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REVIEW
Diabetes Care in the Philippines
Gerry H. Tan, MD
Cebu, Philippines
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diabetes is increasing at an alarming rate in Asian countries including the Philip-
pines. Both the prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) continue to increase with a com-
mensurate upward trend in the prevalence of prediabetes.
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to review the prevalence of diabetes in the Philippines and
to describe extensively the characteristics of diabetes care in the Philippines from availability of diag-
nostics tests to the procurement of medications.
METHODS A literature search was performed using the search words diabetes care and Philippines.
Articles that were retrieved were reviewed for relevance and then synthesized to highlight key features.
FINDINGS The prevalence of diabetes in the Philippines is increasing. Rapid urbanization with
increasing dependence on electronic gadgets and sedentary lifestyle contribute significantly to this
epidemic. Diabetes care in the Philippines is disadvantaged and challenged with respect to resources,
government support, and economics. The national insurance system does not cover comprehensive
diabetes care in a preventive model and private insurance companies only offer limited diabetes cov-
erage. Thus, most patients rely on “out-of-pocket”expenses, namely, laboratory procedures and daily
medications. Consequently, poor pharmacotherapy adherence impairs prevention of complications.
Moreover, behavioral modifications are difficult due to cultural preferences for a traditional diet of
refined sugar, including white rice and bread.
CONCLUSIONS Translating clinical data into practice in the Philippines will require fundamental
and transformative changes that increase diabetes awareness, emphasize lifestyle change while
respecting cultural preferences, and promote public policy especially regarding the health insurance
system to improve overall diabetes care and outcomes.
KEY WORDS diabetes, diabetes care, Philippines, Southeast Asia, type 2 diabetes
©2015 The Author. Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes is a chronic disease and is increasing in
both prevalence and incidence worldwide. Diabetes
exerts a major impact in third-world countries, par-
ticularly in the Philippines. It is said that Asia will
see the greatest increase in the number of people
with diabetes by 2025.
1
This increase in the burden
of chronic diseases in Asia will significantly affect
nations’respective health care systems, both acutely
and chronically.
2
The Philippines is located in Southeast Asia sit-
uated in the Western Pacific Ocean. It is made up
of 7101 islands and has approximately 115,831
The author is on the advisory boards of Astra Zeneca, Boehinger Ingelheim, Novo Nordisk, and SanofiAventis.
From the Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Cebu Doctors University College of Medicine, Cebu Doctors University
Hospital, Cebu, Philippines. Address correspondence to G.H.T. (docgerrytan@alumni.mayo.edu).
Annals of Global Health
ª2015 The Author. Published by Elsevier Inc.
on behalf of Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
VOL. 81, NO. 6, 2015
ISSN 2214-9996
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.10.004
square miles of total land area, and with a coastline
of 22,549 miles, it is considered the fifth longest
coastline in the world.
3
Three prominent bodies of
water surround the archipelago namely, the Pacific
Ocean on the east, the South China Sea on the
west and north, and the Celebes Sea on the south.
The topography of the larger islands is characterized
by rolling hills and high mountains, whereas the
smaller islands are mountainous in the interior, sur-
rounded by flat low lands, which constitute the
coastal rims.
3
Each island is accessed via sea trans-
portation using larger vessels or smaller boats, the
latter referred to by the natives as bancas. There
are about 14 regions, 73 provinces, and 60 cities
across the archipelago.
3
Therefore, individuals
from smaller cities must traverse by land and sea
to receive medical care in tertiary hospitals located
in major cities.
The Philippines is unique in that Filipinos in dif-
ferent regions of the country speak different dialects
but all Filipinos can speak one national language
called Tagalog. The Philippines has an estimated
population of approximately 101 million as of 2015
and is categorized by the World Bank as a lower-
to middle-income country and by the United
Nations as a country with a developing economy.
4
The gross domestic product of the Philippines
real growth rate averaged 7.3% in a report in
2007, the highest in 31 years.
5
In 2014, the econ-
omy of the Philippines grew from 6.1% in 2014
to 6.5 % in 2015 fueled by sustained increases in
private consumption, higher fixed investment, and
recovery in exports.
4
The challenge for the govern-
ment is how to make these economic gains felt
among the poorer sectors of society. The recent
2014 poverty incidence stands around 25.8%.
4
This latest figure is lower than the 2006 recorded
official poverty statistic of 26.9%.
5
Thus, with eco-
nomic growth and decreasing poverty, the Philip-
pine government is realigning the national budget
to improve social services. More specifically, this
will allow an effective population management pro-
gram focusing on education and health care.
Noncommunicable diseases (NCD; noninfec-
tious or nontransmissible diseases)dincluding dia-
betesdin the Philippines account for 6 of the top
10 causes of mortality and are considered a major
public health concern.
5
Diseases of the heart and
vascular system continue to be the leading causes
of death, comprising 31% of all deaths. Other
NCDs include malignant neoplasms, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, and chronic kidney
disease.
5
What is alarming is that as deaths due to
preventable diseases have been on a decline,
lifestyle-related diseases due to “Westernization”of
the culture have begun to dominate as the leading
causes of death, particularly due to cardiovascular
diseases, malignant neoplasms, diabetes, and
chronic lower respiratory diseases.
5
At present, there are no published nationwide
prevalence or incidence studies on type 1 diabetes
(T1D). However, 1 survey was done in a municipal-
ity of Bulacan in Central Luzon Region that showed
a very low prevalence of T1D with only 7 cases
diagnosed among children aged 0 to 14 years during
a 10-year period from 1989 to 1998.
6
A recent sur-
vey on pediatric type 2 diabetes (T2D) in the Phil-
ippines also found a low prevalence at 0.91%.
7
As a
result of the low prevalence of T1D, continuous
glucose monitoring (CGM) devices and continuous
subcutaneous insulin infusion (insulin pumps) are
not widely used. Standard home glucose monitoring
devices are readily available and affordable as well as
various insulin preparations that are generic and
biosimilar via subcutaneous injections. There is little
research on stem cell therapy or islet cell transplan-
tation for T1D in the Philippines.
Gestational diabetes (GDM) is prevalent in the
Philippines. Published data from the Asian Federa-
tion of Endocrine Societies Study Group on Diabe-
tes in Pregnancy (ASGODIP) showed that the
Philippines has a GDM prevalence of 14% in
1203 pregnancies surveyed.
8
Because of this high
prevalence rate, the Unite for Diabetes Clinical
Practice Guideline (CPG) recommends universal
GDM screening for the Filipino population.
6
The
ASGODIP data found that about 40.4% of high-
risk women were positive for GDM when screening
was performed beyond the 26th week of preg-
nancy.
9
In a cohort of Filipino women with
GDM delivering babies with macrosomia in the
Cardinal Santos Medical Center, >75% were diag-
nosed between gestational weeks 26 and 38.
10
In
another cohort population from the Veterans
Memorial Medical Center, 50% of GDM cases
were diagnosed between gestational weeks 31 and
40.
11
The Filipino CPG recommends adopting
the criteria by the International Association of Dia-
betes & Pregnancy Study Groups for interpretation
of the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test as GDM
screening.
6
T2D is the most common type of diabetes in the
Philippines. In 2009, a cohort study derived from
the a larger population-based investigation in 1998
was revisited and demonstrated a 9-year incidence
rate of T2D in the Philippines to be around
Tan AnnalsofGlobalHealth,VOL.81,NO.6,2015
Diabetes Care in the Philippines NovembereDecember 2015: 863–869
864
16.3%.
12
In the latest survey published by the Food
and Nutrition Research Institute in the Philippines
(the Eighth National Nutrition Survey of 2013), the
prevalence of high fasting blood glucose based on
the World Health Organization criteria of >125
mg/dL for individuals >20 years old was 5.4%, an
increase of 0.6%, compared with the same study
in 2008.
13
The highest prevalence rate was found
among the richest in the wealth index, those living
in urban areas, and those in the 60- to 69-year
age group in both sexes.
13,14
These studies show
an alarming growth rate of T2D in the Philippines
commensurate with an upward trend in worldwide
prevalence.
13
In the 2014 prevalence estimates pub-
lished by the International Diabetes Federation, it is
estimated that there are 3.2 million cases of T2D in
the Philippines with a 5.9% prevalence rate in adults
between the ages of 20 and 79 years.
15
Around 1.7
million people with T2D remain undiagnosed. The
estimated cost per person with T2D in 2013 in the
Philippines is $205, which is comparable with
neighboring countries such as Thailand ($285)
and Indonesia ($174.7).
15
THE HEALTH CARE SYSTEM IN THE
PHILIPPINES
The Philippines has a very low physician-to-
household ratio. As of 2002, it was estimated that
there were only 12 physicians per 10,000 house-
holds, although there were more nurses available,
at 61 per 10,000 Filipino households.
16
The Philip-
pines government health care insurance company
PhilHealth provides benefits for diabetes-related
admissions.
17,18
This is a government corporation
that aims to ensure universal health insurance for
all Filipinos. In 2014, based on the PhilHealth Cir-
cular No. 17s 2014, new implementing guidelines
were released for outpatient coverage for medica-
tions for hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia.
9
The stated rationale for this coverage is “considering
the increasing burden of NCDs vis-à-vis the cost of
maintenance drugs for these diseases, PhilHealth
Primary Care Benefit 2 Package (PCB2) will pay
for outpatient medicines for PhilHealth qualified
members or dependents with hypertension, diabetes
and dyslipidemia long before their conditions
become catastrophic.”
19
Indigent and sponsored
members or their dependents are eligible for the
package but only one recipient per family with a
10-year cardiovascular risk of >30% can avail of
the PCB2 at one time.
19
Limited medications
were included in the coverage for diabetes, namely
only the sulfonylurea glibenclamide and the bigua-
nide metformin, provided on a monthly basis. A
price cap, as agreed on with PhilHealth, is reim-
bursed to the package provider.
19
These guidelines
are obviously superior to no provisions for diabetes
medical outpatient care. However, the guidelines
are still not sufficiently comprehensive, as reim-
bursements for medications and overall health cov-
erage remain limited for each family household.
PhilHealth also provides hospitalization benefits
but only in accredited institutions with a ceiling
price for each diagnosis and procedure.
17,18
The
majority of outpatient services continue to be “out-
of-pocket”expenses unless patients have their own
health insurance under the health medical organiza-
tion system, generally as part of employees’benefits
while working in private institutions. In effect, the
national insurance system is limited and does not
cover comprehensive diabetes care in a preventive
care model, and moreover, that private insurance
companies only offer limited diabetes coverage plac-
ing the overall care model at a distinct disadvantage.
Diabetes clinics in several government hospitals
offer free consultations and affordable medicines
for the underprivileged. Additionally, most city gov-
ernments also have city health centers, which are
called barangay health units. These units offer basic
primary health care deliveries.
20
A barangay is the
smallest administrative unit of the government in
the Philippines and is similar to a village. It is at
barangay health stations (BHS) where health care
professionals (HCPs) are expected to deliver basic
diabetes self-management and perform basic meas-
ures, such as blood pressure and body mass index
calculations. In the City (or Provincial) Health Offi-
ces, diabetes clubs are established.
20
Private-paying
individuals receive their outpatient diabetes consul-
tations in tertiary hospital settings where they have a
choice of specialists trained in endocrinology, diabe-
tes, and metabolism certified by the Philippine
Society of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabo-
lism. At present, there are only 7 training institu-
tions accredited by the Philippine Society of
Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism
(PSEDM) that provide about 30 certified endocri-
nologists every year with the balance of diabetolo-
gists trained under the auspices of the Institute for
Diabetes Foundation.
21
AVAILABILITY OF MEDICATIONS
The Philippines government has implemented
reforms to make diabetes medications readily
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865
available and affordable to all Filipinos. The Philip-
pines Generics Act of 1998 under Republic Act No.
6675 was passed mainly to improve the supply of
medicines for HCPs, specifically allowing importa-
tion, manufacturing, and encouragement of generics
instead of branded medicines.
22,23
Likewise, the
Philippines Department of Health established the
National Drug Policy Pharmaceutical Management
Unit, or Pharma 50, to reduce prices of medicines
by 50% through parallel drug importation.
24
Local
government units also have the Botika ng Barangay
(Pharmacy of the Village) program that caters to
marginalized underserved communities by provid-
ing affordable over-the-counter and selected pre-
scription medications at very low prices.
25
In
2008, the universally accessible Cheaper and Qual-
ity Medicines Act No. 9502 was passed, which
granted the government the power to regulate med-
icine prices and ensure quality affordable medicines
through the Bureau of Food and Drugs.
25,26
Most diabetes medications, both oral antidiabetic
(OAD) and injectable such as insulin and glucagon-
like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP1-RA), are
available in the Philippines (Table 1). Most of the
off-patent diabetes medications are now available
as generics. In a 2012 publication, the DiabCare
study looking at T2D, assessed the status of diabetes
care in the Philippines and found that of the total
sample population, approximately 78.5% of the
patients were on OAD, whereas 42% were on insu-
lin.
27
Of the OADs, biguanides followed by sulfo-
nylureas were the most frequently prescribed. This
practice is understandable considering that these
2 medications are the most cost-effective in the
Philippines since generic equivalents are readily
available and therefore very affordable to the public
sector. It is understandable that metformin is fre-
quently prescribed, but the continued prevalence
of sulfonylurea prescription in light of deprioritiza-
tion in virtually all diabetes CPG (due to high rates
of hypoglycemia) highlights the dominant and con-
tinued role of economics as a driver of diabetes care.
The most commonly prescribed insulin preparation
was the premixed insulin accounting for 43%, fol-
lowed by basal insulin (detemir or glargine)
accounting for 26%. Half of the patients who were
on insulin were using the newer insulin analog prep-
arations for both basal and bolus injections, while
the remaining half were on the usual human NPH
and R insulin preparations.
27
Almost half of the
patients on insulin were using pen devices; the
remaining half were using insulin via a syringe.
Based on the questionnaire given, approximately
two-thirds of patients were still worried about start-
ing insulin therapy.
27
DATA ON METABOLIC CONTROL
The mean hemoglobin A1c (A1C) in the 2008 study
was 8.03% which is slightly better than the same
survey done in 2003 where the mean A1C was
8.9%.
27,28
Only approximately 15% of the patients
in the study achieved the target A1C goal of <7.0%
from the American Diabetes Association.
29
Blood glucose self-monitoring is considered a
mainstay in the treatment of diabetes because it
has been shown to assist in improving glycemic con-
trol.
30
Unfortunately, due to economic pressures
and a basic lack of disease awareness, the majority
of patients choose to buy T2D medication instead
of paying for test strips. However, increased aware-
ness of the disease and increased physician educa-
tion regarding the benefits of home glucose
monitoring may have improved the utilization of
glucose monitoring over time. Hence, compared
with the earlier 2008 DiabCare survey, there was
considerable improvement in the number of patients
who reported self-monitoring from 16.1% in 2003
to 46.5% in 2008.
27
This supports the role of dili-
gent diabetes education among Filipino patients
with diabetes to optimize glucose control.
Metabolic control measures are an important
component of comprehensive, complications-
centric diabetes care. Results of one study found
that 94% of patients in the Philippines with T2D
had dyslipidemia, but only 53% of these patients
Table 1. Available Diabetes Medications in the Philippines
Class Drug
Biguanides Metformin
Sulfonylureas Glibenclamide, glipizide,
gliclazide, glimipride
a
-glucosidase inhibitor Acarbose
DDP-IV Inhibitors Sitagliptin, saxagliptin,
vildagliptin, linagliptin
GLP1 receptor agonists Liraglutide, exenatide,
lixisenatide
SGLT2 Inhibitors Dapaglifozin, empagliflozin,
canagliflozin [pending]
Insulins Human Insulin R, Mix 70/30,
NPH, glulisine, insulin aspart,
detemir, glargine, degludec
DDP-IV, dipeptidyl peptidase-4; GLP1, glucagon-like peptide 1; SGLT2,
sodium glucose cotransporter-2.
Tan AnnalsofGlobalHealth,VOL.81,NO.6,2015
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866
received treatment with statins.
27
Along these lines,
hypertension was found in 68% of patients, but only
64% were treated with antihypertensive medica-
tions, where angiotensin receptor blockers were
the drugs most commonly used. The study authors
concluded that the status of diabetes care in the
Philippines appears below the accepted standards
and calls for urgent measures to improve the delivery
of quality care among patients with T2D.
27
Among newly diagnosed patients with T2D in
the Philippines, 20% already had peripheral neuro-
pathy, 42% had proteinuria, and 2% had diabetic
retinopathy upon consultation.
31
This study sug-
gests that diabetes awareness in the Philippines is
also far from ideal.
DIABETES PROGRAMS
Diabetes awareness campaigns have always been at
the forefront of activities among diabetes organiza-
tion in the Philippines, including the PSEDM,
The Institute for Diabetes Foundation (IDSF), Dia-
betes Philippines (DP), American Association of
Clinical Endocrinologists Philippines (AACE Phil-
ippines), and the Philippine Center for Diabetes
Education Foundation (PCDEF). Diabetes Aware-
ness month is celebrated every July with concurrent
activities nationwide, including many lay forum
events. The Department of Health also reserves every
fourth week of July in its yearly calendar for a Diabe-
tes Awareness campaign.
32
Additionally, general
practitioners and internal medicine specialists regu-
larly attend diabetes workshops by these organiza-
tions to optimize care in underserved regions.
AVAILABILITY AND AFFORDABILITY
OF LABORATORY TESTS
Most of the important laboratory tests including
A1C are available in most tertiary hospitals in major
cities of the Philippines. However, standardization
of this A1C assay according to the DCCT (Diabe-
tes Control and Complications Trial) or NGSP
(originally referred to as the National Glycohemo-
globin Standardization Program in 1996) certifica-
tion cannot be accurately established.
6,33
It is for
this reason that the unified CPG established by
the Unite for Diabetes Philippines (made up of
>20 specialties) state that A1C cannot be used in
the Philippines to diagnose diabetes because of
lack of standardization.
6
The Philippines CPG rec-
ommends that only fasting plasma glucose, random
plasma glucose, and 2-hour glucose using oral
glucose tolerance testing should be used as tests
for diagnosing diabetes.
6
However the CPG recom-
mends A1C measurement for glucose control mon-
itoring.
6
Another problem with A1C is that it is not
readily available in public hospitals and health cen-
ters, further limiting the ability to monitor glycemic
status and achieve optimal diabetes care.
A major concern for the general public is the
high cost of laboratory testing for comprehensive
evaluation of patients with diabetes. A comprehen-
sive panel including the complete blood count, A1C
fasting blood sugar, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine,
serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, lipid profile,
urinalysis, and urine albumin/creatinine ratio will
cost approximately $45 in a private hospital labora-
tory or outpatient diagnostic center. Without outpa-
tient medical insurance, these and other laboratory
costs are out-of-pocket expenses. For perspective,
this cost is 3 to 4 times more than the average daily
earning of a working Filipino. As of 2010, the aver-
age daily pay for a domestic worker in the Philip-
pines is only P132.60 or roughly US$3 per day.
34
In comparative wage studies of different countries,
as of 2015, the calculated average monthly wage
of a Filipino worker is only $174.67 to $242.60.
35
Poverty continues to be a major part of this chal-
lenge, affecting both the financial and socioeco-
nomic fronts. The national poverty index of the
Philippines as of 2014 continues to be high and
hovers around 25.8%, with many of the poorest still
incurring out-of-pocket expenses.
36
Therefore, the
high cost of laboratory evaluation represents a clear
disincentive for outpatient follow-up and another
factor contributing to suboptimal care.
FAMILY SUPPORT
On the bright side, a distinctive feature among
Filipinos is the strong family unit. Parents are taken
care of by family members up to the time of their
death. Having diabetes is not being discriminated
by family members but instead receives very strong
family support.
37
Elderly parents are always accom-
panied by family members to outpatient clinic visits.
Financial burden from medicines to laboratories are
all shouldered and shared by siblings. Single chil-
dren are expected to continue help the household
expenses until they are married. Nursing homes
are not in practice in the Philippines and therefore
chronic disease supportive measures, such as with
diabetes and its complications, are provided by fam-
ily members until the patient’s death.
37
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CONCLUSION
Diabetes care in the Philippines continues to be a
challenge for the primary care physicians of the
region as urbanization continues to augur a signifi-
cant rise in disease prevalence over the next few
years. Key features of diabetes care in the Philip-
pines are provided in Table 2. The region is
expected to have one of the highest number of
newly diagnosed diabetes by 2025.
1
Philippine
Practice Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Manage-
ment of Diabetes Mellitus recommends that Filipi-
nos age >40 years and those at risk for developing
diabetes should be tested annually owing to the
significant prevalence and burden of diabetes.
6
Unless both government and private organiza-
tions go hand in hand in combatting the spread of
this disease, by implementing programs such as lim-
iting fast food advertising in print form and on tele-
vision, as well as implementing disease awareness
campaigns including early detection and financial
support for the afflicted underprivileged, it is
expected that diabetes will continue to haunt
Filipinos in the next century with increasing eco-
nomic burden not only for individual families but
also the entire nation.
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Table 2. Key Features of Diabetes Care in the Philippines
dPrevalence of diabetes in the Philippines is increasing due to rapid urbanization and Westernization of the Filipino culture.
d“Out-of-pocket”system of health care continues to be the main mechanism of patientedoctor relationship and compensation.
dThe national insurance system does not allow comprehensive coverage of diabetes management, is only limited to certain household
members, and provides limited medication coverage.
dBoth generics and branded antihyperglycemic medications are readily available including both human and analog insulins.
dMetformin and sulfonylureas are the most commonly prescribed medications due to availability and cheaper cost.
dIndividuals with diabetes receive very strong family support.
dFundamental and transformative changes are necessary to increase diabetes awareness, emphasize lifestyle change while respecting
cultural preferences, and promoting public policies particularly with the health insurance system, to improve overall diabetes care and
outcomes.
Tan AnnalsofGlobalHealth,VOL.81,NO.6,2015
Diabetes Care in the Philippines NovembereDecember 2015: 863–869
868
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