Isotope date: Implications for the sources(s) of Osireion groundwater, Abydos Egypt

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Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies "EJARS"
An International peer-reviewed journal published bi-annually
Volume 1, Issue 1, June - 2011: pp: 61 - 72 www. ejars.sohag-univ.edu.eg
Original article
ISOTOPIC DATA: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SOURCE(S) OF OSIREION
GROUNDWATER, ABYDOS, EGYPT
. Parizek, A* Abdel Moneim, A**, Fantle, M *, Westerman, J*** & Issawi, B****
*Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA 16802,
**Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt, *** Chicago, IL USA, ****Cairo, Egypt
Ahmed_aziz9791@science.sohag.edu.eg
Received 25/2/2011 Accepted 1/6/2011
Abstract
Among the many wars which depicted and documented at the ancient Egyptian history, little of them
The Osireion, formerly concealed within a West Bank Nile terrace, is thought to have been an
important building to the Ancient Egyptians. Its huge building blocks define a rectangular central
stone island surrounded by a water-filled channel nearly 13m below the surrounding land surface.
The channel was cleared of debris to 4.3m in 1925, but not to its original depth. Westerman (2008)
successfully probed to 10.4m using a metal rod. Seismic data suggest its walls may extend 15m
below the water table. Westerman listed six questions that elude archeologists and Egyptologists.
Why, when and how was the Osireion built? Is in the interior of the island hollow? Why was it built in
water? What is the source of the water? Eleven water samples were collected including the Nile,
Osireion, two nearby idle dewatering wells, an active eastern French drain and six active water
supply wells. ä18O and äD were measured by EAEA and PO4, Cl, Na+K and TDS by Sohag
University. Factors such as evaporation, mixing, relative humidity, surface elevation and recharge
climate can influence isotopic contents. The Nile sample appears most affected by evaporation,
consistent with Lake Nasser’s great size and arid climate. Water samples fall below the GMWL and
paleowater line in a region expected of modern precipitation in arid, low latitude climates. Sinai
groundwater by contrast are isotopically lighter, suggestive of recharge at higher elevation during
cooler climates. ä18O, äD, PO4, Cl, Na+K and TDS concentrations suggest Osireion waters are not
easily explained by simple evaporation of any supposed end member. ä18O and äD concentrations
are strikingly different from two nearby down groundwater gradient, dewatering wells most likely from
a mixed source not typical of the ten other samples. Upfllowing from a semi-confined artesian
aquifer, possibly also diffuse regional leakage through the Esna Shale are suggested.
Keywords: Abydos temple, Groundwater, Isotope Data, Archaeology, Egypt
1. Introduction
The Osireion, formerly concealed within
a West Bank Nile terrace, Abydos,
Egypt, is thought to have been an
important building for the Ancient
Egyptians. Osiris was the main god of
the Abydos, which became cult center of
this god, burial site of kings of Dynasty I
and II and high court dignitaries in
Pharaonic times. The structure is
constructed of huge blocks of Aswan
granite, sandstone and limestone. It
intersects the water table nearly 13
meters below the desert surface. Its
outer walls surround a water-filled
channel and central hall. The channel
defines a massive rectangular central
stone island. The channel was cleared of
boulders derived from the breakup of the
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upper portion of the temple and sediment
accumulations to a depth of about 4.3
meters during H. Frankfort’s 1925
expedition. Excavation was limited by
capacity of the 16 hp, 4-inch diameter
steam- powered pump available at the
time. It was able to lower the water
level 3.7 m below the ledge or top of the
island. The groundwater inflow capacity
has not been defined to date. [1] lists six
principal questions that have eluded
archeologists and Egyptologists. Why
was the Osireion built? When was it
built? How was it built? Is in the
interior of the island hollow? Why was
it built in water? Of interest here are
observations resulting from more recent
hydrogeological investigations concerned
with the source or sources of
groundwater that nourish the Osireion:
the sixth question, Was it located at the
site of a spring or did the foundation of
this deeper than expected structure
penetrate the water table during its
construction? If the latter is correct, how
might its artisans have lowered water
levels to allow placement of its huge
stone blocks and then control levels
following completion of the temple?
2. METHODS
The oxygen (ä 18O) and deuterium, (ä D)
isotopic compositions of eleven water
samples collected in June 2009 were
measured by the Egyptian Atomic Energy
Authority. Staff from the Authority
collected, transported and stored water
samples. Sample locations were identified
and selected by Professor Ahmed A.
Abdel Moneim, Geology Department,
Faculty of Science, and Sohag University,
Egypt, fig. (1-a). He assisted in this
sampling effort. We assume therefore,
that no headspace was left in sample
containers that might allow evaporation,
hence change isotopic contents and that all
necessary protocols were followed. Pumps
were used to obtain water from two
American House water supply wells, farm
wells located west and south of the
Osireion and a house well in Abydos, fig.
(1-b), other samples were hand bailed
from exposed water sources. Cations,
anions and other constituents were
analyzed by the Geology Department
Laboratory, Sohag University, tab. (1-a,
b). Isotopic data from the Sinai
Peninsular, were included in some
graphs for comparison. These were
obtained from [2]. Sinai samples were
analyzed for radioactive tracers (14C, 3H)
as well as stable isotopic composition
(18O/16O and D/H), by the Atomic
Energy Authority. Sinai groundwater was
contained in artesian aquifers at various
distances and depths from potential
recharge areas that are higher in elevation
than the Abydos area. Age dates also
indicate that recharge occurred under
wetter climatic conditions than exist at
present.
Figure (1) a Location of archeological sites in Abydos b General view of the site b Sti 1st Temple

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Table (1-a): Location and groundwater characteristics
Well Location
EC TDS pH
105 815 521 8,5
99 1768 1131 8,1
95 908 581 7,6
106 1464 936 7,5
113 1714 1096 8,0
116 1235 790 7,4
200 1752 1121 7,8
120 1412 903 7,2
122 1184 568 7,8
290 7790 5113 7,7
Nile water 305 195 7,3
Table (1-b): Result of the chemical analysis of water samples
Well Location Units Ca Na Mg Fe Mn Cat. HCO3 SO4 Cl Anio.
105 20,0 126,0 5,0 0,218 0,039 151,3 214,0 71,0 74,0 359,0
99 72,0 184,0 37,5 0,430 0,008 293,9 475,0 83,8 177,0 735,8
95 40,0 92,0 15,0 0,030 0,000 147,0 198,0 67,0 111,0 376,0
106 120 69,0 42,0 1,020 0,150 232,2 250,0 192,0 177,5 619,5
113 56,0 138,0 38,4 0,490 0,000 232,9 317,0 110,0 173,0 600,0
116 120 69,0 36,0 0,290 0,011 225,3 445,0 134,0 74,0 653,0
200 80,0 161,0 42,5 0,102 0,0 283,6 174,0 192,0 301,0 667,0
120 120 80,0 37,0 0,380 0,121 237,5 448,0 62,0 99,0 609,0
122 60,0 175,0 2,5 0,540 0,000 238,0 195,0 240,0 99,0 534,0
290 561 483,0 169,0 0,270 0,000 1213 118,0 1000 1526 2644
Nile water
ppm
32,0 7,0 12,8 0,050 0,000 51,9 130,0 20,0 20,0 170,0
The central portion of the Sinai is in an
arid transitional zone between a desert
and North African and southwest Asian
Mediterranean climates. Both arid and
semi-arid conditions prevail. Dames and
Moore (1985) [8] recognized six climatic
regions. The region is noted for extreme
aridity, low erratic rainfall, high
evaporation, high summer temperatures
and vigorous winds. Rainy months
begin from October and extend until
May. Mean annual rainfall ranges from
8.1 mm at El-Sheikh Attia toward the
south to 35.4 mm at Saint Katherine
station. Intense short duration storms
result in floods. Surface elevations vary
from <200 to more that 1,626 m above
sea level.
3. ISOTOPIC DATA
Weighted annual ä18O and äD values of
precipitation in Africa are shown in fig.
(2). These data constrain the isotopic
content of precipitation and, therefore,
the initial isotopic composition of
groundwater recharge. Various factors,
such as evaporation, mixing, and relative
humidity, influence both ä18O and äD in
time and space, fig., (3). In our study
region, evaporation of ground-and
surface waters can severely affect the
isotopic composition of waters. We
should note that climatic factors also
affect the isotopic composition of
precipitation, thus groundwater added to
aquifers in the past ostensibly in wetter
and cooler conditions can differ
substantially from present-day recharge.

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Figure (2) Weighted annual ä18O and äD precipitation values for Africa.
Figure (3) Theoretical trends in ä18O and äD as a function of low-and high-latitudes, low-and high-
altitudes, summer and winter season, evaporation under more humid and more arid conditions
together with the meteoric water (MWL) and standard mean Ocean.
An analysis of the ä18O and äD data
from the Sinai Peninsula and Abydos
region, fig. (4-a), in addition to PO4, CL,
Na+K concentrations and TDS, fig. (5,
6), suggest that waters sampled at
Osireion are not easily explained by
simple evaporation of any of the
supposed end members. With regard to
the isotope data, water samples collected
in the Abydos region generally fall
between the Global Meteoric Water Line
(GMWL) and the previously-identified
paleowater line [2] in a region expected
of modern precipitation in arid, low
latitude climates. In contrast, while the
Sinai groundwater fall between the
GMWL and the paleowater line, they are
significantly lighter isotopically,
suggesting that Sinai groundwater is
comprised of water from cooler climates
and/or higher altitudes. Radioactive 14C
data reveal that these waters are indeed
older and were likely replenished under
pluvial, inland climatic conditions. Of
the water samples analyzed from the
Abydos region, the Nile River sample
appears the most affected by
evaporation, fig. (4-b). This hypothesis is
consistent with the degree of evaporation
expected at the >500 km long Lake
Nasser upstream, given the arid climate
and significant surface area of the lake.
Yearly evaporation and seepage losses in
Lake Nasser average about 10.8 percent
by volume of water in the reservoir
estimated to be 140 billion cubic meters
After http://www.science.uwalerloo.ca/~llgibson/

65
when filled to its maximum level [3] [4],
estimated the degree of aridity at Sohag
as 0.267, indicating a desert condition,
and estimated the rate of evaporation to
be 2.4 m/year. While the isotopic data
support the most chemically dilute of the
samples measured, fig. (5-6). Analysis of
waters upstream of Lake Nasser is
therefore, critical to constraining the
degree of permissible evaporation. The
water sample obtained from the
interceptor drain dewatering well at
Abydos east of the Seti-I Temple, also
shows an evaporative influence and is
isotopically similar to Nile River water
in this locale, fig. (4b). The TDS-Cl and
phosphate-Cl data support the idea that
the drain water is derived from
evaporation of a local Nile-like water,
while the Na+K-Cl data suggest some
degree of mixing and/or water-rock
interaction in the system. This drain
intercepts shallow groundwater intended
to protect the Seti-I Temple against
rising ground- and capillary-water and
further accumulation of destructive
evaporate salts. This drain is located
somewhat distant from the western
margin of the Nile flood plain where
flood irrigation allows crop production
on a year round basis. Waste water also
is released from homes located
immediately north and south of this
drain as well as opposite the inner and
outer Seti-I court yards located to the
west of the drain. Nine piezometers
were installed immediately in front of
the Seti-I Temple outer court to define
the water table configuration, fig. (7) and
to support a geothermal geophysical
exploration program in search of a
conduit that has been postulated to have
been built to control the water level in
the Osireion. fig. (8) shows the locations
of these piezometers. Depths to the water
table vary from 1.67 to 1.95 m within
these piezometers set in silty sand and
silty clay deposits. Their fine grain size
facilitates the rise of capillary water.
Destructive salts are present 1.0 to 1.5 m
above the land surface on the stairway
and outer retaining wall of the Seti I
outer courtyard, fig. (9). The height of
capillary rise can range from 0.50 m for
fine-grained sand to 3.0 m for coarse silt
and 7.5 m for fine silt [5]. Depths to
groundwater within the interceptor drain
vary from 0.955 to 3.64 m below land
surface depending upon its pumping
schedule. High groundwater evapotrans-
piration rates are to be expected within
both vegetated and non vegetated areas
near this drain because of the desert
climate, shallow water table and fine-
textured soils encountered in auger holes
located in the area. Evaporation accounts
for its isotopic value that plots below the
GMWL, fig. (3,4b). The dewatering well
and interceptor drain are rather distant
from existing cropland. All of our
groundwater elevation data collected to
date shows that groundwater flows
eastward from the Osireion toward the
Roman well and drain whenever the
interceptor drain dewatering pump is idle
or in operation, fig. (1) drawdown was
3.64 m after several hours of pumping.
According to the operator, Abdel
Hamed, this pump is activated about
once a week. It would draw water
eastward from the vicinity of the Seti I
outer terrace and westward from paved
areas and a small Ministry of Antiquities
garden located to the east. This brief
pumping schedule is not likely to draw
irrigation return flows from cropland
located some distance to the east of the
interceptor drain, paved areas and
garden. Up until about the last two years,
water was pumped from the Osireion
and piped to the interceptor drain-
dewatering well drainage system before
being released to a drainage canal.
During the 2007 field season, we
observed that when the Osireion pump
was in operation, groundwater levels
were higher in elevation within the nine
piezometers that were installed in front

66
of the Seti-I Temple than when the pump
was idle. These levels receded when the
Osireion pump was shut down. The
Osireion pump was idle during our May
2008 field season and removed for
repairs before our January 2009 field
season. Isotopic water samples obtained
from the dewatering well were collected
after the Osireion pump had ceased to
operate for more than a year, hence was
not likely to include a mixture of
Osireion and local groundwater.
Osireion water would have to follow the
existing eastward directed hydraulic
gradient past the Roman well to reach
the drain. Water along this flow path
may contact natural undisturbed
sediment as well as the postulated
ancient Osireion drain. The Roman well
was hand dug and is open to 6.45 m
within the outer Seti-I Temple courtyard,
fig. (1). Depths to water vary from 5.98
to 6.22 m. Very likely, this well is
partially filled with wind blown
sediment and debris. Its water plots
below the GMWL reflecting evaporative
enrichment. Evapotranspiration losses
of local groundwater are precluded by
the nearly 6.0 m deep water table and
presence of coarse-grained sand and
gravel that restricts the height of the
capillary fringe within the outer
courtyard. Domestic wastewater is
disposed of in cisterns approximately
100 m to the north. It is not known if
evaporative loss of domestic wastewater
and animal wastes might contribute to its
position below the GMWL. Osireion
water enriched with 180 and D flows
toward the Roman well and may account
for its isotopic content. The Roman well
has a high Na+ +K content relative to
Osireion water and a somewhat similar
chloride content, fig. (5). Chloride data
support an eastward migration of
Osireion groundwater, fig. (7), but
chemical reactions must account for
elevated Na +K values noted. Elevated
PO4 may be derived from domestic
sewage disposed of within the complex
of homes located 5 or more meters above
the level of the Seti I outer terrace that
contains the Roman well. These houses
are located on the Nile terrace above
archeological debris, wind blown sand
and the accumulated rubble of former
homes that over time have raised the
land surface. A small groundwater
mound nourished by sewage and
drainage from small feedlots may
underlie these homes. If so, this could
be a contributing source of PO4 noted for
the Roman well. Birds frequent the
Roman well, roost and seek shelter
within niches in its brick walls and
obtain drinking water. Their droppings
could contribute to elevated PO4
concentrations. No crops are produced
within the desert surface that extends to
the north, south and for some distance to
the west of the Roman well hence,
fertilizer sources of PO4 are ruled out.
Water samples obtained from farm wells
located west and south of the Osireion,
fig. (1) plot below the GMWL and are
influenced by evaporative losses. This
combination hand dug and drilled wells
tap Nile alluvial terrace aquifers that are
covered with archeological debris mixed
with aeolian sands. The western Shafai
Farm well is located along a shallow
elongate depression, a short section of a
small stranded wadi channel. Crops are
irrigated on several small farms in the
area. High evapotranspirative losses of
irrigation water will enrich return flows
in chloride and total dissolved solids.
However, some mixing with other
sources of water is required to account
for the chemistry reported in the western
farm well. To get 1,500 ppm chloride,
Fantle concluded that you would need 99
percent evaporation of Nile water, the
most dilute water in the system. This is
regarded as too high an evaporative loss
because the water table is deep within
this Nile terrace setting. The property
owner indicated that the water table was

67
encountered at 27 m in this 65 m deep
well constructed in 1993. The presence
of sand and gravel together with deep
water table precluded evaporative loss of
groundwater directly from the
underlying capillary fringe as a
mechanism. Also, irrigation rates have
to be high enough to prevent the lethal
build up of salt within cropland. This
should limit the chloride concentration
of return irrigation flows that recharge
the water table near these isolated, small
farms. The presence of elevated nutrient
concentrations in the western farm well
indicate that irrigation returned flows
enriched with fertilizers is occurring on
farmland west of the Osireion. No farm
animals were observed in this area.
However, both organic and inorganic
fertilizers may be applied to this
cropland. Abdel Moneim indicated that
the water obtained from the western
farm well may have been held in an open
surface storage facility for some time
hence, may not be truly reflective of
local groundwater quality. Its chloride
and total dissolved solids contents
therefore, may be caused by excessive
surface evaporation while in storage as
suggested by Fantle’s calculations. The
farm well south of the Osireion, fig. (7)
is newer and is used to irrigate an
orchard on a second Nile terrace, fig. (1)
At present, water is obtained from a
combined hand dug and hand drilled
well 70.7 m deep. The water table was
24.2 m deep when the well was
constructed. Previously, an aqueduct-
like system was used to transport water
from a northern well located lower in
elevation along this or a younger Nile
terrace to the orchard. Regional
groundwater flow, fig. (7) is believed to
be directed northward in the vicinity of
this well within terrace deposits. A
precise elevation of its wellhead has not
been obtained. [6] ruled out seepage
from the Nile low dam at Nag Hammadi
and then to the south of Abydos. The
Nag Hammadi pool elevation was reported
to be 65 m in elevation, which was
reported to be lower in elevation than the
66 m Osireion water level measured
during this earlier study. On May 8, 2008,
the Osireion water level elevation was
63.949 m and 62.819 m on January 14,
2009. These recent water level elevations
would allow leakage from Nag Hammadi
pool and northward flow toward the
Osireion assuming that its pool elevation
was still 65 m. The eastern and western
American House water wells are located
north northwest of the Osireion, fig. (1)
These dug-drilled combination wells are
located along a wadi drainage swale that
leads toward the sacred gap in the western
limestone desert plateau. This is the same
swale that contains the western farm
well. Local recharge is likely during rare-
major-storm-flood events. Small gardens
are present at the American House and
wastewater is disposed of on site. New
crop land is under preparation less than 0.5
km to the west along this drainage swale,
but the first crops were not planted by the
January 2009 field season. Water table
elevations are not available for these two
wells because of their seals. Isotopically,
they deviate from the MWL reflecting
evaporative influences. Of interest are
differences in the ä D and ä 18O
concentrations in the two dewatering wells
located just southwest and southeast of the
Osireion, fig. (1) The southwestern well
was hand dug 13.24 m deep and had a 2.89
m deep column of water during January
2009. The southeastern well is 14.87 m
deep and contained a 2.25 m column of
water. The water levels in these two wells
are lower in elevation than within the
Osireion. Neither of these two wells were
pumped during the last two years nor was
water pumped from the Osireion during
the 2008 and 2009 field seasons. These
water level elevations indicate that
groundwater is flowing locally southward,
possibly radially outward from the
Osireion, whereas the regional gradient is
eastward toward the Roman well and
interceptor drain.The Osireion isotopic

68
composition is strikingly different from
the two dewatering wells despite their
close proximity. This may be attributed to
evaporative loss of water. Westerman
measured a 473 m2 water surface within
the Osireion when the central island is
submerged. Water loving vegetation is
present in a small hall immediately west of
the island and very likely transpires more
water per unit area than evaporates from
standing water. The water level was 0.005
m below the level of the island on January
19, 2009. It had declined by 0.130 m
between January 6 and 19, 2009. Older
water stains are evident 1.5 m above the
island but water stood only from 0.305 to
0.33 m above the island during our May
2008 field season. Some variations in
conductance, specific conductance,
salinity and temperature are noted
depending upon where measurements are
made in the channel. The surface water
level in the Osireion is approximately 13
m below land surface, which shields it
somewhat from wind and exposure to sun.
Stone block walls at and above the water
level are beautifully dressed. Despite their
tight fitting, joints are not likely to be
impermeable. If the Osireion isotopic
composition is enriched mainly by
evaporation and groundwater flow is to the
south, why are its ä 18 O and D values in
the Osireion so different from the
dewatering wells? These data suggest that
Osireion water is trapped in a nearly water
tight structure, flow to the south is small,
and most water is lost by evaporation
and/or directed eastward along a
postulated ancient drainage structure. If
this were true, the dewatering wells would
have to tap a different source of shallow
groundwater that dilutes and masks
southerly leakage from the Osireion. A
pump was used to lower the water level in
the canal to allow excavation during H.
Frankford’s 1925 expedition. The
groundwater inflow rate exceeded the
capacity of the 16 hp steam driven 4-inch
diameter pump. This limited the depth of
excavation within the channel that
surrounds the island to about 4.3 m. Ten
or more meters of silt, sand, gravel and
boulders remain in the channel based upon
Westerman’s mechanically probed depth
of 10.4 m and Alexander’s seismically
estimated wall depth below the island of
15 m. Auger samples obtained during the
2008 field season showed that channel
debris to a depth of 1.5 m below the water
surface near the northeast corner of the
Osireion contained a significant
percentage of fine-grained sediment that
could restrict upward leakage of
groundwater through nearly 10 m of fill.
Some of the water encountered during
Frankford’s expedition must have entered
the channel along joints between stone
blocks in addition to flow up through
channel debris. If the walls are indeed
nearly watertight, water may escape via a
drain postulated to exist below the Seti I
Temple to the east. Fantle did a simple
Rayleigh-type calculation to determine if
Osireion water is mainly a result of
evaporation of a meteoric source. On this
assumption, isotopic data suggest
somewhere between 20 to 25 percent
evaporation at about 25 percent humidity,
not a bad estimate for Luxor. However,
the chloride data alone suggest more than
88 percent evaporation, so this hypothesis
is not consistent with the two data sets. A
deep source of chloride might be diffusing
through or derived from the Esna Shale,
possibly also from remnants of the Issawi
Formation not exposed in the area. Chloride
also could be derived from other poorly
permeable strata within the thick Qena
Formation within the Nile Valley. These are
suggested as an alternate source of chloride.
Osireion water plots alone with respect to
the GMWL, fig. (4b) when compared to
other water samples obtained from the
Abydos area and Sinai Peninsular. The
suggestion that water may be welling up
within the Osireion under artesian head
and flowing radially outward toward the
southeast and southwest dewatering wells
is supported by the following
observation of Frankfort. When using a
probing stick to attempt to determine the
depth of its structure…”when, on the
other hand, the stick was pressed down
vertically, we found everywhere that a

69
certain depth- 7.80 m below the ledge-
the water acted with particular force
upon the stick, and in fact pressed it
upwards, spouting up after it when it was
withdrawn…” Westerman also noted a
flow of bubbles and water when his
metal probing rod was withdrawn from
its maximum 10.4 m depth of
penetration. Aside from artesian
pressure, gas bubbles also could be
involved. CO2 or other gases, for
example, could be produced by decaying
organic matter likely to be present deep
in the channel, possibly also within the
conduit assumed to extend eastward
below the Seti Temple and beyond. Had
we been successful in drilling more than
8.05 m below the water surface within
the canal during the 2008 season, a
piezometer would have been left in the
drill hole. It would have shown whether
or not artesian flows help nourish the
Osireion and would allowed for
chemical analyses of deep v shallow
sources of Osireion water. A boulder
was encountered at the site where a
single borehole was attempted. It could
not be penetrated with the drilling
equipment provided by the contractor.
Fig. 4: Evaporative slope trends for the Rio Grande River, USA, Darling River, Australia, the Meteoric
Water Line, a Sinai Peninsular, b Egypt and Abydos water samples.
Fig. 5: Evaporation trends and mixing for sodium +
potassium and phosphorous together with
chloride.
Fig. 6: Evaporation trends for total dissolved solids,
phosphorous and mixing for chloride.

70
Fig.(7) Water table Map of the study area!!
Fig. 8: Location of piezometers immediately east of the Seti-I Temple courtyard, interceptor and
dewatering well.
4. Conclusion
Osireion water shows a Nile isotopic signature but departs from the meteoric water line (MWL)
due in part, to evaporation. Other ions present such as Na+K, CL and PO4, indicate that its
isotopic content cannot be accounted for entirely by evaporation (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). It is rather
unique in the isotopic data field. The Osireion must contain water from a mixed source not
typical of other waters included in the present Abydos data set. Possible sources likely to have
a different chemical signature include water contained in deeper semi-confined pre-Nile
alluvium and possible leakage from the Issawi Formation, which is not exposed near Abydos.
Water also could originate for deep regional seepage even diffusion through the Esna Shale.

71
The geologic map for the Sohag region shows normal faults with visible dips and probable,
although concealed faults (Mostafa, 1979; Abdel Moneim, 1998). Faults with northeast-
southwest and northwest and southeast trends are shown. These extend into the Eocene
Limestone and very likely also into the Esna Shale below. Minor seepage associated with a
regional groundwater flow system, the discharge area of which must be centered along the Nile
Valley, could occur along such faults. Other sources of nourishment for the Osireion also are
possible.If artesian flows are an important source of nourishment, Osireion water must be
flowing outward to the southwestern and southeastern toward dewatering wells as indicated by
differences in water level elevation. This water must be diluted by shallow groundwater with a
different chemical signature in order to account for the contrast in their isotopic content when
compared to Osireion water.Westerman is correct in his belief that “Osireion waters are special”
and justify further scientific investigation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Various groups are interested in understanding the hydrogeologic setting of the Osireion and
Abydos region. These include the Penn State-Sohag University - Westerman mission, efforts by
the Egyptian Army on behalf of the Ministry of Antiquities, individuals from Switzerland and
others. These site characterization efforts should be coordinated to maximize the value of
information to be collected by these various groups, while at the same time protecting this unique
archeological treasure.
2. Additional drilling is justified in the vicinity of the Osireion and Seti-I Temple for scientific and
engineering stability reasons. Cores and drill cuttings should be collected and carefully logged
for all new drill holes. These will reveal the presence and spatial variations of aquifers, confining
beds and semi-confining beds that underlie the area, provide foundation support to archeological
structures and that may have allowed deep excavation during ancient times.
3. All test wells should be screened, cased, capped and locked. This will allow monitoring of future
changes in water levels and water quality, acquisition of hydraulic properties of these various
units using pumping testing methods and the calibration of surface and subsurface geophysical
signals. Some test wells should extend below the seismically estimated depth of the Osireion or
below 15 m to address foundation stability and hydrologic issues.
4. Various independent lines of evidence suggest that a shallow unconfined and deeper semi-
confined or confined source of waters nourish the Osireion. These sources are likely to differ in
age and chemical character. New test and monitoring wells will support these investigations and
should be completed to variable depths in search of hydraulic head and water quality variations..
5. A pumping test is planned to estimate the groundwater inflow rate to the Osireion. The lack of
adequate pumps has thwarted this effort to date. Time-drawdown measurements should be
made in all existing nearby monitoring and dewatering wells during this test. These data will
shed light on the spatial variability of permeability within strata that surround the Osireion.
Pumping levels should not be lowered substantially below those achieved by Frankford during
1925, without conducting a detailed concurrent subsidence survey on the Osireion and Seti-I
Temple. Compressible soils may underlie the Seti-I Temple and excessive drawdown could
enhance subsidence of this unique temple by increasing effective stresses in response to
reduced buoyancy. The central portion of the temple already shows evidence of differential
subsidence.
6. Two lines of test holes, each containing three wells, should be drilled in the inner and outer Seti-I
courtyards. These would confirm the presence, width and depth of a natural valley or ancient
canal extending eastward beyond the Osireion. These holes would be used to calibrate existing
seismic survey, radar, soil temperature, water level, water quality and subsidence data that
together, indicate the presence of a buried channel that extends eastward below the Seti-I
Temple and courtyards.
7. Continuous soil cores should be taken from these drill holes in search of engineered voids, and
compressible, organic sediments. The distribution of deposits encountered would differ if
confined to a canal v having been deposited as layers or lenses of organic clay on the Nile or a
pre-Nile flood plain or within an earlier drainage system. Carbon 14 dates should be obtained for
any organic matter that might be recovered. If organic matter appears along a narrow east-west
canal, 14C dates are likely to reveal the age of organic matter than began to accumulate shortly
after the canal was constructed. Judging from the vegetation that chokes existing water supply
and drainage canals, only a few years might be required to accumulate sufficient datable
material. These data would offer the best evidence of the minimum age of the Osireion and help
answer the question, when was it built?
8. Organic rich sediment may exist near the base of the channel within the Osireion and could
provide a minimum estimate of its age. Plants did not grow within the Osireion when its roof was
intact and sunlight excluded. However, if ancients built a drain to control water levels or this

72
drain was used to raise water levels in response to Nile stage changes, fine-textured organic
matter may have been flushed into the Osireion during the annual flood. Sediment samples
should be retained for 14C dating and study as excavation proceeds to the base and foundation
of the channel.
9. Hydrogeological data obtained during our May 2007 field season revealed that water pumped
from the Osireion entered the dewatering well and interceptor drain located east of the Seti-I
Temple. This raised the water level in the drain and adjacent sediment extending westward at
least to the Line 1 piezometers. Groundwater levels were raised in front of the Seti-I outer
terrace in an episodic manner each time the Osireion pump was activated thereby enhancing
damage to the Temple rather than protecting it as intended. We recommended that a check
valve be installed in the Osireion and interceptor drainage systems or other changes be made to
prevent repeated future back washing and recharge of Osireion discharge water into sediment
adjacent to this drain. Since the Osireion dewatering pump has been idle (2008) and removed
(2009), this concern has been eliminated. A new design is needed when this dewatering system
is rebuilt. When the interceptor trench dewatering pump operates alone, it lowers the water level
in the drain as intended. Drawdown extends westward to the Line 1 piezometers by an
undefined amount. Any lowering of the water table helps to protect the Seti-I Temple. However,
water levels in several of the Line 1 piezometers that penetrated groundwater during the 2008
and 2009 field seasons is still too shallow to prevent capillary water from contacting Seti-I outer
courtyard walls and staircase. The fine-grained nature of silt, silty sand and fine sands
recovered when auguring and constructing Line 1 piezometers supports a capillary fringe more
than 2 m high.
10. Precise leveling of additional water supply wells located south, east and north of the Osireion is
justified. More detailed seasonal water level maps could be prepared that reveal patterns of
groundwater flow, changes in water levels and quality resulting from ongoing and future changes
in land use.
REFERENCES
[1] Westerman, J. S. (2008) An
Archaeological Analysis of the
Osireion. Third International
Conference on the Geology of the
Tethys, Aswan, Egypt Jan. 2008
[2] Badr El-Din, S.S. H.., (2005).
Hydrogeology Evaluation of
Groundwater Aquifers in the
Central Sinai and its
Surroundings, Egypt. PhD Thesis,
Department of Geology, Faculty of
Science, Cairo University 271 p.
[3] Sampsell, B. M., (2003). Travles’s
Guide to the Geology of Egypt.
The American University in Cairo,
press 228 pp
[4] Abdel Moneim A.A., (1998)
Groundwater Studies in and
Around Abydos Temples, El-
Baliana, Sohag, Egypt, Annals of
Egyptian Geological Survey 7 pp
[5] Fetter, C. W. (1994) Applied
Hydrogeology, Third Edition,
Macmillan College Publication
Xo., New York N.Y, 691 pp.
[6] Brooks, J. E. and B. Issawi, (1992)
Groundwater in the Abydos Areas,
Egypt; The flooding of the
Osireion, Water paper 5
[7] Mostafa, M. H.M., (1979) Geology of
the Area Northeast of Sohag,
M.Sc , Thesis , Sohag Faculty of
Science, Assiut University, Egypt
pp 75-100
[8] Dams and Moore, (1985) Sinai
Development Study Phase 1 Final
Report. Water Supplies and Costs.
Vol. V., Report, Submitted to the
Advisory Committee for
Reconstruction Ministry of
Development, Cairo, 7 Volumes.