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Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) and Aquaponics for Urban Food Production, with a Pictorial Guide to Aquaponics
Abstract
As wild-caught fish landings plateau and the global population grows, aquaculture has emerged as the fastest-growing agricultural sector. In the context of urbanization, we present the challenges and opportunities surrounding fish farming in its various forms. Intensive, highly controlled recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) treat and recycle fish effluent to maximize fish yields while conserving water. As a subset of RAS, aquaponic systems further enhance water use efficiency and reduce waste by including a hydroponic component that produces marketable plant crops. We discuss details of aquaponic system design and operation and provide a pictorial guide to the aquaponic system at the Rutgers EcoComplex.
... A number of factors may have accounted for this. The natural plankton production as food supplements in aquaponics [35], a higher microbial diversity in aquaponics [36], and resultant water purification may be better is GBS and RHS treatment. Different authors reported different FCR values in aquaponics systems: ...
The merging of fish farming and crop husbandry in a mutual system forms aquaponics. In this system, the nature of the planting substrate plays a significant role in the germination, establishment, and growth of the plant. In the current experiment, the germination and growth of the Jute plant (Corchorus olitorius L.) in an aquaponics system with tilapia fish was investigated using three different substrate types: gravel, rice husk, and palm kernel shell. Five hundred-liter plastic tanks containing tilapia fingerlings at initial stocking densities of 250 fish m⁻³ were used. One gram of Jute seed was sown in a 1 m² planting trough, which contained the three substrates separately in triplicates. The troughs were flooded with water from fish holdings by an aquarium pump. The germination percentage of the jute plant on gravel substrate (84%) and rice husk (72%) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) compared to the palm kernel shell (55%). A lower velocity of germination was also recorded in the palm kernel substrate. The rates of growth in height (centimeters per day) of jute plant and fresh shoot biomass yield were significantly lower on palm kernel substrate (P < 0.05). Growth and yield parameters of jute showed comparatively higher agronomic efficiency of gravel and rice husk substrates compared to palm kernel substrates in this research. The results indicated that substrate nature significantly affects the germination and productivity of C. olitorius in aquaponic systems and that rice husk has the potential to serve as a planting substrate in aquaponics.
Hydroponics and aquaponics are emergent agricultural techniques that offer several environmental solutions. It is anticipated that the hydroponic systems will result in a more significant profit from selling vegetables and other plants. The use of new technologies, such as hydroponics and aquaponics, has been demonstrated to increase the number of plants that can be grown. The recirculatory aquaculture system makes it possible to multiply fish production while consuming fewer resources. Essential factors of this technology include higher yield, safety, and water management. In addition, the scope of potential future research in hydroponics and aquaponics has been discussed. Furthermore, the paper identifies and discusses the various applications of hydroponics and aquaponics in agriculture.
Hydroponics and aquaponics are emergent agricultural techniques that offer several environmental solutions. It is anticipated that the hydroponic systems will result in a more significant profit from selling vegetables and other plants. The use of new technologies, such as hydroponics and aquaponics, has been demonstrated to increase the number of plants that can be grown. The recirculatory aquaculture system makes it possible to multiply fish production while consuming fewer resources. Essential factors of this technology include higher yield, safety, and water management. In addition, the scope of potential future research in hydroponics and aquaponics has been discussed. Furthermore, the paper identifies and discusses the various applications of hydroponics and aquaponics in agriculture.
Integrating fish and plant culture by means of aquaponics has many advantages but is unpopular as a commercial practice. This study identifies barriers to the adoption of aquaponics, and quantitatively predicts potential adoption of aquaponics by Israeli farmers, as a case study. We predict that only a small proportion (4–17%) of potential farmers in Israel would adopt aquaponics within 10 to 12 years from initial exposure. Farmers with the highest predicted rates of adoption were organic growers, followed by fish farmers. Raising profitability would double to triple predicted adoption levels in most grower populations.
In light of the increasing demand for fish, the challenge for planners now is to accelerate aquaculture development and to plan for new production, making urban areas not only centres of marketing and distribution, but also of production, particularly using urban wastewater. This book includes papers from authors in the USA, Europe and Asia that review these developing issues from the perspective of both developed and developing countries. Urban aquaculture education is also considered. The book is intended for those researching in aquaculture, water resources, urban planning and geography. It has 19 chapters and a subject index.
Tilapia culture is currently practised in 95 countries all over the world and the number is expected to increase. This book discusses in detail the principles and practices of tilapia culture in the world. It covers all the vital issues of farmed tilapia including: the biology, environmental requirements, semi-intensive culture, intensive culture systems, feed and feeding, reproduction and breeding, spawning and larval rearing, stress and diseases, harvesting and marketing and the role of tilapia culture in rural development. It also highlights and presents the experiences of leading countries in tilapia culture.
Wastewater-fed aquaculture is generally in decline. The 12 500 ha East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) Ramsar site in peri-urban Kolkata, India, is the only large-scale formal system still operating and appears to demonstrate a high degree of resilience. This paper identifies aspects of wastewater-fed aquaculture in the EKW that contribute to its sustained operation. The Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework was used to structure the assessment. Resilience within the EKW can be attributed to the scale of operation, adaptive production strategies that optimise resource utilisation while minimising risks, self-organisation among stakeholders and timely legislation and institutional interventions to preserve the natural character of the wetlands. The introduction of externalising technologies, erosion of social capital and loss of traditional ecological knowledge threaten to undermine this resilience. Outcomes from this analysis should inform future management of the EKW to ensure that resilience is retained and enhanced.
Global production of farmed fish and shellfish has more than doubled in
the past 15 years. Many people believe that such growth relieves pressure
on ocean fisheries, but the opposite is true for some types of aquaculture.
Farming carnivorous species requires large inputs of wild fish for feed. Some
aquaculture systems also reduce wild fish supplies through habitat modification,
wild seedstock collection and other ecological impacts. On balance, global
aquaculture production still adds to world fish supplies; however, if the
growing aquaculture industry is to sustain its contribution to world fish
supplies, it must reduce wild fish inputs in feed and adopt more ecologically
sound management practices.
Fish production, biofiltration, and hydroponics were linked in a closed system of recirculating water. Fish tanks were stocked with channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and the fish were fed daily. A revolving plate-type biofilter was used. Three field varieties of tomatoes (Lycopericon esculentum) were planted in outdoor hydroponic tanks. Three production units were operated during the 1976 growing season. All significant water quality variables were monitored. Performance was evaluated in terms of water quality, vegetative and fruit production of the tomatoes, and growth of the fish. Fish survival was high, but growth was below maximum because the temperature in the system was below optimum. The average loading rate of fish for the three units at harvest was 31.5 kg/unit, 489 g/tomato plant, 1.9 kg/m of hydroponic area, and 691 g/m of biofilter surface. Excellent water quality was maintained. The biofilter satisfactorily converted the waste to nitrate-N and phosphate-P and the hydroponic system removed these end products from the water. Nutrients were periodically added to supplement the nutrients from fish waste. Tomato yield was approximately twice that either demonstrated or expected in field production of the same varieties, and the hydroponically produced tomatoes were of better quality than the same varieties grown under field conditions.
Recirculating systems for holding and growing fish have been used by fisheries researchers for nearly three decades. Attempts to ad-vance these systems to commercial scale food fish production have in-creased dramatically in the last few years. The upsurge of interest in recirculating systems is due to their perceived advantages of: greatly reduced land and water re-quirements; a high degree of envi-ronmental control allowing year-round growth at optimum rates; and, the feasibility of locat-ing in close proximity to prime markets. Unfortunately, most commercial systems, to date, have failed be-cause of poor design, inferior man-agement, or flawed economics. This publication will address prob-lems confronted when managing a recirculating aquaculture system so those contemplating investment can make informed decisions. For information on theory and design of recirculating systems refer to SRAC Publication No.
Tilapia are the third most important cultured fish group in the world, after carps and Salmonids. Tilapia culture is also one of the fastest growing farming activities, with an average annual growth rate of 13.4% during 1970-2002. They are widely cultured in about 100 countries in the tropical and subtropical regions. As a result, the production of farmed tilapia has increased from 383,654 mt in 1990 to 1,505,804 mt in 2002, representing about 6% of total farmed finfish in 2002. Feeding represents over 50% of the operational costs of aquaculture. Fish meal has been widely used as a main conventional protein source in aquafeeds. However, the dependence on fish meal is expected to decline due to the shortage in world production of fish meal, and increased demand for fish meal in feeds for livestock and poultry industries. Therefore, partial or total replacement of fish meal with less expensive, locally available protein sources will become inevitable. Many attempts have been conducted alongside this line. The present review throws the light on alternative dietary protein sources for farmed tilapia, with emphasis on the most cost effective, commonly used sources, such as fishery by-products, terrestrial animal by-products, oilseed plants, aquatic plants, single cell proteins, grain legumes, plant protein concentrates and cereal by-products. The nutritive values, inclusion levels, constraints and economic evaluation of these sources are discussed.
Tilapia are widely cultured in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world and constitute the third largest group of farmed finfish, only after carps and salmonids, with an annual growth rate of about 11.5%. Global production of farmed tilapia has increased more than three-fold since 1984, from 186,544 m.t. to 659,000 m.t., representing about 4.48% of total farmed finfish in 1995, with a value of US$925 million. Feeding represents over 50% of the operational costs of aquaculture. The shortage in world production of fish meal (the main conventional protein source), coupled with increased demand for fish meal in feeds for livestock and poultry is likely to reduce the dependence on fish meal as a single protein source in aquafeeds. Therefore, fish nutritionists have made several attempts to partially or totally replace fish meal with less expensive, locally available protein sources. The present review presents alternative dietary protein sources for tilapia, with emphasis on fishery by-products, terrestrial animal by-products, oilseed plants, aquatic plants, single cell proteins, grain legumes, plant protein concentrates and cereal by-products. The nutritive values, inclusion levels, constraints and economic evaluation of these sources are discussed.
Murray cod, Maccullochella peelii peelii, and Green oak lettuce, Lactuca sativa, were used to test for differences between two aquaponic flood regimes; reciprocal flow (hydroponic bed was periodically flooded) and constant flow (hydroponic bed was constantly flooded), in a freshwater aquaponic test system, where plant nutrients were supplied from fish wastes, while plants stripped nutrients from the wastewater before it was returned to the fish. The Murray cod had FCRs and biomass gains that were statistically identical in both systems. Lettuce yields were good and a significantly greater amount of both biomass and yield occurred in the constant flow treatment. Constant flow treatments exhibited greater pH buffering capacity, required fewer bicarbonate (buffer) additions to control pH and maintained lower conductivity levels than reciprocal flow controls. Water consumption in the two systems was statistically identical. Overall, results suggest that a constant flow flooding regime is as good as, or better than, a reciprocating flooding regime in the aquaponic test system used.
Since 1970, total meat consumption in the US has risen from 80 kg to 90 kg per capita per year. As standards of living increase, meat consumption also increases. Chicken consumption has risen at a faster rate primarily due to affordability and because chicken is viewed as a generally more healthy meat product than beef and pork. Fish consumption has remained fairly constant for the last 20 years, primarily due to relatively high cost of fish in comparison to beef and poultry. Current costs of fish will, if anything, rise relative to other meat products due to the lack of availability of alternatives to traditional forms of fish capture or production. Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) technology has the potential to dramatically alter the current distribution of meat production away from beef, poultry and pork. Producing fish using RAS technology can be done in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way. Fish production using RAS technology can be much more efficient in converting less desirable foodstuffs into higher quality proteins, particularly if a herbivorous-type fish is used as the species of choice. The economics of fish production using RAS are reviewed and projections are made as to the near-term potential for producing fish protein using current state-of-the-art technology. The broiler industry is discussed as a case example of how a commodity was increased from less than a few kg per capita per year to being the dominant form of meat protein being consumed on a worldwide basis. The role of university research and its effective coupling to an outreach programme that will accelerate technology adaptation by the private sector is discussed. Finally, the economic advantage of fish production using RAS technology in urban versus rural locations is quantified.
The continuing rapid increases in aquaculture production world-wide raise fears of further environmental degradation of the aquatic environment. The second edition of this well-received book brings together and discusses the available information on all major environmental aspects of various aquaculture systems, providing a valuable aid to the preparation of environmental impact assessments of aquaculture projects and showing how potential environmental problems can be reduced or mitigated by sound management. Much new information is presented in this new edition, including details of the impact of genetically modified food products and a new chapter on the sustainability of aquaculture, which covers the definitions of sustainability and responsible aquaculture, environmental, economic, social and ethical aspects of sustainability and the concept of ecotechnology in fish farming. © 1992, 2004 by Fishing News Books, an imprint of Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved.
Informal reuse of wastewater in aquaculture is widespread in parts of Asia, although there has been limited introduction of formally designed and engineered systems. As there is interest in assessing the contribution of wastewater-fed aquaculture to the development of sustainable cities, a multidisciplinary typology is presented of factors to consider (i.e. associated sanitation technology, aquaculture systems, disposal of produce and effluent, and institutional aspects). An overview is also presented of the global occurrence of wastewater-fed aquaculture. Although most extant systems are threatened or in decline, wastewater-fed aquaculture has potential, as indicated by the recent introduction of schemes in Bangladesh and India. Design criteria are presented for the maximal production of fish safe for human consumption with minimal treatment of wastewater, and for the production of tilapia and duckweed as high-protein animal feed.
The origins of aquaculture in peri-urban Kolkata are described, and technical aspects of prevailing management regimes reviewed, including: the composition of species cultured; sources of water, including wastewater, used for culture; and feed, fertilizer and chemical application rates. Indian major carps and tilapia dominate production. However, several factors influence stocking regimes on individual farms. The nature of fish seed supply chains in the region is discussed. Employment practices, the role of labour unions and the livelihoods of those who depend either directly or indirectly on peri-urban aquaculture are presented. Employment in various capacities constitutes an important benefit of peri-urban aquaculture for poor people. However, labour unions are influential in setting terms and conditions, which largely dictate the widespread strategy of frequent stocking and harvesting. This in turn results in regular employment for those engaged in servicing the sector - for example, hatchery workers, seed traders, fish carriers and retail traders - and a year round supply of small, affordable fish to markets serving poor consumers. According to farmers, constraints threatening the viability of peri-urban aquaculture include uncertain wastewater supplies, high input costs, limited access to credit, poaching, disease and pest problems, inflexible labour arrangements and siltation of fishponds and feeder canals. Action to address such problems may help improve yields, and in doing so contribute to sustaining a number of poor livelihoods. However, action is also required to enable poor people to further diversify their livelihood strategies, and where necessary, or prudent, remove their reliance on insecure returns from natural resource-based activities.
Murray Cod, Maccullochella peelii peelii (Mitchell), and Green Oak lettuce, Lactuca sativa, were used to test for differences between three hydroponic subsystems, Gravel Bed, Floating Raft and Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), in a freshwater Aquaponic test system, where plant nutrients were supplied from fish wastes while plants stripped nutrients from the waste water before it was returned to the fish. The Murray Cod had FCR's and biomass gains that were statistically identical in all systems. Lettuce yields were good, and in terms of biomass gain and yield, followed the relationship Gravel bed > Floating > NFT, with significant differences seen between all treatments. The NFT treatment was significantly less efficient than the other two treatments in terms of nitrate removal (20% less efficient), whilst no significant difference was seen between any test treatments in terms of phosphate removal. In terms of dissolved oxygen, water replacement and conductivity, no significant differences were observed between any test treatments. Overall, results suggest that NFT hydroponic sub-systems are less efficient at both removing nutrients from fish culture water and producing plant biomass or yield than Gravel bed or Floating hydroponic sub-systems in an Aquaponic context. Aquaponic system designers need to take these differences into account when designing hydroponic components within aquaponic systems.
– Fish and vegetable production were linked in a recirculating water system designed to achieve a high degree of efficiency of water use for food production in addition to functional and technological simplicity. Hybrid tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus×O. niloticus L. were grown in tanks associated with biofilters (sand beds) in which tomatoes Lycopersicon esculentum were grown. The effect of four biofilter volume (BFV)/fish rearing tank volume ratios (0.67/1, 1.00/1, 1.5011, 2.25/1) on water use efficiency was evaluated.‘Laura’(first experiment) or‘Kewalo’tomatoes were grown 4/m2 in biofilters of four different sizes and surface-irrigated 8 times daily with water from the associated fish tanks. Daily water consumption increased with BFV/tank ratios and with time. Fish production rates increased with biofilter volume in the first experiment, but were not significantly different in the second experiment. Total tomato fruit yield per plot increased from 13.7 to 31.7 kg (Experiment 1) and from 19.9 to 33.1 kg (Experiment 2) with increasing BFV/tank ratio. For fish plus fruit, total energy production increased from 4,950 to 8,963 kcal/ plot and from 4,804 to 7,424 kcal/plot in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively, and protein production increased from 536 to 794 and from 352 to 483 g/plot in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively, with increasing BFV/ tank ratio. Trends in water use efficiency for production of food energy (kcal/L.) and of protein (g/L) in tomatoes and fish were complex. Water use efficiency
An indoor aquaponic system (i.e., the integration of fish culture with hydroponic plant production in a recirculating setup) was operated for maximizing water reuse and year-round intensive food production (Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, and leaf lettuce) at different fish feed to plants ratios. The system consisted of a fish culture component, solid removal component, and hydroponic component comprising six long channels with floating styrofoam rafts for holding plants. Fish culture effluents flowed by gravity from the fish culture component to the solid removal component and then to the hydroponic component. Effluents were collected in a sump from which a 1-horsepower in-line pump recirculated the water back to the fish culture tanks at a rate of about 250 L/min. The hydroponic component performed as biofilter and effectively managed the water quality. Fish production was staggered to harvest one of the four fish tanks at regular intervals when fish attained a minimum weight of 250 g. Out of the total eight harvests in 13 mo, net fish production per harvest averaged 33.5 kg/m3 of water with an overall water consumption of 320 L/kg of fish produced along with the production of leaf lettuce at 42 heads/m2 of hydroponic surface area. Only 1.4% of the total system water was added daily to compensate the evaporation and transpiration losses. A ratio of 56 g fish feed/m2 of hydroponic surface effectively controlled nutrient buildup in the effluents. However, plant density could be decreased from 42 to 25–30 plants/m2 to produce a better quality lettuce.
Murray cod, Maccullochella peelii peelii, and Green oak lettuce, Lactuca sativa, were used to test for differences between two aquaponic flood regimes; reciprocal flow (hydroponic bed was periodically flooded) and constant flow (hydroponic bed was constantly flooded), in a freshwater aquaponic test system, where plant nutrients were supplied from fish wastes, while plants stripped nutrients from the wastewater before it was returned to the fish. The Murray cod had FCRs and biomass gains that were statistically identical in both systems. Lettuce yields were good and a significantly greater amount of both biomass and yield occurred in the constant flow treatment. Constant flow treatments exhibited greater pH buffering capacity, required fewer bicarbonate (buffer) additions to control pH and maintained lower conductivity levels than reciprocal flow controls. Water consumption in the two systems was statistically identical. Overall, results suggest that a constant flow flooding regime is as good as, or better than, a reciprocating flooding regime in the aquaponic test system used.
Reduced fishery harvests and increased consumer demand for seafood have precipitated an increase in intensive fish farming, predominantly in coastal and open ocean net-pens. However, as currently practiced, aquaculture is widely viewed as detrimental to the environment and typical operations are vulnerable to environmental influences, including pollution and endemic diseases. Here we report the development of a land-based, marine recirculating aquaculture system that is fully contained, with virtually no environmental impact as a result of highly efficient biological waste treatment and water recycling. Over 99% of the water volume was recycled daily by integrating aerobic nitrification to eliminate toxic ammonia and, for the first time, simultaneous, anaerobic denitrification and anaerobic ammonium oxidation, to convert ammonia and nitrate to nitrogen gas. Hydrogen sulfide generated by the separated endogenous organic solids was used as an electron source for nitrate reduction via autotrophic denitrification and the remaining organic solids were converted to methane and carbon dioxide. System viability was validated by growing gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) from 61 g to 412 g for a total of 1.7 tons in a record 131 days with 99% fish survival. Ammonia nitrite and nitrate did not exceed an average daily concentration of 0.8 mg/l, 0.2 mg/l and 150 mg/l, respectively. Food conversion values were 16% lower than recorded levels for net-pen aquaculture and saltwater usage of less than 16 l/every kg of fish produced. The system is site-independent, biosecure, devoid of environmental contaminants and is not restricted to a single species.
In biofilters of recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS), nitrification by lithoautotrophic microorganisms is essential to prevent the cultivated organisms from intoxication with ammonium and nitrite. In moving-bed biofilters nitrifying microorganisms are immobilized together with heterotrophic bacteria in dense biofilms on carrier elements like plastic beads. Analyses of fatty acid profiles of these biofilms from a marine biofilter revealed a high abundance of Nitrospira-related lipid markers (8-12% of total fatty acids). Further results of a labeling experiment with (13) C-bicarbonate in mineral salts medium with 3 mM nitrite confirmed that Nitrospira is the major autotrophic nitrite oxidizer in the biofilter system. According to 16S rRNA gene sequence analyses the nitrite-oxidizing community in the biofilter consisted of at least two different representatives of Nitrospira, one of which could be successfully isolated. The marine isolate 'Ecomares 2.1' belongs to cluster IVa and showed 98.8% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to Nitrospira marina, whereas the enrichment 'M1 marine' is only distantly related (94.0% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to N. marina). In laboratory experiments, the isolate exhibited remarkable tolerances against high substrate and product concentrations (30 mM nitrite and 80 mM nitrate) as well as ammonium (50 mM). During the isolation process a strong tendency of this strain to develop biofilms became apparent. Thus, Ecomares 2.1 seems to be well adapted to the attached lifestyle in biofilters and the nitrogenous load prevailing in the effluent waters of RAS. Both members of Nitrospira could be detected by PCR-based methods in environmental samples of marine and brackish RAS biofilters and are therefore considered to be characteristic for these engineered ecosystems.
Zero-discharge marine aquaculture systems are an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional aquaculture. In these systems, water is purified and recycled via microbial biofilters. Here, quantitative data on nitrifier community structure of a trickling filter biofilm associated with a recirculating marine aquaculture system are presented. Repeated rounds of the full-cycle rRNA approach were necessary to optimize DNA extraction and the probe set for FISH to obtain a reliable and comprehensive picture of the ammonia-oxidizing community. Analysis of the ammonia monooxygenase gene (amoA) confirmed the results. The most abundant ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) were members of the Nitrosomonas sp. Nm143-lineage (6.7% of the bacterial biovolume), followed by Nitrosomonas marina-like AOB (2.2% of the bacterial biovolume). Both were outnumbered by nitrite-oxidizing bacteria of the Nitrospira marina-lineage (15.7% of the bacterial biovolume). Although more than eight other nitrifying populations were detected, including Crenarchaeota closely related to the ammonia-oxidizer 'Nitrosopumilus maritimus', their collective abundance was below 1% of the total biofilm volume; their contribution to nitrification in the biofilter is therefore likely to be negligible.
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