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Flow in Sport
Abstract
Sport offers rich opportunities to experience flow by posing both mental and physical challenges. Studies specifically investigating flow in sport were first published in 1992. Since then a body of empirical research has emerged in this area, which this chapter aims to review in terms of: (i) the methods commonly used to study flow in sport (i.e., interviews, questionnaires, and the Experience Sampling Method); and (ii) key research themes (i.e., the experience, occurrence, controllability and correlates of flow in sport). In turn, current issues within this field are examined, and recommendations are made for future research, including the need to build towards a causal explanation of flow, and potential refinement in understanding how athletes experience these optimal states.
... Engels and Freund (2018) could show that students' perceptions of their physical competences determine the level of joy they experience when being physically active. This is in line with reported positive associations between flow and competence (Keskin Akın et al., 2018;Swann, 2016). Also Stormoen et al. (2016) could show that the fulfillment of the basic psychological needs of competence, belongingness and autonomy accounted for 39% of the variance of flow experiences in 167 Norwegian high school students. ...
... Dispositional flow seems to be influenced by an interaction of internal (e.g. thoughts and emotions), external (environment and situation) and behavioral factors (Swann, 2016). In the P.E. ...
... Since performing musicians are exposed to physical and psychological stress that can lead to disorders and health problems, it would be important to implement appropriate interventions to help make their musical career rewarding and sustained over time (Kenny and Ackermann, 2016). It has been suggested that interventions should target skills training related to flow factors and the personality characteristics of the individual (such as good preparation, task concentration, coping strategies, goal setting, motivational exercises, confidence building and activation management) (Swann, 2016). Recent research that assessed an intervention programme applied to performing musicians showed that the programme had a positive and statistically significant influence on both the musicians' overall flow level and on two of the components of flow: sense of control and loss of self-consciousness. ...
... The need for musicians to develop psychological selfregulation skills has been considered, and for training to not only focus exclusively on technical-performance skills (Brodsky, 1996;Williamon, 2004;Clark and Williamon, 2011;Wrigley and Emmerson, 2013;Cohen and Bodner, 2019a;Spahn et al., 2021;Moral-Bofill et al., 2022a,b). In fact, it has been suggested that targeted interventions should be based on skills training related to flow factors, as well as other related factors (Swann, 2016;Moral-Bofill et al., 2022b). ...
Introduction
Flow state has been deemed a desirable state for performing musicians given its negative correlations with musical performance anxiety, its relationship to optimal performance, and its possible effect on creativity. In the field of music, there are a few studies that have assessed intervention programmes to promote flow state in performing musicians with varying results in terms of their success. The flow condition-experience model proposes three components that would be the conditions for flow state to occur and six components that describe the experience of being in a flow state. In addition, within the vast academic literature on this experience, other factors that could influence its occurrence have been proposed. The main objective of this research was to detect which are the most suitable predictors from a set of independent variables collected to distinguish performing musicians with a high flow level.
Methods
A binary logistic regression analysis was carried out with data from 163 musicians aged between 18 and 65. Independent variables were introduced in the analysis: skill-challenge balance, clear goals and clear feedback (condition-experience model); and also, gender, age, dedication, (musical) style, musical instrument and (performing) situation.
Results
The results showed that the three conditions of the condition-experience model and the situation variable had positive associations with flow state. The model explained 78% of the variance of the dependent variable and obtained a 90.8% correct classification rate.
Discussion
These variables seem to contribute most to a high flow level, and the importance of keeping in mind the intrinsic reasons why performers dedicate themselves to music is emphasised. The results and their implications for the training of performing musicians are discussed. Future lines of research are proposed, as well as collecting data on personality-related variables to introduce them into the regression model.
... This study examines how workplace bullying lowers employee selfesteem and affects organizational commitment. Self-esteem is a person's self-worth and values (Swann, 2016). Organizational commitment depends on self-esteem. ...
... We think others see us. Most self-esteem-raising efforts fail (Swann, 2016). Self-esteem is required. ...
The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of workplace bullying on organizational commitment. Also, the analysis the mediating role of self-esteem in this particular relationship and mod explores Power distance erasing function. The survey was carried out on employees and peers working in the public sector universities of Pakistan. Via convenience sampling, data was collected from 236 employees of the Public Sector Universities of Pakistan. Data was analyzed by using structural equation modeling technique in Smart-PLS3. PLS-SEM represents significant relationship as the entire proposed hypotheses were supported. Results show that bullying in the workplace has negated a strong and significant relationship with organizational commitment. The mediating role of Self-esteem between the workplace bullying relationship and organizational commitment was backed by effects as well. While the Power Distance's moderating function between the outcomes was supported by occupational bullying and organizational commitment. Accordingly, a mutually trusting ecosystem should be created and encouraged by organization; a significant buffer can be used for the efficient functioning of organizations to reduce the negative feelings and also help to increase the organizational commitment. This research is not only for education sector, it is also helpful for all sectors like Agriculture, industrial and mining sectors. This research talks about how to tackle bullying activities during work
This chapter presents an overview of contested and evolving understandings of flow as a collection of components or dimensions, and associated definitional difficulties, including debates as to whether flow is a continuum or an all-or-nothing phenomenon; disagreements as to both how many components constitute flow and how they inter-relate; divergent perspectives with respect to core features of flow; and acknowledgement that existing models and measures might capture/conflate more than one psychological state. The discussion in this chapter initiates an argument for a reworked conceptualisation of flow that simultaneously tightens its focus on the significance of an imbalance in skills versus challenge and recalibrates the relationship between flow and control. Developing and presenting a ‘dimensional-depth’ model of flow that incorporates and integrates multiple and divergent perspectives even within componential constructs of flow, this chapter lays the groundwork for further conceptual reformulation through consideration of channel, process and dynamic understandings of flow in chapter “Channel and Process Models of Flow”.
This chapter initiates a deeply critical argument not only on the conceptual level, by questioning the growing employment of distinctions drawn between good or bright flow and bad or dark flow, but also on an applied level, by thinking about flow beyond its (inter-)personal nature as an experience to consider its changing situation within (Western) society as it is increasingly used to enhance performance, wellbeing and profit. It is argued that this fundamental shift in our understanding and treatment of flow heralds a dystopian future for flow wherein it is vulnerable to conscription into hegemonic agendas and manipulation as a tool of governance to entrench growing inequalities under neoliberalism by exploiting the working population through the fetishisation of the qualities of flow. This chapter thus asserts its own critiques of flow and sets the scene for the expansion and deepening of this argument in the next chapter, which moves the spotlight away from the scale of the individual and their immediate context (e.g., work, therapy) to explore the broader ramifications of such trajectories at the global scale.
Part II interrogates the role of space and place in flow and the treatment of those same terms in existing flow literature. Inconsistencies between the evident importance of place to/in flow in empirical accounts and the under-specification of spatial concerns in constructs of flow are identified, spatial concepts employed in flow scholarship in ways that do not align with contemporary geographical thinking are updated, and the unidirectional notion that place influences flow but not vice versa is corrected. Comparative analysis of flow experiences in artistic practice and online gaming, through the conceptual lenses of aesthetic theory and (tele)presence, brings to light very different spatial experiences through the unique signatures of different types of presence discerned in each domain of practice. This concluding chapter extends these analyses to flesh out not only how archetypal flow is itself a space (physical presence in material practice) and can be generative of place (spatial presence in a different phenomenological place), but also how this spatially transformative quality can itself vary between domains of practice. It reformulates flow and presence as distinct yet related experiences, it provides a more processual framing of how diverse spatial experiences in flow might come into being, it affirms that flow is inherently, multiply and thoroughly spatial, and it encourages a more bodily, material, pre-reflective and practice-based approach to flow research.
Intuition has often been assumed to be an intangible process that is beyond an actor’s control and influence. This article puts forward an alternative perspective, proposing that intuition is best understood as an embodied cognitive process. We empirically explore this operationalization within the acting context, and propose that intuition for actors can be developed. We hypothesized that (a) immersion and sensory awareness are the driving components of intuition in the process of acting; (b) there would be individual differences in these mechanisms, and (c) these mechanisms can be practiced, developed, and trained. We tested these hypotheses through a series of multimethodological studies: Study 1, a large-scale survey with actors of all levels (n = 310), Study 2, a large experimental study with psychology students (n = 198), and Study 3, a longitudinal and experimental feasibility study involving a newly developed training method for acting students (n = 20). The results demonstrated that trait absorption and exteroceptive awareness predicted the participants’ intuition, and that individual differences in trait awareness and immersion were associated with concurrent differences in tasks assessing intuition and intuition mechanisms. We moreover found that these skills may be developable and trainable: Intuition scores were greater in actors with greater practice (Study 1), in acting students than psychology students (Study 2), and increased as a result of the training method focused on attention and awareness (Study 3). We conclude that in the context of acting, intuition is supported by trainable abilities for awareness and immersion.
Skilful expertise is grounded in practical, performative knowledge-how, not in detached, spectatorial knowledge-that, and knowledge-how is embodied by habitual dispositions, not representation of facts and rules. Consequently, as action control is a key requirement for the intelligent selection, initiation, and regulation of skilful performance, habitual action control, i.e. the kind of action control based on habitual dispositions, is the true hallmark of skill and the only veridical criterion to evaluate expertise. Not only does this imply that knowledge-that does not make your actions more skilful, but it also implies that it makes them less skilful. This thesis, that I call Radical Habitualism, finds a precursor in Hubert Dreyfus. His approach is considered extreme by most philosophers of skill & expertise: an agent –says Dreyfus– does not perform like an expert when they lack the embodied dispositions necessary to control their action habitually or when they stop relying on such dispositions to control their actions. Thus, one cannot perform skilfully if their actions are guided by representations (isomorphic schemas, explicit rules, and contentful instructions), as the know-that that they convey disrupts or diminishes the agent’s habitual engagement with the task at hand. In defence of Radical Habitualism, I will argue that only the contentless know-how embedded in habitual dispositions fulfils (i) the genetic, (ii) the normative, and (iii) the epistemic requirements of skilful performance. I will examine the phenomenological premises supporting Dreyfus’ approach, clarify their significance for a satisfactory normative and explanatory account of skilful expertise, and rebut the most common objections raised by both intellectualists and conciliatory habitualists, concerning hybrid actions guided by a mix of habitual and representational forms of control. In revisiting Dreyfus anti-representationalist approach, I will particularly focus on its epistemological implications, de-emphasizing other considerations related to conscious awareness.
Stimulating the growth of skiing consumption and promoting the development of the skiing industry is a hot topic nowadays. In this article, we looked at 30 people of different ages and genders who skied for different lengths of time and used a questionnaire survey method to explore the relationship between skiers’ continuous consumption behavior and their flow experience during skiing to explore the factors that affect their continuous consumption behavior. The study found that consumers have an ‘immersive interaction’ during their skiing and how important flow can impact consumers while performing the sport.
This study examined the effects of hypnosis on flow states and golf-putting per- formance in 5 competitive players. The investigation utilized an ideographic single- subject multiple baseline across subjects design combined with a procedure that monitors the internal experience of the participants (Wollman, 1986). The method of intervention utilized in this study involved hypnotic induction, hypnotic re- gression, and trigger control procedures. The results indicated that all 5 partici- pants increased both their mean golf putting performance and their mean flow scores from baseline to intervention. There were no overlapping data points be- tween the baseline and intervention for either performance or flow state. Addi- tionally, each participant indicated that they had felt the intervention was useful in keeping them relaxed, confident, and focused. Three of the golfers also re- ported experiencing reduced concerns about performing and more control over their putting stroke.
This study examined the effects of an hypnotic intervention on flow states and golf-chipping performance of 3 participants. The study utilized an ideographic ABA single-subject design combined with a procedure to assess the participants' internal experience (Wollman, 1986). The intervention involved relaxation, imagery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and trigger control procedures over 5 wk. and 7 trials. Analysis indicated the 3 participants increased their mean golf-chipping performance from the trials in Baseline 1 to intervention, with 2 returning to Baseline 1 performance after the intervention phase at Baseline 2. The intensity of flow experienced by the participants during the performance trials was measured using Jackson and Marsh's 1996 Flow State Scale. Two participants experienced higher flow during the intervention phase and much lower flow during Baselines 1 and 2. Finally, participants indicated the intervention seemed useful in keeping them confident, relaxed, and in control. These results support the hypothesis that an hypnotic intervention can improve golf-chipping performance and increase feelings and cognitions associated with flow.
Using a single-subject multiple baseline design, combined with assessments of participants' internal experience (Wollman, 1986), the efficacy of a hypnotic intervention on flow state and competitive cycling performance was assessed in three elite cyclists. Intervention involved relaxation, imagery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and the conditioning of an unconscious trigger associated with the emotions of past peak performance. Ecologically valid performance measures were collected from British Cycling Federation (BCF) races, and the intensity of flow was assessed using Jackson and Marsh's (1996) Flow State Scale (FSS). Results indicated that the number of BCF points gained per race was positively influenced in one participant, sporadically influenced in the second participant, and not influenced in the third participant. FSS scores during the intervention phase increased for one participant. These findings suggest that hypnotic interventions may improve elite competitive cycling performance and increase the feelings and cognitions associated with flow.
Objectives: In this study we aimed to better understand the occurrence and experience of flow in elite golf. As flow is more likely to occur during peak performances, and for elite athletes, our objectives were to: (i) identify golfers who achieved exceptional performances (e.g., winning a professional tournament), and (ii) explore if and how they experienced flow within that performance. Design: Mixed-method multiple case study. Method: Participants were 10 professional golfers (M age = 30; SD = 9.9). Performance data and participant observations informed semi-structured interviews which took place as soon as possible after an excellent performance (M = 4 days). Data were interpreted using within-case then cross-case thematic analysis. Results: These golfers reported that they experienced two different psychological states during their excellent performances. These states were described as: (i) "letting it happen" which corresponded with the definition and description of flow; and (ii) "making it happen" which was more effortful and intense, involved a heightened awareness of the situation, and therefore differed to flow. Both states occurred through different processes, and "letting it happen" was a relatively gradual build-up of confidence, whereas "making it happen" was a more sudden stepping-up of concentration and effort. Conclusion: These findings are discussed in relation to existing literature on flow and related optimal psychological states in sport. Recommendations are then made for future research into the experience and occurrence of both states reported in this study.
This study investigated relationships among peak performance, flow, goal orientation, and perceived ability in an attempt to ascertain possible conceptual bases to peak performance. Collegiate athletes (N=200) answered a questionnaire that assessed mastery and competitive goal orientations, perceived ability, flow, and experience in best and worst competitive performances. It was hypothesized that the psychological process of flow underlies peak performance and is associated with a mastery oriented focus and high perceived ability. These predicted relationships were supported by both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Analysis of athletes’ best performances indicated a total focus on performance, and other characteristics of flow were key to the perception of a superior state of functioning. In contrast, overconcern with the outcome, reflecting a competitive orientation, was often associated with athletes’ worst performances. These associations suggest that investigating positive performance states fr...
This article describes an intervention ontable the precompetition routines of soccer players during a 19-week phase of a competitive season. Specifically, we worked with players to develop an enhanced understanding of the effectiveness of personalized preperformance music and imagery scripts in facilitating flow states and performance. Five male players (M age = 20.5; S.D = 1.6) participated in a single-subject multiple baseline across individuals design with multiple treatments and without reversal. Following a preintervention phase, participants undertook the intervention during their prematch warm-up. Flow and perceived performance were assessed immediately after each match. Results indicated that asynchronous music and MG-M imagery when combined had a facilitative effect on flow and perceived performance. Postexperimental player comments supported these findings and suggest that the intervention strategy has great potential for athletes during precompetition. Consultancy guidelines for the use of music and imagery within competitive soccer are presented in the discussion.
Objectives: This research aimed to shed light on the relationship between flow experience and performance
in sports using a marathon race as an example. We hypothesized that flow influences the
marathon race performance by an indirect rewarding effect.We assumed that the positive quality of flow
experience rewards the pre-race running activity and thereby enhances training behavior which again
leads to high race performance. A methodological issue of the this was to compare the retrospective with
the experience-sampling measure of flow.
Design: Three studies with marathon runners (Ns ¼ 109, 112, 65 for Studies 1, 2, and 3, respectively) were
conducted.
Method: They measured flow experience four times during a marathon race either retrospectively
(Studies 1 and 2) or using an experience-sampling method during the race (Study 3). Additionally race
performance and future running motivation (Studies 1, 2, and 3), pre-race training behavior (Studies 2
and 3) and flow experience in training (Study 3) were measured.
Results: The results confirmed the hypothesis showing that flow during a marathon race is related to
future running motivation, but is not directly linked to race performance. Instead, race performance was
predicted by pre-race training behavior (Studies 2 and 3) which again was fostered by flow during the
training (Study 3). The descriptive flow courses of the retrospective and the experience-sampling flow
measures were comparable but also showed important differences.
Conclusions: We critically discuss the practical implications of the rewarding effect of flow on performance
and the advantages of the retrospective and experience-sampling measure of flow.