inequality in employment tends to be high in conservative regimes (Möhring, 2016). Social-democratic regimes (e.g., Sweden) are more redistributive and progressive than conservative regimes, being more decommodified and more defamilialistic. ...
... However, it can be problematic to put all Eastern European countries into one type of welfare regime. There is probably heterogeneity among Eastern European countries in relation to employment careers and family arrangements (Möhring, 2016). This is because the process of their transition from communism to democracy has been different, potentially leading to different constellations. ...
... Thus, people rely largely on family support to deal with negative labor market forces and use their own resources to raise a child, sometimes at the expense of their career stability (Gough, 1996). This basically implies that women usually take the responsibility of childcare and elderly care on their shoulders (Möhring, 2016), paving the way for a high gender inequality in labor market participation (Schmitz et al., 2023). ...
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Introduction: Work and family trajectories develop and interact over the life course in complex ways. Previous studies drew a fragmented picture of these trajectories and had limited scope. We provide the most comprehensive study of early-to-midlife work-family trajectories to date. Methods: Using retrospective data from waves 3 and 7 of the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), we reconstructed work-family trajectories from age 15 to 49 among almost 80,000 individuals born between 1908 and 1967 across 28 countries. We applied multichannel sequence and cluster analysis to identify typical trajectories and multinomial logistic regression models to uncover their social composition. Results: The results revealed six common trajectories. The dominant and therefore standard trajectory represents continuous full-time employment with having a partner and children. Women, the lower educated and persons from conservative and liberal welfare regimes are underrepresented in this trajectory, whereas men, higher educated people and those from social-democratic, Eastern European and Baltic welfare regimes are overrepresented. The other trajectories denote a deviation from the standard one, integrating a non-standard form of work with standard family formation or vice versa. Mothers in a stable relationship generally work part-time or not at all. When mostly in full-time employment, women are more likely to be divorced. Lower educated persons are less likely to have work-family trajectories characterized by full-time work and a non-standard family, yet more likely to be non-employed for large parts of their life with standard family formation. Younger cohorts are underrepresented in non-employment trajectories, but overrepresented in part-time employment trajectories along with a partner and children as well as full-time employment trajectories with divorce. Individuals from Southern European and liberal regimes are more likely to be non-working and self-employed partnered parents and those from social-democratic regimes are more likely to be full-time employed divorced parents. We also found pronounced gender differences in how educational level, birth cohort and welfare regime are associated with work-family trajectories from early to midlife. Discussion: Our findings highlight the socially stratified nature of earlier-life work-family trajectories in Europe. Potential implications for inequalities in later life are discussed.
... The majority of studies examined or compared single countries (Lacey et al. 2016;Ehrlich et al. 2020;Stafford et al. 2019;König 2017;Fasang 2010). However, the generalization of one country's findings has limitations because public policies vary across countries (Mayer 2004(Mayer , 2009Kuitto and Helmdag 2021;Möhring 2016). By comparing welfare regimes, we gain a better understanding of how individual life courses depend on different types of national contexts. ...
... Greece), on the other hand, rely heavily on women to shoulder care responsibilities (Worts et al. 2016): the conservative regime highly regulates working life by rewarding continuous working biographies, whereas the southern regime is characterized by a lack of intervention. Both regimes produce high levels of gender inequality (Möhring 2016). Labor market participation among women compared to men in later life is lowest in the conservative and southern regimes in contrast to the social democratic and liberal regime (Crossdale et al. 2022;Worts et al. 2016). ...
... Lastly, the (5) post-socialist regime (e.g. Czech Republic) is generally characterized by a high prevalence of female full-time employment and only short employment disruptions due to the provision of public child care (Buchholz et al. 2008;Möhring 2016). ...
Article
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Earlier employment choices based on family events in earlier life have an impact up until late working life, especially in welfare regimes that encourage the breadwinner-caretaker division. We investigate types of late employment patterns and how these are associated with earlier family events. We also test whether the association between early family history and late working life varies across five welfare regimes. Using retrospective life history data from SHARELIFE, our sample consists of 10,913 women and 10,614 men aged 65 years and older. Late working life trajectories are analyzed using gender-separate sequence analyses, which are summarized into eight groups applying cluster analyses. Using average marginal and interaction effects, we explain how the association between types of late working life, coresidential partnership history and parenthood history differs by welfare states. For instance, women's late employment is either shaped by unpaid care or paid (full- or part-time) work but not both, whereas men's late working life is mainly shaped by full-time work. Family history in earlier life is linked to unpaid care and part-time work-an association strongest in liberal and southern welfare regimes. However, among men earlier family events are linked to full-time work. Policymakers need gender-specific strategies to integrate workers into late working life. The implementation of new policies should aim to prevent these social inequalities in early life, as employment decisions caused by family history in earlier life stages-especially for women-tend to cumulate over the life course.
... The conservative regime highly regulates working life by rewarding continuous working biographies, whereas the southern regime is characterized by a lack of intervention. Both regimes produce high levels of gender inequality (Möhring 2016). Moreover, countries of the liberal regime (e.g. ...
... by showing that the impact of family history differs by welfare regimes suggesting that women's opportunities are dependent on the national context such as policies or societal norms(Möhring 2016, Fortin 2005, De Tavernier 2016). The previously discussed gender inequalities was particularly visible in southern regimes -characterized by a lack of public social infrastructure -and conservative regimes -which support continuous full-time employment as a standard for men but not necessarily for women. ...
... However, our results regarding post-socialist regimes turned out mixed. An explanation might be that the countries in this regime differ in their degree of gender inequality(Möhring 2016) and this may be due to the developmental character of post-socialist regimes, whereby the patterns of (care) work are still evolving, e.g., there is a growing share of women in paid work.Speci cally, a strong association pertained to the liberal regime, represented by Switzerland. This nding connects well to previous evidence on the Swiss case showing women with family history are more likely in long-term caring or unemployment (Madero-Cabib 2015, Madero-Cabib and Fasang 2016). ...
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Background Earlier employment choices based on family events in earlier life have an impact up until late working life. Especially in welfare regimes that encourage the breadwinner-caretaker division. We investigate types of late employment patterns and how these are associated with earlier family events. Third, we test whether the association between early family history and late working life varies across five welfare regimes. Methods We use retrospective life history data from SHARELIFE. Our sample consists of 10,944 women and 10,662 men aged 65 years and older. Late working life trajectories are analyzed using gender-separate sequence analyses, which are summarized into eight groups applying cluster analyses. Using average marginal and interaction effects we explain how the association between types of late working life, coresidential partnership history and parenthood history differs by welfare states. Results Women’s late employment is either shaped by unpaid care or paid (full- or part-time) work but not both, whereas men’s late working life is mainly shaped by full-time work. Family history in earlier life is linked to unpaid care and part-time work – this association is strongest in liberal and southern welfare regimes. However, among men earlier family events are linked to full-time work. Discussion Policymakers need gender-specific strategies to integrate workers into late working life. The implementing of new policies should aim to prevent these social inequalities in early life, as employment decisions caused by family history in earlier life stages – especially for women – tend to cumulate over the life course.
... Standardised social processes establish distinct beginnings, endings, durations, sequences, and rhythms. Based on the current life course literature (Möhring, 2015(Möhring, , 2016Rieckhoff, 2016;Ehrlich et al., 2020) this article assumes that the standardisation of certain transitions that take place at a certain point in life courses has decreased. Career paths in East and West Germany have significantly de-standardised across cohorts. ...
... Transitions can correspond to the differentiation of new, uniform phases (and of the transitions) when they reach a certain degree of diffusion (Scherger, 2007). With a high degree of uniformity, life courses represent relatively fixed patterns, which is the reason why manifold scholars, e.g., Tophoven and Tisch (2016), Möhring (2016) and Rieckhoff (2016) refer to a normal life biography as a normative pattern. ...
... With a varying benchmark of biographies and institutional changes (Möhring, 2016), time spent outside the labour market, marginal labour market status and sector-dependent (lower) payment have become more common (Nutz and Lersch, 2021). Those developments contribute to changing dimensions of universality and uniformity in dependence of group affiliations. ...
Article
This paper is concerned with the question, how individuals behave during periods of institutional re-designs in welfare states. To understand behaviour after an institutional path modification, this article collects evidence on employment characteristics after the German reunification. East German women show to experience care activities for the first time later compared to West German women. Younger cohorts stay in care activities for a shorter period of time. Developments imply, that preferences have changed for women from both regions, proposing new forms of female employment standardisation in today’s Germany. At the same time, divergences from male employment characteristics are evident, implying rising gender inequality. Individual behaviour seems to be adaptive to new social processes proposed by institutions despite of former cultural beliefs.
... The conservative regime highly regulates working life by rewarding continuous working biographies, whereas the southern regime is characterized by a lack of intervention. Both regimes produce high levels of gender inequality (Möhring 2016). Moreover, countries of the liberal regime (e.g. ...
... Because these disadvantages pertain almost exclusively to women, family events appear to be gender-speci c, which stresses arguments from the literature on intersectionality (Holman and Walker 2020). Moreover, our results support the human capital theory (Becker 1965) by showing that the impact of family history differs by welfare regimes suggesting that women's opportunities are dependent on the national context such as policies or societal norms (Möhring 2016, Fortin 2005, De Tavernier 2016). The previously discussed gender inequalities was particularly visible in southern regimes -characterized by a lack of public social infrastructureand conservative regimes -which support continuous full-time employment as a standard for men but not necessarily for women. ...
... However, our results regarding postsocialist regimes turned out mixed. An explanation might be that the countries in this regime differ in their degree of gender inequality (Möhring 2016) and this may be due to the developmental character of postsocialist regimes, whereby the patterns of (care) work are still evolving, e.g., there is a growing share of women in paid work. ...
Preprint
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Background Earlier employment choices based on family events in earlier life have an impact up until late working life. Especially in welfare regimes that encourage the breadwinner-caretaker division. We investigate types of late employment patterns and how these are associated with earlier family events. Third, we test whether the association between early family history and late working life varies across five welfare regimes. Methods We use retrospective life history data from SHARELIFE. Our sample consists of 10,944 women and 10,662 men aged 65 years and older. Late working life trajectories are analyzed using gender-separate sequence analyses, which are summarized into eight groups applying cluster analyses. Using average marginal and interaction effects we explain how the association between types of late working life, coresidential partnership history and parenthood history differs by welfare states. Results Women’s late employment is either shaped by unpaid care or paid (full- or part-time) work but not both, whereas men’s late working life is mainly shaped by full-time work. Family history in earlier life is linked to unpaid care and part-time work – this association is strongest in liberal and southern welfare regimes. However, among men earlier family events are linked to full-time work. Discussion Policymakers need gender-specific strategies to integrate workers into late working life. The implementing of new policies should aim to prevent these social inequalities in early life, as employment decisions caused by family history in earlier life stages – especially for women – tend to cumulate over the life course.
... Where this was not possible (due to limited sample size for some countries in SHARE), we addressed this challenge by creating country clusters that were relevant for our specific research questions. These clusters were inspired by the lifecourse regime typology (Möhring, 2016) and a preliminary categorisation of countries according to the nature of the EWL policies adopted in the mid-2000s (Buchholz et al., 2006). Using data from the retrospective SHARELIFE survey, Möhring differentiates between a series of ideal-type 'lifecourse regimes' on the basis of three empirical measures: ...
... (3) The similarity or diversity of employment histories across the whole population within a given national context ('career heterogeneity') (Möhring, 2016). ...
... These sectorspecific measures are particularly likely to have affected the age cohorts studied here (Madero-Cabib, 2016) and justify our decision to include Switzerland in the Continental regime cluster. 3 The decision to place France in the 'Mediterranean' rather than in the 'Continental' cluster was inspired by the fact that, for the cohort under study, this country presents contextual characteristics more similar to Italy and Spain, notably, a strong polarisation between those women who remained in (mostly full-time) employment throughout their entire adult lives and those who left the labour market on marriage or after the birth of a first child, never to return to any form of paid work (Möhring, 2016). In all three countries, working part-time was rarely an option for the women of the generations studied here. ...
Article
In order to capture the rapidly changing reality of older workers, it is important to study retirement not as a one-off transition, but rather as a series of diverse pathways that unfold during the period before and after reaching the full retirement age. The retirement transitions of men and women have been shown to vary widely according to individual characteristics such as health, education and marital status, but also according to macro-institutional factors, such as welfare regimes and gender norms. While there is a consensus about the combined influence of institutional and individual factors in shaping retirement transitions, previous research has rarely included both levels of analysis. This study aims to close this research gap. Using a pooled-country dataset from three panel surveys, covering 11 nations, we examine the retirement pathways of 1,594 women and 1,105 men during a 12-year period (2004–2016) around the country- and gender-specific full pension age. Results show that retirement pathways diverge considerably across countries and lifecourse regimes. The distribution of men and women between the different pathways is also variable, both within and across societal contexts. More importantly, the influence of individual-level characteristics, such as education, on the gendering of retirement pathways is not identical across societal contexts. These findings provide useful insights into the gender-differentiated implications of policies aimed at extending working lives.
... Satu Ojala & Pasi Pyöriä olennainen ja välttämätön osa toimivia työmarkkinoita. Suuri liikkuvuus työmarkkinoilla ja myös erilaisten työsuhteiden välillä on tyypillinen piirre nimenomaan pohjoismaisilla ja muilla dynaamisilla työmarkkinoilla (Möhring 2016). Työurien kehitystä ei siis kuvaa jatkuva taantuminen tai heikkeneminen, vaan kyse on työmarkkinoiden ja sitä myötä työurien alituisesta muutoksesta. ...
... Viime aikoina on tutkittu elämänkulkuanalyysilla urapolkujen varrella karttuvien erilaisten siirtymien kokonaisuutta ja niiden moninaistumista yksilöillä ja kohorttien välillä (esim. Aisenbrey & Fasang 2017;Möhring 2016;Riekhoff 2018;Saloniemi ym. 2020;Salonen 2020). ...
... Katja Möhring (2016) vertasi työ-ja elämänpolkujen erilaistumista eri Euroopan maissa ja määritteli Ruotsiin perustuen pohjoismaiset työurat termillä "joustavasti standardoituneet" (flexibly standardised). Tällä hän viittasi korkeisiin vakaan työhön kiinnittymisen osuuksiin samaan aikaan kun liikkuvuus eri statusten välillä oli myös korkeaa. ...
Chapter
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Tässä luvussa tarkastelemme työuria teollisuudessa 14 kohorttia verraten. Vertaamme 30-vuotiaina teollisuustoimialoilla työskennelleiden, 1958-1971 syntyneiden kohorttien työurien kehitystä ikävuosien 30-45 välillä. Työuria arvioimme seuraamalla henkilöiden työmarkkina-asemaa eri vuosina (työllinen, työtön, opiskelija, työkyvytön, eläkkeellä, työvoiman ulkopuolella) sekä työpaikan ja toimialan vaihdoksia. Tutkimuksen kohteena ovat metsä-, metalli-ja kemianteollisuuden eri koulutustasoryhmiä edustavat työntekijät. Menetelmänä on sekvenssianalyysi, jolla voi ryhmitellä erilaisia työurapolkuja. Arvioimme myös oletusta työurien pirstoutumisesta ikäkohorttien välillä: tarkastelemme työurien de/stabilisoitumista ja de/standardisoitumista koskevia hypoteeseja. Tulosten mukaan teollisuuden työurat ovat säilyneet kohorttien välillä ennallaan- ne sisältävät yhtä paljon liikkuvuutta kuin aiemminkin. Poikkeuksen muodostaa 1990-luvun lama, jolloin aineistoon tulleilla kohorteilla oli eniten erilaisia työmarkkinasiirtymiä. Ennallaan ovat myös työurien sukupuolittuneet ja koulutustason mukaiset jaot.
... In contrast to what is often suggested, insecurity and high mobility rates are necessary functions of the labor market. A high number of transitions between employment statuses is particularly pertinent to Nordic and other dynamic labor markets (Möhring 2016). Indeed, work careers are constantly evolving in tandem with the changing supply and demand of labor. ...
... There is no single way of defining and operationalizing work careers. Earlier research has often focused on changes in certain types of employment (e.g., temporary, part-time, or self-employed), on single transitions (e.g., between unemployment and employment or between temporary and permanent positions) (Kalleberg & Mouw 2018), or recently, on life courses by examining career spells that encompass more than one transition, and on changes between individuals and cohorts (e.g., Aisenbrey & Fasang 2017;Möhring 2016;Riekhoff 2018). ...
... For one thing, careers continue to remain gendered. In many industrial economies women's labor market participation is increasingly equal to men's, but even highly educated young women tend to have more fragmented careers, earn less than young men and take longer parental leaves (Aisenbrey & Fasang 2017;Kuitto et al. 2019;Möhring 2016;Stawarz 2018). Along with unemployment, parental leaves are the main reason for early and mid-career breaks (Aisenbrey & Fasang 2017;Brückner & Mayer 2005;Kuitto et al. 2019). ...
Article
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It is often argued that global competition and technological development have made industrial jobs more unstable. In this article, we ask how career stability has evolved in the Finnish forest, metal, and chemical industries, comparing 14 cohorts (age groups) by gender and educational level. We focus on industrial employees born in 1958-1971 and compare their career stability at ages 30-44 using Statistics Finland's linked employer-employee data from 1988 to 2015 and an application of sequence analysis. We analyze career stability over time by examining annual main labor market statuses (employed, unemployed, student, disabled, retired, out of the labor force), adding estimators for workplace and industry changes. The results show no evidence of career destabilization across the cohorts, but they do reveal persistent inequalities between industrial employees with low and high levels of education, and between men and women.
... However, there are several other actors and factors that also play a role in labour force participation or exit in late working life. Diverse employment and exit patterns have been linked to various factors such as individual life histories, socioeconomic status, labour market structure and institutional settings Möhring, 2016), as well as to employers' recruitment behaviours (Conen et al., 2012), local and national economic conditions, and institutional settings (Ebbinghaus & Radl, 2015). Among these interdependent factors and actors, meso-level actors and factors such as employers' hiring of older workers and local economic conditions are the most overlooked. ...
... Late working life patterns are heterogeneous, and individuals face unequal opportunities and risks in terms of employment and exit from the labour market during late working life (McAllister et al., 2019). These heterogeneous employment and exit patterns are often linked to individuals differing in characteristics such as age, cohort, education, gender, occupation, country of origin, and so on (Martin, 2018;Möhring, 2016;Naegele & Walker, 2021). Some of these heterogeneous trajectories are involuntary and generated by disadvantages that are distributed unequally between individuals (Jensen, 2021). ...
... Influential scholars theorize how modernization and globalization change the structure of the life course (Mayer, 2001(Mayer, , 2004Blossfeld et al., 2005;Brückner and Mayer, 2005;Kohli, 2007;Möhring, 2016). While the 1960s and early 1970s is denoted as a period of lifecourse 'institutionalization' (Kohli, 2007), less standardized or more 'individualized' patterns are described since the 1980s (Beck, 1992;Inglehart, 1997;Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). ...
... previous research, results challenge the commonly claimed notion that young adults, in general, go through increasingly complex and de-standardized school-to-work trajectories. The gender differences and social disparities found in the present analysis echo classical insights from life-course theory, highlighting the importance of institutional-, historical-, and class-based contexts in the structuring of trajectories (Mayer, 2004;Mortimer and Shanahan, 2004;Möhring, 2016). However, while previous research has documented gender and social disparities separately, this study indicates that social origin interacts with history in differing ways among men and women. ...
Article
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Accounts of contemporary youth often take increased variability in the young adult life course for granted. However, we lack studies examining variability in the labour market domain during the rapid globalization of the three most recent decades. Employing the theoretical concepts of differentiation and de-standardization, cross-cohort change is evaluated for young adults in Norway, separately by gender and social origin. Using high-quality registry data (N = 1,081,702), 20 complete birth cohorts are followed from age 22 to 31, spanning the years 1993–2017. Adding to the theoretical discussion of life-course change, variability is evaluated alongside changes in the specific valued content of trajectories—denoted as the quality of labour market attachment. Results show modestly declining trajectory variability. Simultaneously, the quality of male and female labour market attachment changes in opposing normative directions. Female trajectories remain more complex and insecure than men’s but show improvements across the 1990s. Among men, especially those of low social origin, labour market trajectories become more precarious. Results challenge the common notion that young adults generally go through increasingly insecure school-to-work trajectories. Instead, findings indicate that social origin interacts with historical time in differing ways among men and women, producing intersectional patterns of continuity and change.
... Durante la última década un número creciente de estudios sociológicos cuantitativos ha examinado en profundidad las trayectorias educativas, laborales y familiares de la generación baby boomer, así como otras generaciones próximas, en diferentes sociedades occidentales (Elzinga & Liefbroer, 2007;Madero-Cabib & Cabello-Hutt, 2022;Möhring, 2016;van Winkle, 2018;Widmer & Ritschard, 2009). Basándose en principios teóricos del enfoque de curso de vida, y analizando datos longitudinales (tanto panel como retrospectivos), la literatura en este campo sociológico ha proporcionado evidencia empírica acerca de trayectorias educativas, familiares, y de empleo que se ajustan, y también que no se ajustan, al patrón normativo de curso de vida asumido como el más prevalente entre los baby boomers en países occidentales (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2017;Riekhoff et al., 2021;Struffolino, 2019;Zimmermann & Konietzka, 2018). ...
... Sin embargo, diversas investigaciones sociológicas en este campo han cuestionado sistemáticamente hasta qué punto este patrón normativo se mantiene tanto en su alta prevalencia como en su baja complejidad al analizar tanto contextos nacionales con diferentes regímenes o arreglos institucionales, como individuos de diferente género, clase social u origen racial al interior de un país (Elzinga & Liefbroer, 2007;Fasang et al., 2013;Grunow & Aisenbrey, 2016;Möhring, 2016). ...
Article
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A pesar del notorio incremento de investigaciones sociológicas cuantitativas que usan el análisis de secuencias para explorar el aumento de diversidad y complejidad de trayectorias de vida, este campo de estudio se ha concentrado principalmente en sociedades occidentales de Europa y Norteamérica. Este artículo ofrece una introducción al análisis de secuencias, atendiendo al escaso conocimiento de esta herramienta estadística longitudinal en las ciencias sociales en Chile. Se examinan estudios sociológicos recientes que usan el análisis de secuencias en Chile para explorar la diversidad y complejidad de patrones de curso de vida en dominios sociales como la educación, el empleo, la familia, la jubilación, la salud, y en dos o más de estos dominios combinados. Este trabajo es un punto de partida para investigadores y estudiantes interesados en expandir sus conocimientos sobre esta técnica.
... Elzinga & Liefbroer, 2007;Hofäcker & Chaloupková, 2014;van Winkle, 2018;Zimmermann & Konietzka, 2018), as well as school-to-work transitions (e.g. van Winkle & Fasang, 2017, Möhring, 2016. Another line of research, which became increasingly relevant over the last years, considers the spatial detachment through leaving the parental home (e.g. ...
... While Buchmann and Kriesi (2011, p. 495) note that Eastern European or post-communist countries are not systematically included in comparative research, meanwhile significantly more studies have looked at Central and Eastern or post-socialist European countries (e.g. Billari & Liefbroer, 2010;Lesnard et al., 2016;Möhring, 2016). Nevertheless, studies that consider the Balkan countries and Baltic countries separately are widely lacking. ...
Preprint
It is claimed almost unanimously in international youth research that patterns of the status passage from youth to adulthood have become more de-standardized over time. The aim of this paper is to provide a nuanced look at the transitional patterns from youth to adulthood. The main question is: How do life courses change across different generations? For this purpose, changes in the timing, ordering, (de)coupling and interquartile ranges of social, spatial and economic transition markers are described. We investigate, whether the patterns of these transitions into adulthood and their interrelations have changed across cohorts born up to 1935 until the mid-1960s for men and women. Using the SHARELIFE data collected in waves 3 (2009) and 7 (2017) as part of the SHARE study we are able to compare life courses of about 90,000 individuals aged 50+ all across Europe. For the analyses, we use event history analysis. The results of our paper indicate that social changes are different for the European country groups (Nordic countries, Baltic States, the Balkans, Western, Eastern and Southern Europe). There is no consistent pattern found for the whole of Europe. Therefore, the common practice to use the Western standard male biography as a comparative baseline—deviations from which would be labeled as ‘de- standardization’—falls short. We find a large heterogeneity in transition patterns from youth to adulthood across European regions, which needs to be considered in further discussions of ‘de-standardization’ processes.
... There are differences by country due to variation in institutions (Mayer, 2005). Möhring (2016) identified various employment life-course regimes in Europe ranging from lowly standardised, gendered, and segmented career trajectories in Greece and Spain to flexibly standardised careers in the Nordic countries that combine continuous careers in full-time employment with frequent changes between labour market statuses. Labour market institutions play an important role. ...
... One potential explanation behind this relative stability is the structuring and buffering influence of institutions on labour market behaviour. Earlier studies have pointed out that career stability strongly varies across countries but little over time, pointing to family and labour market policies as stabilising factors (Möhring, 2016;Van Winkle and Fasang, 2017). Finland did not experience any structural labour market deregulation during the period under investigation, like for example Italy (Struffolino and Raitano, 2020). ...
Article
In this article, we investigate whether the mid-career stability of Finnish men and women has changed for the birth cohorts 1958 to 1972 and, if so, what the driving forces are behind such changes. We analyse career stability during a 15-year period following the age of 30 using ‘career turbulence’ indicators. To identify the impact of cyclical and structural changes in the labour market, we analyse the association between initial employment status and sector with subsequent career stability. We distinguish between sectors that are exposed to a greater or lesser extent to global competition, those that are characterised by goods production or service provision, and those that are part of the market or non-market sector. In a series of OLS regression and regression decomposition analyses, we also control for the impact of education, regional unemployment and family-formation processes. The results show little change in mid-career stability across cohorts. Stability increased somewhat when only including transitions between employment and non-employment, whereas slight destabilisation was observed when accounting for changes between jobs. The findings indicate that the small changes in stability across cohorts were mostly driven by structural changes in the labour market, albeit with different mechanisms for men and women.
... During the transition to capitalism, unemployment and poverty rose in most of the countries in the region. In family policies, some countries in the region, especially those with a strong presence of the catholic and orthodox churches, took a more conservative turn, while others moved more towards a liberal welfare model (Kuitto 2016;Mach, Mayer, and Pohoski 1994;Möhring 2016). Hence, there is reason to expect that also within the post-communist group there are differences in outcomes. ...
Preprint
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This study investigates whether and when financial hardship during the life course is related to pension income levels in 27 European countries and whether relations between hardship and pension income differ across gender and welfare regimes. Data from the Survey for Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) are used, combining retrospective information on respondents’ experienced financial hardship and their current pension income (N = 38,574). We apply two-part regression models with country-fixed effects to estimate the associations of pension income with hardship that starts in one’s youth (age <20), the transition to adulthood (age 20-29), mid-career (age 30-44) and late career (age >44), as well as with the duration of hardship. The results show that financial hardship during the life course does not always have negative consequences for income in old age. We find positive associations of pension income with financial hardship in youth (among men) and in early adulthood (among women). These results suggest that short spells of financial hardship are often related to crucial life-course transitions that allow subsequent career development and pension accrual. In contrast, financial hardship in late career is negatively associated with pension income, especially among men in Continental and Southern European countries.
... These policies are also believed to shelter women from the adverse effects of divorce, as women can then acquire their own income and not be solely dependent on their husbands (Lewis, 2001;DiPrete, 2002). Policies to ensure gender equality within paid and unpaid work, however, vary by welfare regime (Möhring, 2016). In malebreadwinner settings, policies such as joint taxation schemes and other marriage benefits are in favour of supporting women as childcare providers, which can lower their time spent in paid work. ...
Article
Full-text available
Sweden and West Germany have had persistently high divorce rates in recent decades, but these two welfare states were differently equipped to mitigate the economic consequences of divorce for individual security in old age: Sweden followed a gender-equal policy approach to enable women and men to achieve economic autonomy, while West Germany, following the male-breadwinner model, introduced the system of ‘divorce-splitting’ to account for differences in women's and men's income. Against this background, this study uses large-scale register data from the German Public Pension Fund and the Swedish population registers to examine how divorce is related to the monthly public old-age pension income of women and men. The main comparison groups are divorced and (re)married individuals who entered retirement between 2013 and 2018. We descriptively show annual income histories from ages 20 to 65, and calculate monthly public old-age pension income with respect to lifetime income and pension regulations, such as the supplements/deductions for ‘divorce-splitting’. Multiple ordinary least square regression models further examine how family status relates to monthly public old-age pension income by gender. The results reveal that women and men in Sweden experience similar working histories, although women's incomes are lower. This is also reflected in women still having lower pension incomes than men. However, divorced and married women show comparable pension incomes, while divorced men receive approximately 26 per cent less pension income than married men. In West Germany, divorced women have significantly higher pension incomes than married women. The system of ‘divorce-splitting’ increases women's and decreases men's pension incomes, which seems to equalise their pension incomes. However, both stay below a married man's pension income. The findings indicate economic inequality in public old-age pension income by family status in Sweden and West Germany.
... The life course perspective emphasizes how specific states and transitions of individuals are parts of whole life course biographies and how these biographies are structured by age-graded social norms located in specific historical-institutional circumstances (Elder 2009;Mayer 2004;Mortimer and Shanahan 2004;Möhring 2016). Hence, used as an analytical orientation, the life course perspective invites a processual-, age-dependent-, and contextual understanding of the NEET phenomenon, the social exclusion concept, and the link between them. ...
Article
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This study addresses the limitations of the NEET indicator (Not in Education, Employment, or Training) as a measure of the risk of social exclusion. Applying a life course analytical framework and sequence analysis to administrative data from Norway, we investigate the link between NEET status and longer-term exclusion across cohorts, gender, and social origin. Young adults with at least one year of NEET status at ages 22-25 (N = 125 804) are followed for ten years (age 22-31), spanning the years 1993-2017. Results show a mixed picture for individuals with early-career NEET status: 38 percent fare well over the long term, while over one-third face persistent challenges of long-term exclusion or reliance on permanent disability benefits. A deterioration of longer-term prospects, stronger among men than women, is observed across cohorts. An initial large gender gap in long-term exclusion probability in men´s favor disappears in the youngest cohorts. Social inequalities remain stable over time. Findings support recent research emphasizing NEET category heterogeneity. Static measures may both exaggerate and underestimate the challenges faced by different sub-populations. The risk of long-term exclusion changes markedly over time, showcasing how the NEET indicator's sensitivity as a measure of at-risk youth depends on the historical-institutional context.
... For example, older women are less likely to remain employed as a result of volatile careers related to family or care responsibilities (Finch, 2011). Personal characteristics and life course trajectories often interact with institutional and cultural contexts, as evident from cross-national research (Möhring, 2016). Such differences in employment histories by gender and social class across countries would lead to different outcomes in early or late retirement (Radl, 2013;Visser et al., 2016). ...
... The long-term trend of male and female work biographies and career trajectories revealsprocesses of convergence as well as new forms of divergence and, in the backpartners remains more important for women, and they moreoften adjust their options to those of their male partners than vice versa" (Kohli 2007:2 62). 18 However,thereare strong differences within Europe both with respect to the shareofpart-time work and its gender allocation (Möhring 2016). 19 As imilar redefinition tookp lacei nS outh Asia, although in the reverse direction. ...
... Especially during the economic upturn in the immediate post-war decades, wage levels of industrial workers were sufficient to provide a livelihood for a family without the necessity of a second earner (Schäfer and Gottschall 2015). Men's employment careers of the post-war decades were characterized by an exceptional homogeneity and stability (Lersch, Schulz, and Leckie 2020;Möhring 2016). ...
Book
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The coronavirus pandemic has brought about a number of partly improvised, partly only temporary, but in every respect diverse and often unprecedented social policy measures in Europe. The edited volume provides an encompassing and longer-term analysis of social policy responses during the COVID-19 crisis in order to ask in which direction the European welfare states on the one hand, and EU social policy on the other hand, are developing as a result of the pandemic with respect to polity, politics, and policy instruments. The book focuses on the tension between continuity and change from different interdisciplinary and theoretical perspectives. Contributions range from single case studies to comparative policy analyses. The chapters in this book study (1) welfare state change during the pandemic in order to contribute to welfare state and regime theory; (2) policy responses in specific social policy domains, their socio-structural effects for particular social groups; and their potential future effects on the social security systems in different countries; and (3) social policymaking as a multilevel process, analyzing different crises responses and discussing the implications for European integration and EU social policy. Overall, the different social policy areas, European countries, and social groups studied in this volume show not only that the welfare state is here to stay, but also that social policy may potentially develop and expand its competences at the European level.
... Complete information was available for 93 per cent of the participants, and we found no significant differences in gender or health between this group and the 7 per cent whose information was incomplete. The data include 13 European countries grouped into three welfare clusters according to the classifications of Esping-Andersen (1990) and Ferrera (1996) employed in previous studies (Bambra and Eikemo, 2009;Möhring, 2016): Nordic (Sweden, Denmark), Continental (Austria, Germany, The Netherlands, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland) and Latin (Spain, Italy, Greece, Portugal). No country from the liberal cluster takes part in SHARE. ...
Article
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Healthy ageing is a dynamic process, but only a few studies use a longitudinal perspective to investigate the routes to healthy ageing and rarely do so in comparative perspective. This study adopts a holistic multi-domain approach in order to investigate the importance of lifecourse patterns for healthy ageing in Europe, as measured by the Global Activity Limitation Indicator (GALI) and using seven waves of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Employment and family histories are identified through sequence analysis and used as predictors, together with childhood conditions, in multivariate ordered logistic models covering a sample of 15,952 participants aged 60–65 years. The results showed that ‘non-standard’ employment and family patterns hamper healthy ageing and that these negative effects tend to reinforce each other across the employment and family domains rather than compensating for each other – especially in women. Welfare states, however, moderate these associations. The findings promote the adoption of a lifecourse approach to healthy ageing that considers multiple domains simultaneously and addresses unfavourable life conditions as early as possible in an attempt to mitigate their effects.
... The difficulty in analysing the gendered distribution of working conditions and its influence on retirement decisions lies in the fact that, in most STestern countries, a larger share of women than men are located out of the labour market at any point in their adult life course. The gendered nature of employment histories has been recognised for some time in relation to the child-rearing phase of the life course (Môhring, 2016), but less so in relation to the ageing workforce. In this chapter, we use data from the E\7CS to map the working conditions of the over 50s in 30 different countries, but we also focus on a smaller range of countries (Czech Republic, Ireland, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdorn), characterised by contrasting welfare and gender regimes (Daly, 2020). ...
... Deste ponto de vista, as instituições são objetivadas através de mecanismos que produzem regularidade na agência, para lá da volição individual. Nos últimos anos, este interesse tem sido articulado com o estudo do papel do Estado, abrindo portas a uma sociologia comparativa dos regimes de percurso de vida (Mayer, 2004;Möhring, 2016). ...
Article
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In this paper, we trace a conceptual roadmap aimed at reconciling a life course perspective with the sociology of class and social inequality. We begin by presenting the life course perspective, reflecting on the central role it grants to processes of institutional regulation. Taking stock of critiques to both atomist explanations of agency and structural determinisms, we advocate for a longitudinal reading of how inequalities shape individual and collective trajectories, mobilizing concepts advanced by Pierre Bourdieu. We then demonstrate the potential of this approach to discuss how life course trajectories unfold in late modernity, drawing on recent research on Portugal.
... For example, the average employment rate among fathers with at least one child under six in 2019 in the EU was 90.4%; among mothers, it was only 63.8% (EUROSTAT, 2020). Lower levels of maternal employment lead to a systematic underutilisation of human capital and an immediate loss of family income, but also place mothers on permanently lower earnings trajectories (see, for example, Budig and England, 2001;Gangl and Ziefle, 2009;Kahn et al., 2014;Möhring, 2016). This, in turn, leads to women being economically dependent on their partners, as well as gender pension gaps and female poverty at old age (OECD, 2019). ...
Article
In spite of increasing levels of female employment, having a child below school age often goes along with a substantial decrease in employment engagement for women. Consequently, previous family policy research suggests that increasing childcare availability might be a promising tool to facilitate maternal employment as it increases the economic incentive to take up work. Another line of reasoning highlights that cultural attitudes towards maternal employment are equally important in shaping the employment decisions of mothers. In this article, we combine insights of both approaches and argue that culture, in addition to its direct effect on maternal employment, moderates the impact of childcare policies. In particular, we argue that the positive effect of childcare may be weaker in more conservative cultural contexts. To assess this question empirically, we exploit the implementation of a centralised childcare reform in Poland as a natural experiment by means of a regression discontinuity design. Relying on individual-level data on employment and regional-level information on the influence of conservatism in a certain region, we run multilevel regressions with cross-level interaction terms to estimate the effect of the reform depending on the local cultural context. Consistent with our theoretical expectations, the impact of the reform is rather strong in less conservative areas but fades away in increasingly conservative contexts. Supplementary analyses reveal that the effect also differs with regard to household composition, with smaller families displaying larger gains in maternal employment. These findings confirm that conservative cultural attitudes appear to suppress the positive effect of increasing childcare availability.
... In Western Europe, the generations from 1900 to 1945 were born and socialised in two different historical life-course regimes; the Industrial Life-course Regime (1900-1955 characterised by schooling compulsory but only until relative short age and delayed family formation, and the Fordist-Welfare State Regime (1955)(1956)(1957)(1958)(1959)(1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973), characterised by the expansion of secondary and tertiary education, as well as the gender division of labour within nuclear family. However, as Möhring (2016) noticed, the cross-national variation in long term developments (economic, political, social, etc.) influence the way in which these life-course regimes shape the social calendar in each country. Cross-country comparisons are also necessary due to the feeling of loneliness is perceived and defined according to cultural norms and values. ...
Article
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The aim of this study is to expand our knowledge about the factors that condition late-life loneliness from a longitudinal perspective. We assess the long-term relationship between education, late-life loneliness and family trajectories in terms of the role of partnership and motherhood, as well as their timing for older women. We set two initial hypotheses: (1) family trajectory has a mediating effect and (2) education has a selection effect. Cross-sectional and retrospective data are drawn from the three waves of the SHARE survey (3rd, 5th and 7th waves), selecting a subsample of women aged 65 and over from 11 European countries (N = 10,615). After distinguishing eight different family trajectories by carrying out a Sequence Analysis, the Karlson-Holm-Breen method is used to assess the mediator effect of family trajectory on the relationship between education and loneliness. Multinomial analysis is used to explore whether the probability of different family trajectories of older European women is defined by their level of education. Our results show that education has a selection effect on family trajectories: a higher educational level increases the probability of a non-standardised family trajectory. Significant results of the mediator effect of family trajectory are however only observed for women with medium-level education, as being single and childless at older ages increases the probability of loneliness among these women. Adopting a life-course perspective has permitted us to introduce the longitudinal dimensions of life events, education and family trajectories to the study of feelings of loneliness among women in old age.
... To sum up, employment histories vary between countries and the differences are roughly, yet not entirely, in line with common welfare state typologies (Möhring, 2016). Women's labour market attachment is high in Nordic countries and in post-Socialist Czech Republic and Eastern Germany. ...
Article
Full-text available
The article addresses the question of how individuals with non‐standard work or family histories fare under different national pension systems in terms of their individual and household income in old age. It provides a comprehensive overview of the relationship of life course with later life individual and household income, and thereby goes beyond previous research that either focuses on one or the other. Life history data for 12 European countries of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) are used to examine old age individual and household income of individuals (a) with non‐standard working histories (e.g., non‐standard employment or unemployment), (b) with family instabilities (e.g., divorce or single parenthood). The results show that non‐employment and low‐status employment are old age income risks for both genders. Having children represents a burden for household income and for women's individual income only if associated with employment interruptions. Cross‐national variation is stronger for the relationship of old age income with the employment history than with the fertility history. Especially Beveridge‐plus countries that provide unconditional basic pension schemes mitigate previous life course inequality.
... Comparative life course studies have tried to explain differences in terms of economic, cultural, and institutional conditions (Blossfeld and Hakim, 1997;Aassve et al., 2002;Whelan, Layte and Maitre, 2004;Blossfeld et al., 2005;Andress et al., 2006;Liefbroer and Dourleijn, 2006;Boye, 2011;Mohring, 2016;Perelli-Harris and Lyons-Amos, 2016;Leopold, 2018). ...
Article
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The Comparative Panel File (CPF) harmonizes the world’s largest and longest-running household panel surveys from seven countries: Australia (HILDA), Germany (SOEP), United Kingdom (BHPS and UKHLS), South Korea (KLIPS), Russia (RLMS), Switzerland (SHP), and the United States (PSID). The project aims to support the social science community in the analysis of comparative life course data. The CPF builds on the Cross-National Equivalent File but offers a larger range of variables, larger and more recent samples, an easier and more flexible workflow, and an open science platform for development. The CPF is not a data product but an open-source code that integrates individual and household panel data from all seven surveys into a harmonized three-level data structure. The CPF allows analysing individual trajectories, time trends, contextual effects, and country differences. The project is organized as an open science platform. The CPF version 1.0 contains 2.7 million observations from 360,000 respondents, covering the period from 1968 to 2019 and up to 40 panel waves per respondent. In this data brief, we present the background, design, and content of the CPF.
... Vaikka työllisten aikuisten työurille kiinnittyminen olisi vakaata, toimiala-ja työpaikkaliikkuvuus voi olla yhtä aikaa korkeaa. Vastaava joustava, työmarkkinaliikkuvuutta sisältävä työura, joka yhdistyy vakaaseen työllisyyteen, on tyypillistä pohjoismaisille työmarkkinoille (Möhring 2016). Tällainen dynamiikka on myös välttämätöntä toimivien työmarkkinoiden kannalta ja liikkuvuuden puute tarkoittaisi samalla uusien työmahdollisuuksien puutetta. ...
Chapter
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Työurat eivät ole Suomessa keskimäärin heikenneet, mutta naisten ja matalasti koulutettujen työurat jäävät miehistä ja paremmin koulutetuista jälkeen. Tasa-arvotoimet eivät ole olleet riittäviä. Naisten heikommat työurat vaikuttavat heille kertyvän ansiosidonnaisen sosiaaliturvan tasoon ja näin tuloerot kertautuvat elämänkaarella. Työelämän tasa-arvokysymys on myös se, miten aikuisväestön osaamista tulisi ja on mahdollista vahvistaa alituisessa työn muutoksessa. Kun korkeasti koulutetut kouluttautuvat edelleen, matalasti koulutetut saavat tai hankkivat vähemmän syventävää koulutusta työuransa varrella. Kolmantena keskustelemme siitä, miten vahvistaa yhtä aikaa yritysten henkilöstön osaamista, osaamisen hyödyntämistä ja yritysten tutkimus-ja kehitysmyönteisyyttä ja näiden välittävien tekijöiden kautta yritysten tuottavuutta ja henkilöstön työuria.
... Kai kurie tyrėjai pastebi, kad tam tikri sektoriai (pavyzdžiui, būsto sektorius ir asmens apsirūpinimo būstu klausimai) apskritai organizuojami pagal išimtinai privačios rinkos principus. O ir pačios posocialistinės šalys kartais skiriasi tarpusavyje pagal tai, prie kokio bendro valstybės-rinkos-asmens santykio siekta ir prieita šiandien (Aidukaitė, 2009(Aidukaitė, , 2011Buchholz et al., 2009;Indriliūnaitė, 2020;Möhring, 2016). ...
Book
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Lietuvos gyventojai europiniame kontekste išsiskiria kaip linkę vėlesniam amžiui priskirti tiek tapimo su-augusiu, tiek vidutinio, tiek senyvo amžiaus ribas nei vidutinis europietis. Lietuva yra įdomus atvejis, nes, viena vertus, tapimo suaugusiu ir vidutinio amžiaus ribų atidėliojimu atitinka bendrus Pietų Europos ir posocialistinių šalių gyventojų vertimus, bet pavėlindami senatvės ribą labiau atitinka Vakarų ir Šiaurės Europos gyventojų vertinimus. Šeiminių gyvenimo eigos įvykių planavimas, tokių kaip santuoka ir tapimas tėvais, labiausiai priskirtini prie svarbių gyvenimo ir tapimo suaugusiu asmeniu žymenų Pietų Europos ir posocialistinėse šalyse, o skandinavai ir Vakarų europiečiai yra mažiau linkę sieti šiuos įvykius su tapimu suaugusiu žmogumi. Lietuviai labiausiai iš visų EST šalių respondentų tapimo suaugusiu ribą sieja konkrečiai su gyvenimo poroje nesusituokus pradžia. Šiuo aspektu esame panašūs į Skandinavijos ir kitas Baltijos šalis, t. y. šalių grupę, kur kohabitacija tampa svarbiausiu gyvenimo eigos įvykiu kaip suaugusio asmens debiutas. Bet jeigu vertintume, kada tinkamiausias metas tuoktis ar susilaukti vaikų, ši riba irgi ganėtinai paankstinama Lietuvoje, palyginti su kitomis šalimis. Tai reiškia, kad suaugusio asmens etapas siejamas su svarbių gyvenimo eigos įvykių greitu ir efektyviu įgyvendinimu kuo ankstesniame amžiuje. Tuo tarpu kalbant apie senyvo amžiaus siejimą sutinkamiausiu metu išeiti į pensiją, Lietuvos ir Latvijos gyventojai yra išskirtiniai, nes mažiausiai primena posocialistinių šalių vertinimus, kuriose ankstyvas senyvas amžius siejamas su ankstyvesne pensinio amžiaus riba. Lietuva patenka į dalies Pietų ir Vakarų Europos šalių grupę, kurią sudaro Austrijos, Belgijos, Prancūzijos, Italijos ir Portugalijos gyventojai, kurie kaip tik linkę atitolinti senyvo amžiaus ribą, bet paankstinti pensinio amžiaus terminą nei visi Europos gyventojai. Lietuvoje asmuo tampa suaugęs apie 22 gyvenimo metus, vidutinis amžius pasiekiamas 45 gyvenimo metais, o senatvės sulaukiama 70-ies.Pageidautinos gyvenimo įvykių pradžios vertinimai atskleidžia, kad tinkamiausias amžius lietuviams pradėti gyventi poroje yra 22–23 gyvenimo metai, susituokti – apie 25 gyvenimo metus, o susilaukti vaikų – sulaukus 26 metų. Lietuvių nuomone, tinkamiausias metas išeiti į pensiją yra 60–61 gyvenimo metai. Lietuviai mano, kad moterys anksčiau nei vyrai tam-pa suaugusios ir anksčiau pasiekia vidutinį amžių. Vyrauja nuomonė, kad moterys anksčiau pasirengusios pradėti gyventi poroje nesusituokus, susituokti ir susilaukti vaikų nei vyrai, o vyrai turėtų vėliau išeiti į pensiją nei moterys. Lietuvių nurodomas tinkamiausias amžius pradėti gyventi poroje nesusituokus nesiskiria nuo nurodomo amžiaus, kada jie apsigyveno su partneriu, tačiau nurodoma santuoka ir tapimas tėvais įvyko kiek anksčiau nei minimas tinkamiausias laikas šiems gyvenimo įvykiams.
... This might be particularly problematic for women with very few working years (due to care-related breaks), the long-term unemployed or first-generation migrants who arrived late in their career in their host country (see Möhring in this issue). Public systems differ in respect of accrediting care-giving years and years of unemployment (Möhring, 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
While the sustainability of pension systems facing demographic ageing has been widely discussed, the adequacy of retirement income has often been neglected in current debate. However, considerable poverty and income inequality in old age exists across Europe. Using recent EU‐SILC data (2017/18), the comparative analysis of poverty rates and income inequality in old age shows important cross‐national variations that need to be seen in context of market‐related inequalities but also the specific pension system. Beveridge basic security is not always capable of effectively reducing poverty despite the explicit goal to do so. In addition, private funded pensions may generate social inequality. Some contributory Bismarckian systems are better suited to reduce poverty, but given their focus on status maintenance also reproduce inequality. Poverty rates are low due to encompassing basic pensions in Dutch and some Nordic multipillar systems and in core Central and Eastern European countries. Bismarckian pensions such as in Germany are generating some inequality and medium level of poverty, while France and some Southern European countries perform better on poverty but reproduce larger inequalities. Beveridge systems such as in the United Kingdom and Switzerland with rather meagre basic multipillar systems have relatively medium to high poverty risks. In addition, the Baltic countries and new EU member states in the periphery have the highest poverty rates across Europe. The analysis shows that the minimum income provision of public pension systems matters most for poverty risks, while the overall pension architecture has an impact on reproducing inequality in old age acquired during working life.
... And it is, and will continue to be, highly relevant for family policy as well. Although the employment rates of women have grown closer to those of men over the last decades, the trends toward gender equality have slowed or even stalled in a number of countries (for the US, see England, Levine, & Mishel, 2020), the gender pay gap has not closed (Goldin, 2014), occupational segregation is persistent (Charles & Grusky, 2004), and the different work histories of women and men contribute to gender gaps in old-age poverty (Möhring, 2015(Möhring, , 2016 that although closing, still persist (Doctrinal & Nieuwenhuis, 2019). Levels of wealth inequality (Piketty, 2014) and income inequality (Milanović, 2016) are high and rising within countries, as well as, for instance, in the European Union as a whole (Beckfield, 2019), and trends in poverty in Europe and beyond are "disappointing" (Jenkins, 2020;Vandenbroucke & Vleminckx, 2011). ...
Chapter
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Based on the multilevel perspective on family policy research brought together in this handbook, this chapter highlights five major societal challenges for the future outlook and outcomes of family policies, and reflects on what the handbook teaches us about how to effectively address these challenges, as well as what there is yet to learn. The challenges pertain to the (1) levels of policy implementation, and in particular globalization and decentralization, (2) austerity and marketization, (3) economic inequality, (4) changing family relations, and (5) welfare states adapting to women’s empowered roles. The chapter concludes by examining what lessons were learned, and are yet to learn, regarding the capacity of family policies to cope with shocks of various kinds and to support families during extraordinary times.
... Albeit with huge differences across welfare states, austerity has rendered the social security on which women rely less effective, and has reduced wages and the number of jobs in the public sector in which women are overrepresented (Rubery, 2015). As women are more likely to have more restricted and incomplete contribution histories-in part related to a lack of formal family policy measures over the life course-women's old-age incomes might be hit harder than men's in relation to pension privatization (Möhring, 2015(Möhring, , 2016. ...
Chapter
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This chapter develops a research agenda for examining family policy outcomes with respect to vertical economic inequality between households, arguing that family policies have wrongly been neglected as a determinant of vertical economic inequality. Three questions are central to this research agenda: who uses family policy, to what income effect, and with whom do people live? Family policies have been linked to women’s employment and earnings, and to lower vertical income inequality. Yet, the literature also makes abundantly clear that family policies come with trade-offs along the lines of gender and class, as well as Matthew effects. These mechanisms need to be better understood to integrate family policy in analyses of—and recommendation against—high and rising inequality. The challenge ahead is to understand what (combination of) family policies may be inclusive to a wide range of families across the full width of the income distribution.
Article
A pattern of division of housework that more heavily distributes housework to women after childbirth is called the traditionalized division of housework and is known to be stable throughout the childrearing process. This paper focuses on the evaluation of the division of housework as a mechanism by which the traditionalized division of housework becomes entrenched and examines why the traditionalized division of housework is regarded as justified. Using equity theory, gender norm theory, and distributive justice theory, I derive hypotheses on the mechanisms by which the presence of children affects the association between unequal housework allocation and the appropriateness rating of housework responsibilities, and I test them using a factorial survey experiment conducted in Germany. This analysis shows that the appropriateness rating is less susceptible to the share of women’s housework in the with-child condition than in the without-child condition. This result suggests a mechanism by which the presence of children activates traditional gender norms and the acceptance of the traditionalized division of housework as justified, thereby sustaining the unequal division of housework.
Article
Socialinė politika vaidina svarbų vaidmenį formuojant žmonių gyvenimus. Siekiame išsiaiškinti, kaip posovietinė pertvarka socialinės politikos srityje keičia šiuolaikinėje Lietuvoje gyvenančių žmonių gyvenimo eigą. Siekiant šio tikslo, straipsnyje naudojama L. Leiseringo ir R. Walkerio (1998) pasiūlyta „gyvenimo eigos politikos“ analizės schema. Analizė rodo, kad Lietuva iš savo autoritarinės praeities paveldėjo stiprius gyvenimo eigos struktūravimo, integracijos ir normų formavimo mechanizmus. Vis dėlto šie mechanizmai silpsta arba yra adaptuojami prie šiuolaikinio socialinio, ekonominio ir politinio konteksto. Dėl to šiuolaikinę Lietuvą galima priskirti pofordistiniam gyvenimo eigos režimui, kuris pasižymi gyvenimo eigos destandartizacija, depolitizacija ir didesniu socialinės politikos institucijų lankstumu. Perėjimas prie šio gyvenimo eigos režimo mūsų šalyje įvyko vėliau, palyginti su kitomis Vakarų Europos šalimis. Dabartinį gyvenimo eigos politikos režimą Lietuvoje taip pat galima apibūdinti kaip silpnai integruotą „segmentuoto saugumo“ modelį, kuriam būdingas atotrūkis tarp tų, kurie dalyvauja socialinio draudimo sistemoje, ir tų, kurie yra už jos ribų.
Article
Purpose In this paper, the authors attempt to understand how labour market attachment during the ages of 30–59 influences individuals' transition out of the labour market. Design/methodology/approach Using high-quality Swedish register data, the authors follow individuals born in 1950 and observe their labour market attachment during mid-life and their exit from the labour market. Findings The authors find evidence that labour market attachment in different stages of the career is differently related to exit from the labour market. At the age of 30, as well as between the ages 50–59, low attachment is related with earlier exit from the labour market. On the contrary, low labour market attachment during the ages 40–49 is related with later exit from the labour market. However, regardless of age, lower labour market attachment increases the risk of work-related benefit receipt in the exit year. The authors also find evidence that gender, migration status and childhood socioeconomic disadvantages may represent obstacles to longer working lives, while high education is a consistent factor in avoiding early exit from the labour market. Originality/value This study provides insights on the link between labour market attachment in different stages of the career and the exit from the labour market as well as work-related benefits dependency in the year of exit.
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Education can provide individuals access to work and career possibilities. It may also contribute to greater societal equality, facilitating social mobility. The transition from secondary school (SEC) to higher education (HE) (and beyond) is particularly important, impacting both on individuals’ lives and on society more widely (e.g., by supplying labor markets with required qualifications). Taking an interdisciplinary, cross-national perspective, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 23 young people from Germany, Argentina, and Chile, aiming to enhance understanding of individuals’ perceptions of barriers and facilitators of transitioning from SEC to HE, in the context of their personal/family situations, social structures and cultural environments. Thematic data analysis pointed to commonality in terms of what young people from the three countries consider as facilitators (e.g., personal ambition; support from family/friends) and barriers (e.g., high expectations of oneself/family/friends; lack of interest in study subject). Unsurprisingly, given the three countries’ distinct educational systems, societal structures, cultural values etc., the findings also revealed some differences across the three cases, such as role models acting as an important facilitator much more in Germany compared to Chile and Argentina. We conclude that many contextual and personal factors can both facilitate and hinder young people from accessing to and thriving in HE, most of which are relevant to individuals regardless of their country of origin. Further research could expand our qualitative study, for instance, through a large-scale, quantitative study across a wider range of countries.
Article
Despite the favourable economic situation in Germany over the last decade, the number of welfare recipients (~5 million) remained at a persistently high level. One factor limiting individuals' abilities to exit welfare dependency into employment is informal care. This article analyses two aspects of informal care: childcare, considering the number of caregivers in a given family constellation, and the amount of time spent on eldercare. A panel of survey data with comprehensive information on welfare recipients is used. The waves from 2006 to 2017 are included. The results suggest that the chances of exiting welfare dependency for those in jobs covering needs are strongly impacted by the intensity of caregiving. Single parents, as well as welfare recipients who spend >10 h/wk on eldercare, especially persons providing both of these types of caregiving, have the lowest probabilities of leaving welfare dependency among all recipient groups.
Chapter
In this chapter, I argue that the causal relationship between the welfare state and the life course works in both directions: The life course as a social institution challenges the welfare state by creating age-specific needs and risks, and through them, potential or actual client groups of various sizes and compositions. The welfare state is thus shaped by the institutionalized life course with its tripartition of life into periods of preparation, active work, and retirement. On the other hand, the welfare state shapes the life course by differentially addressing the periods of life and by patterning the transitions between them. The chapter first shows how the welfare state and the life course may be conceptualized as social institutions. It then discusses the mediating step between the two, the problems of constructing welfare and life course regimes, and their differentiations in terms of gender and social class.
Article
In this study, we examine the prevalence of income and career concerns among emerging adults in three different welfare states during COVID-19: Finland ( n = 309), Sweden ( n = 324), and the United Kingdom ( n = 343). This study also delves into how factors such as one’s self-perceived financial situation, generalized mistrust, loneliness and socio-demographics are related to emerging adults’ income and career concerns. Results showed that individuals from the United Kingdom were more likely to experience increased income and career concerns than those in Finland and Sweden. Our results also suggest that income concerns were associated with one’s current financial situation, future financial situation, childhood financial situation, and loneliness. Also, career concerns were related to generalized mistrust, loneliness, and age. For both country-specific and general analyses, loneliness emerged as the most important for increased income and career concerns for emerging adults in all three countries.
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Research on the middle class has typically defined middle class membership in terms of income. In this paper, we develop a consumption-based measure of the middle class that closely follows economic theory of constrained optimization. Overall, we find that only 55% of those considered middle-class by income are also classified as middle-class by consumption, with the remaining 45% divided between the consumption working class (34%) and the consumption upper class (11%). Put differently, a sizable share of Americans—16% of the overall population—are characterized as middle-class but consume like they are working-class, with little capacity to save. We find substantial differences in the demographic makeup of the consumption-based middle class compared to the income-based middle class. Notably, fewer Black and Hispanic Americans are included in a consumption-based measure of the middle class, reinforcing distinctions between income and wealth drawn by prior literature.
Chapter
This chapter deals with the structures and structuring factors of life courses. First, the tripartite basic structure of the modern life course is presented and discussed with regard to its (dys-)functionality. Subsequently, normative and, above all, institutional life course structuring are dealt with. This raises the question of a social life course regime that overarches the individual structuring factors. The third part of the chapter deals with the emergence and socio-structural preconditions of the standardized “normal life course”. Finally, the chapter deals with the de-standardization tendencies that have been observed since the 1980s and the corresponding changes in life course patterns.
Article
We examine how the life courses of couples in East and West Germany are linked to women’s income in later life using multichannel sequence analysis. By applying a couple perspective, we overcome the individualistic approach in most previous research analysing women’s old-age income. Detailed monthly information on spouses’ employment and earnings trajectories from age 20 to 50 for the birth cohorts 1925–1965 (N = 2020) stems from SHARE-RV, a data linkage of the administrative records of the German public pension insurance with the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). We identify seven clusters of couples’ life courses and link them to women’s absolute individual and relative household income in later life using a cohort comparison to identify trends over time. While in older cohorts, women in male-breadwinner type clusters achieve the lowest, and those in dual-earner type couples have the highest incomes, this relationship does no longer prevail in younger cohorts. Here, we identify a polarization in dual-earner and male-breadwinner type clusters. The former increasingly diverge into successful female-breadwinner constellations and those with both partners in marginalized careers. The latter polarize between persistent male-breadwinner constellations and those in which women increase their labor market engagement.
Article
This article examines whether reducing care and housework duties and redistributing them within different-sex couples, could further enhance gender equality on the labor market in terms of labor market participation for different employment types and actual working hours. Women around the world perform the majority of unpaid care and housework, with a large and persistent gap to men. Most research explains the unequal gender division of domestic chores, but less frequently their consequences for employment outcomes and career outlooks. Based on the German SocioEconomic Panel (2001-2017 N = 40,419 for employment probabilities / N = 30,795 for working hours) matched with regional data on external child- and elderly care, the authors use an instrumental variables approach and eliminate time-constant individual effects in first-differenced regressions to address endogeneity issues and to disentangle the reciprocal relationship. Results show that both the overall amount as well as the unequal division of housework and care in couple households have detrimental effects on women’s labor market participation and actual working hours. Reducing the overall burden from housework and care duties and achieving a more symmetric within-couple distribution improves female integration into the labor market.
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Toplumsal yaşlanma, modern çağda karşılaşılan en önemli olgulardan birisidir. Yaşlanma, insanın biyolojik ömrünü temel almasıyla devam eden bir süreci anlatmaktadır. Yaşam seyri perspektifi, insan yaşamını kesitsel ve çizgisel değil çok yönlü, çok boyutlu ve devam eden bir süreç olarak ele alan bir yaklaşım olarak yaşlılık araştırmalarında kendisine önemli bir yer bulmaktadır. Bu araştırmada Türkçe literatürde çok az çalışma bulunan ancak Batılı literatürde yaygın olarak kullanılan yaşam seyri perspektifinin temel kavramlarının, prensiplerinin ve yaşlılık araştırmalarındaki yerinin ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda klasik literatür incelemesi yöntemi ile bu konudaki temel eserler ve araştırma örnekleri incelenmiş, araştırma soruları çerçevesinde analiz edilmiştir. Buna göre yaşam seyri perspektifi, yaşam boyu gelişim, öznellik, zamanlama, bağlantılı yaşamlar, zaman-mekan olmak üzere beş temel prensibe ve kohortlar, geçişler, yörüngeler ve dönüm noktaları kavramlarından oluşan kavramsal çerçeveye dayanmaktadır. Yaşam seyri araştırmalarında boylamsal araştırma modelleri ve veri toplama tekniklerinin yanı sıra biyografik, kesitsel araştırma modelleri ve retrospektif teknikler de kullanılmaktadır.
Article
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Toplumsal yaşlanma, modern çağda karşılaşılan en önemli olgulardan birisidir. Yaşlanma, insanın biyolojik ömrünü temel almasıyla devam eden bir süreci anlatmaktadır. Yaşam seyri perspektifi, insan yaşamını kesitsel ve çizgisel değil çok yönlü, çok boyutlu ve devam eden bir süreç olarak ele alan bir yaklaşım olarak yaşlılık araştırmalarında kendisine önemli bir yer bulmaktadır. Bu araştırmada Türkçe literatürde çok az çalışma bulunan ancak Batılı literatürde yaygın olarak kullanılan yaşam seyri perspektifinin temel kavramlarının, prensiplerinin ve yaşlılık araştırmalarındaki yerinin ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda klasik literatür incelemesi yöntemi ile bu konudaki temel eserler ve araştırma örnekleri incelenmiş, araştırma soruları çerçevesinde analiz edilmiştir. Buna göre yaşam seyri perspektifi, yaşam boyu gelişim, öznellik, zamanlama, bağlantılı yaşamlar, zaman-mekan olmak üzere beş temel prensibe ve kohortlar, geçişler, yörüngeler ve dönüm noktaları kavramlarından oluşan kavramsal çerçeveye dayanmaktadır. Yaşam seyri araştırmalarında boylamsal araştırma modelleri ve veri toplama tekniklerinin yanı sıra biyografik, kesitsel araştırma modelleri ve retrospektif teknikler de kullanılmaktadır.
Article
Purpose Relatively little is known about how working-age life course cumulative exposure to employment intensity and job complexity informs older-age cognitive function. We investigate these associations, separately for men and women, and net of known confounders. Methods Using retrospective lifetime employment histories of Europeans born 1923-1959 (2004-2009, N=22 266), we calculate cumulative working-age exposure to non-employment, full-time and part-time employment, and a professional occupation. In gender-stratified linear regression models, these indicators predict cognitive function score based on the DemTect scale and Mini Mental State Exam. Results Non-employment ≥ 25% of the working life course was associated with poorer cognitive function for men by -.43 points (95% CI = -.79, -.06) on a 19-point scale. Women's full-time employment, even if ≤ 25% of the working lifetime, was associated with a cognitive advantage over never-employment by .60 points (95% CI = .17, 1.02). Compared to predominantly non-professionally employed men, those working professionally for ≥ 75% of the life course had better cognition by .38 points (95% CI = .16, .60). Conclusions This paper provides novel evidence that older-age cognitive functioning is associated with cumulative exposure to both employment intensity and complexity, but that these relationships vary by sex.
Article
Zusammenfassung Unser Beitrag analysiert Erwerbsverläufe von Paaren in 23 europäischen Ländern und geht der Frage nach, in welchen Zusammenhang Paarlebensläufe mit dem Risiko von späterer Altersarmut stehen. Dazu verwenden wir im ersten Schritt die Lebenslaufdaten des Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) für eine Multichannel-Sequenzmusteranalyse von n=8741 Paaren. Auf Grundlage dieser Analyse identifizieren wir acht Typen von Paar­lebensläufen, die ein Spektrum von Konstellationen des männlichen Hauptverdieners (Male Breadwinner) bis hin zu Doppelverdienern (Dual Earner) abdecken sowie Paare mit atypischen Verläufen beinhalten. Im zweiten Schritt berechnen wir für diese Typen von Paarlebensläufen relative Armutsrisiko­quoten basierend auf dem bedarfsgewichteten, kaufkraftstandardisierten Haushaltseinkommen. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Armutsrisiken sich vor allem auf selbstständige Paare und Haushalte mit einem männlichen Hauptverdiener konzentrieren. Abstract: Couples’ Employment Biographies and Poverty Risks in Later Life In this article, we analyze the association between couples’ employment bio­graphies and poverty risk in later life across 23 European countries. In a first step, we apply Multichannel Sequence Analysis to couples’ retrospective life-course data from the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (n=8741 couples). Here, we identify eight distinct clusters of couples’ employment biographies, covering Male Breadwinner and Dual Earner constellations, as well as atypical trajectories. Subsequently, we assess clusters’ respective risk of poverty based on the purchasing power parity adjusted household incomes. Poverty risks are especially associated with self-employed couples, as well as households relying predominantly on a Male Breadwinner.
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This paper surveys the debate regarding Esping-Andersen's typology of welfare states and reviews the modified or alternative typologies ensuing from this debate. We confine ourselves to the classifications which have been developed by Esping-Andersen's critics in order to cope with the following alleged shortcomings of his typology: (1) the misspecification of the Mediterranean welfare states as immature Continental ones; (2) the labelling of the Antipodean welfare states as belonging to the `liberal' regime type; (3) a neglect of the gender-dimension in social policy. We reconstruct several typologies of welfare states in order to establish, first, whether real welfare states are quite similar to others or whether they are rather unique specimens, and, second, whether there are three ideal-typical worlds of welfare capitalism or more. We conclude that real welfare states are hardly ever pure types and are usually hybrid cases; and that the issue of ideal-typical welfare states cannot be satisfactorily answered given the lack of formal theorizing and the still inconclusive outcomes of comparative research. In spite of this conclusion there is plenty of reason to continue to work on and with the original or modified typologies.
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In this article, I review the issues posed 20 years ago in my model of the historical institutionalization of the life course. I (a) recapitulate the claim that the life course has become one of the major institutions of contemporary societies; (b) discuss what has been learned in the meantime, both with respect to the dynamics of social change and to how the sociology of the life course is able to conceptualize them; (c) examine current trends toward an erosion of the institutionalized life course and the structural anchors that keep it in place; and (d) focus on life course politics and their effects on the future of the life course.
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This article examines the role of social origins and education for career mobility in contemporary Italy by means of growth curves models. We find that opportunities for career advancement are rather limited and that risks of downward mobility are virtually negligible. Although this picture displays a noticeable degree of stability over time, a moderate increase of career fluidity across cohorts can be detected. Moreover, social origins and education exert a marked influence on the first occupation, while the subsequent career-adjustment of these initial social inequalities is rather limited. Furthermore, the small influence of origins and education on career opportunities does not display any systematic trend across cohorts.
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On the basis of inter-cohort comparisons, this paper describes patterns of intra-generational occupational mobility in Germany and their long-term trends since World War II. It also presents conceptual links between individual mobility and developments of inequality along the life course, with a special focus on the question of the extent to which employment careers are characterised by specific forms of cumulative advantage and disadvantage. Finally, it is asked how intra-generational developments are related to inter-generational social mobility. The paper also discusses how mobility patterns can be linked to specific institutions which – together with labour market conditions – are crucial determinants of the development of inequality within a cohort. In its empirical part, the paper presents evidence from cohort-specific analyses based on life-course data from a broad range of West German birth cohorts.
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All post-industrial labor markets become increasingly segmented between insiders who are in standard employment, and outsiders who incur a greater risk of unemployment and/or atypical employment. In this paper, we analyze to what extent this segmentation translates into actual economic, social and political dualism. We argue that this translation depends on institutional welfare regimes. While some regimes countervail segmentation – thereby preventing actual dualism in outcomes -, others perpetuate or even reinforce insider-outsider divides. Empirically, we show that structural change towards post-industrial labor markets has produced similar, but not identical sets of insiders and outsiders across regimes. We then examine the distributional consequences of segmentation with regard to three sets of outcomes: a) labor market dualism, i.e. gross earnings power as well as access to job mobility and training; b) social protection dualism, i.e. the effect of taxes and transfers on net income differentials between insiders and outsiders, pension policy and labor market policy coverage; and c) political integration dualism, i.e. the insider outsider gap in terms of trade union membership and political participation. The chapter demonstrates that the structural trend of labor market segmentation results in different patterns of dualization: continental and southern European regimes perpetuate and even reinforce the insider outsider divide with regard to all three dimensions of dualism. In liberal welfare regimes, outsiders face strong disadvantages in the labor market. However, the liberal welfare state contributes to narrowing the gap between insiders and outsiders in terms of net income. In the Nordic welfare regimes, labor market segmentation is also a reality. However, insiders and outsiders fare more equally with regard to job perspectives, income, welfare rights and political integration.
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T he relevance of socioeconomic class and of class-related parties for policymaking is a recurring issue in the social sciences. The "new politics" perspective holds that in the present era of austerity, class-based parties once driving welfare state expansion have been superseded by powerful new interest groups of welfare-state clients capable of largely resisting retrenchment pressures emanating from postindustrial forces. We argue that retrenchment can fruitfully be analyzed as distributive conflict involving a remaking of the early postwar social contract based on the full employment welfare state, a conflict in which partisan politics and welfare-state institutions are likely to matter. Pointing to problems of conceptualization and measurement of the dependent variable in previous research, we bring in new data on the extent of retrenchment in social citizenship rights and show that the long increase in social rights has been turned into a decline and that significant retrenchment has taken place in several countries. Our analyses demonstrate that partisan politics remains significant for retrenchment also when we take account of contextual indictors, such as constitutional veto points, economic factors, and globalization. W hat is the relevance of socioeconomic class and of class-related parties for government policymaking in the Western democracies? For at least half a century this question has generated intensive debates in political science as well as in sociology. In retrospect we can discern a cyclical pattern in the relative significance accorded to class in debates within the social sciences, a pattern evident also in analyses of welfare state development, one major arena for policymaking. During the first decades after the Second World War, the role of class and class pol-itics waned as social scientists pronounced the end of ideology and the "embourgeoisement" of the working class, and the logic of industrialism saw welfare states as functional necessities of industrial societies. 1 Such interpretations of social change did, however, meet em-pirical as well as theoretical resistance from scholars asserting the continued relevance of class. 2 In the area Walter Korpi is Professor, as well as other participants in these meetings. We want to thank Olof Bäckman, Stefan Englund, Ingrid Esser, Helena ö og, and Annita Nässt om for very valuable help and Dennis Quinn for providing us his data on international financial deregulation. Our thanks are also due to three anonymous referees for careful reading.
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This article examines the patterns of labour market integration over the life course of men and women in seven European countries. We select a range of household categories coinciding with different phases in the life course and use the European Community Household Panel survey to identify four broad national models, which are associated with different state regimes with regards to 'time policy'. These are the Nordic 'universal breadwinner' model (Sweden) of high participation involving long part-time or full-time hours and high employment continuity for both sexes over the life course; the 'modified breadwinner' model (France) where family formation and motherhood are still associated with withdrawal from the labour market for some groups of women and where mothers who are employed work predominantly full-time; the Mediterranean 'exit or full-time' model (Italy and Spain) where fewer women are employed, but when employed generally work full-time; finally different models of 'Maternal part-time work' (Dutch, German and UK) where motherhood is associated with a reduction in the employment rate that is less than that found in the Mediterranean countries and in France, but where part-time hours are the norm for mothers, even when children are older. We conclude that the Nordic model features the least pronounced gender inequality in time allocation to employment over the life course combined with a greater level of 'active ageing' of older workers. This profile is supported by a coherent and integrated set of policies for time and income management over the life course in contrast to the more piecemeal measures that exist in other national models. Hence, the Nordic model offers important insights for EU employment policy.
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This article examines the impact of the globalization process on individual life courses and employment careers in modern societies from an international comparative perspective. Empirical results are summarized from the GLOBALIFE research project (Life Courses in the Globalization Process), which studied the effects of globalization on life courses for the first time. As the results demonstrate, the globalization process has had diverse effects on different phases of the life course. Qualified men in their mid-careers are broadly protected from the effects of globalization, while young adults are the losers of the globalization process. We also find that educational and class characteristics determine the extent to which an individual faces increasing labour market risks. Under globalization, these effects have intensified. The results of the GLOBALIFE project thus indicate that globalization triggers a strengthening of existing social inequality structures. Another central finding is that globalization has not led to the same outcome across various modern societies. Globalization appears to be distinctly filtered by deeply embedded national institutions. These ‘institutional packages’ entail diverse strategies of labour market flexibilization which themselves differentially shape patterns of social inequality in modern societies.
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We describe a general strategy to analyze sequence data and introduce SQ-Ados, a bundle of Stata programs implementing the proposed strategy. The programs include several tools for describing and visualizing sequences as well as a Mata library to perform optimal matching using the Needleman – Wunsch algorithm. With these programs Stata becomes the first statistical package to offer a complete set of tools for sequence analysis. Copyright 2006 by StataCorp LP.
Article
This is the first systematic international comparative study of the transformation of couples careers in modern societies. The countries included are Germany, the Netherlands, the Flemish part of Belgium, Italy, Spain, Great Britain, the United States, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, and China. Using longitudinal data, this book explores what has and what has not changed for couples in various countries due to women’s greater involvement in paid employment. It provides evidence that despite substantial improvement in women’s educational attainment and career opportunities in all the countries studied, dimensions of role specialization in dual-earner couples have not undergone transformation to the same extent. Gender role change within the family has generally been asymmetric, so that housework and childcare primarily remain ‘women's work’. There are, however, also significant institutional differences among modern societies which determine a country’s timing, speed, and pattern of change from the traditional male breadwinner to the dual-earner family model. In particular, the impact of males ‘resources on their female partners’ employment careers is dependent on the welfare state regime. In conservative and Mediterranean welfare state regimes, women’s paid employment is negatively correlated with the occupational position of their husbands. In liberal welfare state regimes, no impact of husbands ‘resources on their wives’ labour force participation could be detected. In the social democratic welfare state regime and generally in (former) socialist countries, husbands ‘resources have a positive effect on their wives’ employment so that occupational resources cumulate in dual-earner families.
Chapter
Levels of part-time work vary enormously across industrial society, from 66 per cent among women in the Netherlands to just 8 per cent among women in Greece. Part-time work was almost unknown in Eastern Europe, but is now growing rapidly in the same sectors of industry as in Western Europe and the USA. Between Equalization and Marginalization provides a comparative analysis of the development of part-time work in Europe and the USA from 1950 onwards, using longitudinal and cross-sectional data, and reassesses the competing theories and conflicting perspectives so far offered on the growth of part-time work among women. It concludes that part-time work does not equalize women’s position vis à vis full-time workers, nor does it leave women in part-time jobs wholly marginalized. Instead, it shows that part-time jobs provide new opportunities for secondary earners and play a special role in the context of the sexual division of labour in the family. The country reports - by national experts - cover the USA, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, West Germany, Britain, France, Italy, Greece, Hungary, Slovenia, and Poland. Two chapters by the editors synthesize the results and assess their theoretical implications.
Book
The Golden Age of post‐war capitalism has been eclipsed, and with it seemingly also the possibility of harmonizing equality and welfare with efficiency and jobs. Most analyses believe that the emerging post‐industrial society is overdetermined by massive, convergent forces, such as tertiarization, new technologies, or globalization, all conspiring to make welfare states unsustainable in the future. This book takes a second, more sociological and institutional look at the driving forces of economic transformation. What stands out as a result is that there is post‐industrial diversity rather than convergence. Macroscopic, global trends are undoubtedly powerful, yet their influence is easily rivalled by domestic institutional traditions, by the kind of welfare regime that, some generations ago, was put in place. It is, however, especially the family economy that holds the key as to what kind of post‐industrial model will emerge, and to how evolving trade‐offs will be managed. Twentieth‐century economic analysis depended on a set of sociological assumptions that now are invalid. Hence, to grasp better what drives today's economy, it is necessary to begin with its social foundations. After an Introduction, the book is arranged in three parts: I, Varieties of Welfare Capitalism (four chapters); II, The New Political Economy (two chapters); and III, Welfare Capitalism Recast? (two chapters).
Article
This chapter demonstrates that the extent to which labor market segmentation leads to economic, social and political insider-outsider divides depends on the institutional context. Based on survey and income data, it shows that both the composition, as well as the economic and social situation of insiders and outsiders varies across countries and welfare regimes. The share of outsiders is highest in liberal and continental countries, followed by the Nordic and Southern European countries. In a comparative perspective, insider-outsider divides appear to be strongest in continental Europe, with regard to all three dimensions examined: labor market inequalities, welfare inequalities and political integration. The upshot of the chapter is that policies matter: they can compensate, reproduce or even deepen insider-outsider divides.
Article
Die Anregung oder die Last, die eine Soziologie des Lebenslaufs für die Sozialforschung bedeutet, läßt sich leicht benennen: sie weist nach, daß das Leben eine zusätzliche Dimension aufweist, nämlich die zeitliche. Wer sich mit anderen Fragen beschäftigt, steht einmal mehr vor der Aufgabe, das Erhebungs- und Analyseprogramm entsprechend auszuweiten. Das Lebensalter (bzw. die Stellung im Lebenslauf) drängt sich als eine zusätzliche Varianzdimension auf; sie muß kontrolliert werden, um die eigentlich interessierenden Effekte reiner zu erhalten. Eine direktere Form der Thematisierung von Alter und Lebenslauf besteht darin, Alternsverläufe selbst als Gegenstand zu behandeln (ähnlich wie in der Entwicklungspsychologie).
Article
Focusing on career mobility conceived as a sequence of job-shifts within and between firms, in this paper we compare Germany and Poland with regard to job-shift patterns found among men and women in these countries. The paper aims at testing a series of hypotheses on the comparative impact of labour-market segmentation (industrial sector, firm size, and social class) in welfare-capitalist and state-socialist systems. The hypotheses are tested against retrospective longitudinal data on job histories of the 1939-41 birth-cohorts from the 1981-2 German Life History Study and the 1972 Polish Life History Study. We find patterned differences between the two countries in regard to the effect of individual characteristics on career mobility, in regard to the impact of labour-market segmentation, and in regard to the effect of gender. To our knowledge, this is the first comparative investigation of this kind. Some implications of our findings for tracing the impact of current East European market reforms are also discussed.
Article
The division of paid and unpaid work between spouses is essential for the placement of women within paid work, and hence implies several consequences-for the returns, which women receive for their education, for women's employment status in the active age, for women's horizontal and vertical labour segregation, and for their amount of pensions after retirement. Previous findings suggest that there exist systematic relationships between a country's institutional background and the division of family tasks and employment between men and women. Few previous studies, however, have attempted a thorough analysis of the cross-nationally different 'typical strategies' of simultaneously dividing both paid and unpaid work between spouses, and its individual determinants. Our paper intends to fill this gap by identifying the type of strategies that women develop for combining paid and unpaid work in Bulgaria, West Germany, and East Germany, with specific emphasis on a more detailed task-oriented analysis of unpaid housework in the three different institutional contexts. Our analytical interest on the one hand lies on identifying nation-specific peculiarities as well as cross-national differences in the choice of specific reconciliation strategies. At the same time, we aim to identify the micro-level determinants that influence or shape a specific choice of strategies. Empirically, we draw back to the West German, East German, and Bulgarian data of the first wave (2006) of the Gender and Generations Programme (GGP), a newly available data set by the UN that allows for a detailed consideration of the above mentioned aspects. Descriptive statistics as well as logistic regression will be used to test for the hypothesized relationships.
Article
The relevance of socioeconomic class and of class-related parties for policymaking is a recurring issue in the social sciences. The perspective holds that in the present era of austerity, class-based parties once driving welfare state expansion have been superseded by powerful new interest groups of welfare-state clients capable of largely resisting retrenchment pressures emanating from postindustrial forces. We argue that retrenchment can fruitfully be analyzed as distributive conflict involving a remaking of the early postwar social contract based on the full employment welfare state, a conflict in which partisan politics and welfare-state institutions are likely to matter. Pointing to problems of conceptualization and measurement of the dependent variable in previous research, we bring in new data on the extent of retrenchment in social citizenship rights and show that the long increase in social rights has been turned into a decline and that significant retrenchment has taken place in several countries. Our analyses demonstrate that partisan politics remains significant for retrenchment also when we take account of contextual indictors, such as constitutional veto points, economic factors, and globalization.
Article
Welfare state typologies are generally based on the institutional design of welfare policies. In this paper we analyse whether such typologies also persist when they are applied to effective redistributive outcomes of welfare states’ tax and transfer policies. In contrast to the widespread use of macro indicators, our empirical analysis relies on internationally comparable microdata in order to account for the distribution of resources across households. We perform a hierarchical cluster analysis and check whether the classical typology for Western European welfare states reproduces the typical patterns when it comes to effective economic outcomes. We find that the established welfare regimes not only differ in their welfare state institutions as is known, but also in their economic outcomes. In particular, we identify the social-democratic, conservative, liberal and southern welfare regimes. Belgium and the Netherlands emerge as hybrid cases lying between the social-democratic and conservative model.
Article
Cet article a posé et a répondu à quatre questions. Quel a été la cause de la diffusion rapide du travail à temps partiel aux Pays-Bas ? Comment a été évitée la marginalisation des travailleurs à temps partiel ? Est ce que l'actuel modèle d'un revenu et demi par ménage constitue une phase transitionnelle vers un modèle à deux revenus; ? et finalement l'exemple hollandais sera-t-il suivi par d'autres Etat Providences européens ? Cet article cherche à montrer que le modèle hollandais d'un revenu et demi n'a pas été le résultat d'une politique délibérément planifiée des gouvernements, des syndicats ou encore des employeurs mais plutôt le résultat des pressions venu d'en bas et de changements politiques les accompagnant. Le choix d'un travail à temps partiel est étroitement lié à l'arrivée tardive et rapide des femmes mariées sur le marché du travail et la pénurie de structures d'accueil des enfants dans ce qui n'était il n'y a pas si longtemps un Etat Providence fortement marqué par le modèle d'un seul revenu masculin.
Article
Welfare state interventions shape our life courses in almost all of their multiply linked domains. In this introduction, we sketch how cross-nationally comparative retrospective data can be fruitfully employed to better understand these links and the long-run effects of the welfare state at the same time. We briefly introduce SHARE, the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, and SHARELIFE, which collected 30,000 life histories of SHARE respondents from 14 European countries, providing a unique data infrastructure for interdisciplinary research on the various influences of contextual structures on the lives of Europeans during the last century until today. The eight studies in this special issue show that the multidisciplinary cross national approach of SHARELIFE allows a much more detailed understanding of life histories in Europe than was possible before.
Article
This paper uses the retrospective questionnaire of the SHARE survey of Europeans aged 50+ to document the career dilemmas faced by women in Europe over the last fifty years. It charts how social transformation was directly experienced by survey respondents: First, it documents career differences of two cohorts in four geographical regions. Second, it compares outcomes faced by career women who had ‘gone against the flow’ in countries where they were in a minority, with women who had taken the same decision where career was, already, a majority choice. Third, it examines how far individual career choice was affected by the operation of the welfare state. To do that, we employ a multivariate econometric model that treats entry into the labour market and career choice as linked decisions, which are affected by individual circumstances, macroeconomic conditions but also by social policy parameters. We conclude that the same degree of past social policy effort appears to operate differently in different places. This is broadly consistent with the existence of distinct kinds of welfare state in the different parts of Europe.
Article
The paper reviews recent socio-economic changes in the 10 new EU member states of Central and Eastern Europe and the earlier and latest debates on the emergence of the post-communist welfare state regime. It asks two questions: are the new EU member states more similar to each other in their social problems encountered than to the rest of the EU world? Do they exhibit enough common socio-economic and institutional features to group them into the distinct/unified post-communist welfare regime that deviates from any well-known welfare state typology? The findings of this paper indicate that despite some slight variation within, the new EU countries exhibit lower indicators compared to the EU-15 as it comes to the minimum wage and social protection expenditure. The degree of material deprivation and the shadow economy is on average also higher if compared to the EU-15 or the EU-27. However, then it comes to at-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers or Gini index, some Eastern European outliers especially the Check Republic, but also Slovenia, Slovakia and Hungary perform the same or even better than the old capitalist democracies. Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, however, show many similarities in their social indicators and performances and this group of countries never perform better than the EU-15 or the EU-27 averages. Nevertheless, the literature reviews on welfare state development in the CEE region reveal a number of important institutional features in support of identifying the distinct/unified post-communist welfare regime. Most resilient of it are: an insurance-based programs that played a major part in the social protection system; high take-up of social security; relatively low social security benefits; increasing signs of liberalization of social policy; and the experience of the Soviet/Communist type of welfare state, which implies still deeply embedded signs of solidarity and universalism.
Article
This article tries to identify some common traits of the welfare states of Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece, with special attention to institutional and political aspects. The main traits identified are: (1) a highly fragmented and 'corporatist' income maintenance system, displaying a marked internal polarization: peaks of generosity (e.g. as regards pensions) accompanied by macroscopic gaps of protection; (2) the departure from corporatist traditions in the field of health care and the establishment (at least partially) of National Health Services based on universalistic principles; (3) a low degree of state penetration of the welfare sphere and a highly collusive mix between public and non public actors and institutions; (4) the persistence of clientelism and the formation - in some cases - of fairly elaborated 'patronage machines' for the selective distribution of cash subsidies. A number of factors are then discussed to explain these peculiarities of the Southern model. Among these, the historical weakness of the state apparatus in this area of Europe; the preminence of parties as main actors for interest articulation and aggregation; ideological polarizations and, in particular, the presence of a maximalist and divided Left. In the last section, the article addresses the severe problems which are currently confronting - in various degrees - the four southern European welfare states. Both the exogenous challenges, connected with market globalization and EMU, and the endogenous challenges (which as rapid ageing, mass unemployment, etc.) are discussed. It is concluded that the adaptation of the southern model to these challenges will be a very difficult process in the years ahead, in both social and political terms.
Book
The Real Worlds of Welfare Capitalism traces how individuals fare over time in each of the three principal types of welfare state. Through a unique analysis of panel data from Germany, the Netherlands and the US, tracking individuals’ socio-economic fate over fully ten years, Goodin, Headey, Muffels and Dirven explore issues of economic growth and efficiency, of poverty and inequality, of social integration and social autonomy. It is common to talk of the inevitability of tradeoffs between these goals. However, in this book the authors contend that the social democratic welfare regime, represented here by the Netherlands, equals or exceeds the performance of the corporatist German regime and the liberal US regime across all these social and economic objectives. They thus argue that, whatever one’s priorities, the social democratic welfare regime is uniquely well-suited to realizing them.
Book
Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States is the English-language adaptation of one of the most important contributions to welfare economics published in recent years. Professors Leibfried and Leisering offer a time-based (dynamic) analysis of the study of poverty, and suggest the need for a radical re-think of conventional theoretical and policy approaches. The core of this study is the empirical analysis of the life course of recipients of ‘Social Assistance’ in Germany, although the conclusions are put into a wider context of socio-economic and socio-political analysis and comparative observations are made with other countries, notably the USA. Time, Life and Poverty will be of interest to upper-level students, researchers and policy-makers in a wide range of social science disciplines, including: economics, social policy, sociology, psychology and European studies. Ralf Dahrendorf wrire a Forword, an John Veit Wilson provided the translation.
Chapter
All government policies affect the lives of citizens in some direct or indirect way. Despite the pervasiveness of the influence, relatively little attention has been given to the manner in which government impinges on the individual life course. This article aims to show that exploring the relationship between government and life course provides a seminal perspective both for the study of the life course and for welfare state analysis, especially with regard to cross-national comparison. “A thorough examination of the state and its policies may provide further insights into the ways in which age and the life course are treated in a society” [59].
Article
In the present study, we examine employment biographies of women using the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). Specifically, we compare the cohort of the baby boomers (1956–1965) with two older cohorts (1936–1945 and 1946–1955) by carrying out sequence analyses to investigate changes in their employment careers. Based on the biography sequences, we consider four different clusters to identify typical employment patterns of the three cohorts. Results show that women's careers have changed in the sense that there is an increase in the proportion of discontinuous careers and a decrease in the percentage of women with a continuous full time employment biography. At the same time, part time employment biographies gain in relevance and housewife biographies become less common. Within all types of employment patterns, the degree of plurality rises and biographies become more inhomogeneous in the sense that the number of transitions as well as the number of different states increases. Regarding the specific developments in West and East Germany, results show that on the one hand both regions are growing more alike in the sense that the high percentage of women primarily in full time employment dominated careers in East Germany has dropped and the percentage of housewife biographies in West Germany has decreased. On the other hand, there are still relevant differences between the employment patterns of West and East German women: West German women are still much more likely to experience a housewife biography, and part time work is much more relevant for women in West Germany. East German women still have to a large degree full time employment oriented biographies, but in East Germany in particular, there is a distinct trend towards discontinuous and de-standardized careers.
Article
This paper builds on the idea that any further development of the concept of 'welfare regime' must incorporate the relationship between unpaid as well as paid work and welfare. Consideration of the privateldomestic is crucial to a gendered understanding of welfare because historically women have typically gained entitlements by virtue of their dependent status within the family as wives and mothers. The paper suggests that the idea of the male-breadwinner family model has served historically to cut across established typologies of welfare regimes, and further that the model has been modified in different ways and to different degrees in particular countries.
Article
Estudio sobre el Estado de Bienestar en el marco de los procesos de globalización, contexto poco favorable para su sobrevivencia, enfocado desde una perspectiva sociológica. Aunque es indiscutible el poder de las tendencias globales y macroscópicas, Gosta Esping-Andersen argumenta que su influencia tiene un rival en las tradiciones institucionales de cada nación y por el tipo de régimen de bienestar establecido generaciones atrás. De ahí, que sea en el ámbito económico donde se encuentra la clave de qué modelo de Estado postindustrial ha de emerger.
Article
This article assesses whether it is possible to reconceptualize the traditional research approaches to the relationship between poverty and the life cycle on the basis of different sociological perspectives on the life course found in the literature. While the family-cycle approach, which was originally formulated by Seebohm Rowntree (1902), is criticized for being static, descriptive, normative and inflexible, dynamic poverty research is mostly confined to the quantitative analysis of income trajectories, and thus offers only a partial solution to our problem. However, the life-course perspective allows us to combine the best elements of these traditional approaches and to reconceptualize them into a general framework for the study of social exclusion and poverty. To this end, three sociological perspectives on the life course are considered: the traditional North-American life-course perspective formulated by Elder (1974), the Continental institutional approach, and a combined approach which we label the 'political economy of the life course'. Drawing from these three perspectives, we propose a general framework of analysis and formulate hypotheses regarding the phenomena of social exclusion and poverty over the life course which can subsequently be empirically validated.
Occupational Careers under Different Welfare Regimes: Western Germany, Great Britain and Sweden
  • J Allmendinger
  • T Hinz
Allmendinger, J. and Hinz, T. (1998) 'Occupational Careers under Different Welfare Regimes: Western Germany, Great Britain and Sweden', in L. Leisering and R. Walker (eds) The Dynamics of Modern Society: Poverty, Policy and Welfare, pp. 63-84. Bristol: Policy Press.
From Transitions to Trajectories -Sequence Types
  • R Sackmann
  • M Wingens
Sackmann, R. and Wingens, M. (2003) 'From Transitions to Trajectories -Sequence Types', in W.R. Heinz and V.W. Marshall (eds) Social Dynamics of the Life Course, pp. 93-115. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Particuliere, singuliere ou ordinaire? La regulation suisse des parcours de vie sexues
  • R Levy
Levy, R. (2007) 'Particuliere, singuliere ou ordinaire? La regulation suisse des parcours de vie sexues', in T.S. Eberle and K. Imhof (eds) Sonderfall Schweiz, pp. 226-50. Zürich: Seismo.
Europe's Troubled Peace
  • T Buchanan
Buchanan, T. (2006) Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945-2000. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Equalization and Marginalization: Women Working Part-time in Europe and the United States of America
  • S Drobnič
Drobnič, S. (1997) 'Part-Time Work in Central and Eastern European Countries', in H.-P. Blossfeld and C. Hakim (eds) Between Equalization and Marginalization: Women Working Part-time in Europe and the United States of America, pp. 71-89. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
Additional funding from the German Ministry of Education and Research, the U.S. National Institute on Aging
  • Ct
CT-2005-028857, SHARELIFE: CIT4-CT-2006-028812) and FP7 (SHARE-PREP: N°211909, SHARE-LEAP: N°227822, SHARE M4: N°261982). Additional funding from the German Ministry of Education and Research, the U.S. National Institute on Aging (U01_AG09740-13S2, P01_AG005842, P01_AG08291, P30_AG12815, R21_