Social Network Analysis

Abstract

Power no longer resides exclusively (if at all) in states, institutions, or large corporations. It is located in the networks that structure society. Social network analysis seeks to understand networks and their participants and has two main focuses: the actors and the relationships between them in a specific social context.

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Social Network Analysis
Olivier Serrat
Asian Development Bank
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Social Network Analysis
Abstract
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Knowledge
Solutions February 2009 | 28
Power no longer
resides exclusively
(if at all) in states,
institutions, or
large corporations.
It is located in
the networks that
structure society.
Social network
analysis seeks to
understand networks
and their participants
and has two main
focuses: the actors
and the relationships
between them in
a specic social
context.
Social Network Analysis
by Olivier Serrat
Rationale
The information revolution has given birth to new economies
structured around ows of data, information, and knowledge.
In parallel, social networks1 have grown stronger as forms of
organization of human activity.2 Social networks are nodes
of individuals, groups, organizations, and related systems
that tie in one or more types of interdependencies: these in-
clude shared values, visions, and ideas; social contacts; kin-
ship; conict; nancial exchanges; trade; joint membership
in organizations; and group participation in events, among
numerous other aspects of human relationships.3 Indeed, it
sometimes appears as though networked organizations outcompete all other forms of or-
ganization4—certainly, they outpace vertical, rigid, command-and-control bureaucracies.
When they succeed, social networks inuence larger social processes by accessing human,
social, natural, physical, and nancial capital, as well as the information and knowledge
content of these. (In development work, they can impact policies, strategies, programs,
and projects—including their design, implementation, and results—and the partnerships
that often underpin these.) To date, however, we are still far from being able to construe
their public and organizational power in ways that can harness their potential. Understand-
ing when, why, and how they function best is important. Here, social network analysis can
help.
1 The term was coined by John Barnes in 1954.
2 Information and communication technologies explain much but not all. The other agents that have catalyzed
social networks include globalization; the diversification of policy making to include more nongovernmental
actors, e.g., civil and nongovernment organizations, under the banner of good governance; growing recognition
of the importance of social capital; and practical applications in knowledge management and organizational
learning.
3 “Social networks” is an umbrella term that covers many forms and functions, with each node having distinct
relative worth. (Sometimes, nodes are used to represent events, ideas, or objects.) Communities of practice
are an important form. Others include policy and advocacy networks that work on problem identification
and agenda setting, policy formulation, policy implementation, and policy monitoring and evaluation; private-
public policy networks; knowledge networks; etc. (Increasingly, social networks are social communities of
the web, connected via electronic mail, websites and web logs, and networking applications such as Twitter,
FaceBook, Lotus Quickr, or LinkedIn.) Functions differ too, with nodes behaving as filters, amplifiers, investors
and providers, convenors, community builders, and/or facilitators.
4 In such instances, their strengths arise among others from (i) a unifying purpose and clear coordination structure;
(ii) multiple, interactive communications (spanning both horizontal and vertical dimensions) that encourage
simultaneous action, (iii) dynamism and creativity (owing to multiple, interactive communications between
members), (iv) consensus (born of like-minded actors who rally around shared interests or a common issue), (v)
strength in numbers, (vi) the quality and packaging of evidence, (vii) sustainability, and (viii) representativeness.

Knowledge
Solutions
2
Denition
The dening feature of social network analysis is
its focus on the structure of relationships, ranging
from casual acquaintance to close bonds.5 Social
network analysis assumes that relationships are
important. It maps and measures formal and infor-
mal relationships to understand what facilitates or
impedes the knowledge ows that bind interact-
ing units, viz., who knows whom, and who shares
what information and knowledge with whom by
what communication media (e.g., data and infor-
mation, voice, or video communications).6 (Be-
cause these relationships are not usually readily
discernible, social network analysis is somewhat
akin to an "organizational x-ray".) Social network
analysis is a method with increasing application
in the social sciences and has been applied in ar-
eas as diverse as psychology, health, business or-
ganization, and electronic communications. More
recently, interest has grown in analysis of leadership networks to sustain and strengthen their relationships
within and across groups, organizations, and related systems.
Benets
We use people to nd content, but we also use content to nd people. If they are understood better relation-
ships and knowledge ows can be measured, monitored, and evaluated, perhaps (for instance) to enhance
organizational performance. The results of a social network analysis might be used to:
• Identify the individuals, teams, and units who play central roles.
• Discern information breakdowns7, bottlenecks8, structural holes, as well as isolated individuals, teams,
and units.
• Make out opportunities to accelerate knowledge ows across functional and organizational boundaries.
• Strengthen the efciency and effectiveness of existing, formal communication channels.
• Raise awareness of and reection on the importance of informal networks and ways to enhance their
organizational performance.
• Leverage peer support.
• Improve innovation and learning.
• Rene strategies.
Development work, for one, is more often than not about social relationships. Hence, the social network
representation of a development assistance project or program would enable attention to be quickly focused
(to whatever level of complexity is required) on who is inuencing whom (both directly and indirectly).
(Outcome mapping is another method that attempts to shifts the focus from changes in state, viz., reduced
poverty, to changes in behaviors, relationships, actions, and activities.) Since a social network perspective
5 This is in contrast with other areas of the social sciences where the focus is often on the attributes of agents rather than on the relations
between them.
6 In contrast, an organization chart shows formal relationships only—who works where, and who reports to whom. Ten years ago, Henry
Mintzberg and Ludo Van der Heyden therefore suggested the use of “organigraphs” to map an organization’s functions and the ways
people organize themselves in it. See Henry Mintzberg and Ludo Van der Heyden. 1999. Organigraphs: Drawing How Companies Really
Work. Harvard Business Review. September-October: 87–94.
7 Breakdowns in information occur most often at one or more of five common boundaries: (i) functional (i.e., breakdowns between
individuals, teams, or units; (ii) geographic i.e., breakdowns between geographically separated locations); (iii) hierarchical (i.e.,
breakdowns between personnel of different levels), (iv) tenure (i.e., breakdowns between long-time personnel and new personnel);
and (v) organizational (i.e., breakdowns among leadership networks).
8 Bottlenecks are central nodes that provide the only connection between different parts of a network.
Figure 1: A Social Network
Source: Rachael King. 2006. CEO Guide to Technology: Social
Networks—Who’s Harnessing Social Networks? BusinessWeek.
Available:
http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/09/ceo_socnet/source/1.htm

Social Network Analysis
3
is, inherently, a multi-actor perspective, social network analysis can also offset the limitations of logic models
(results frameworks).
Process
Typically, social network analysis relies on questionnaires and interviews to gather information about the re-
lationships within a dened group. The responses gathered are then mapped. (Social network analysis soft-
ware exists for the purpose.)9 This data gathering and
analysis process provides baseline information against
which one can then prioritize and plan interventions to
improve knowledge ows, which may entail recasting
social connections.
Notwithstanding the more complex processes fol-
lowed by some, which can entail sifting through sur-
feits of information with increasingly powerful social
network analysis software, social network analysis
encourages at heart participative and interpretative
approaches to the description and analysis of social
networks, preferably with a focus on the simplest and
most useful basics. Key stages of the basic process will
typically require practitioners to
• Identify the network of individuals, teams, and
units to be analyzed.
• Gather background information, for example by
interviewing senior managers and key staff to un-
derstand specic needs and issues.
• Dene the objective and clarify the scope of the analysis, and agree on the reporting required.
• Formulate hypotheses and questions.
• Develop the survey methodology
• Design the questionnaire, keeping questions short and straight to the point. (Both open-ended and closed
questions can be used.)10
• Survey the individuals, teams, and units in the network to identify the relationships and knowledge ows
between them.
• Use a social network analysis tool to visually map out the network.
• Review the map and the problems and opportunities highlighted using interviews and/or workshops.
• Design and implement actions to bring about desired changes.
• Map the network again after a suitable period of time. (Social network analysis can also serve as an evalua-
tion tool.)
9 Sociograms, or visual representations of social networks, are important to understand network data and convey the result of the analysis.
Free and commercial social network analysis tools are at hand, each with different functionality. They include UCINET, Pajek, NetMiner, and
Netdraw. In each case, the graphics generated are based on three types of data and information: (i) the nodes that represent the individuals,
groups, or organizations being studied; (ii) the ties that represent the different relationships among the nodes (which may be insufficient,
just right, or excessive); and (iii) the attributes that make up the different characteristics of the individuals, groups, or organizations being
studied. Key measurements apply to the centrality of the social network analyzed; the make-up of its various subgroups (which can develop
their own subcultures and negative attitudes toward other groups); and the nature of ties (viz., direction, distance, and density).
10 Typical questions are: Who knows who and how well? How well do people know each other’s knowledge and skills? Who or what gives
people information about xyz? What resources do people use to find information about xyz? What resources do people use to share
information about xyz?
Figure 2: Formal versus Informal Structure in
a Petroleum Organization
Source: Rob Cross, Andrew Parker, Laurence Prusak, and Stephen
Borgatti. 2001. Knowing What We Know: Supporting Knowledge
Creation and Sharing in Social Networks. Organizational Dynamics.
Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 100–120. Elsevier Science, Inc.
Exploration & Production
Senior Vice President
Jones
Jones
Exploration Drilling Production
Williams
Williams
G&G
Cohen
Cohen
Cross
Cross
Sen
Sen
O’Brien
O’Brien
Paine
Paine
Shapiro
Shapiro
Moore
Moore
Miller
Miller
Andrew
Andrew
Smith
Smith
Hughes
Hughes
Ramirez
Ramirez
Bell
Cole
Cole
Hussain Hussain
Kelly
Kelly
Petrophysical Production Reservoir
Taylor
Taylor
Stock
Stock

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Solutions
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Further Reading
ADB. 2008. Building Communities of Practice. Manila. Available: www.adb.org/documents/information/
knowledge-solutions/building-communities-practice.pdf
International Network for Social Network Analysis. 2008. Available: www.insna.org
For further information
Contact Olivier Serrat, Head of the Knowledge Management Center, Regional and Sustainable Development Department,
Asian Development Bank (oserrat@adb.org).