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A Reliable and Interference-Aware Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a reliable and interference-aware routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). Proposed protocol follows end-to-end path from source node to sink and selects next forwarder node of a data packet on the basis, having already established a path to sink. In this way, the problem of encounters void hole in depth based routing protocol is eliminated. Furthermore, during the selection of forwarding node, channel interference is also considered as routing metric to provide reliable communication. Therefore, proposed scheme reduces the probability of collision at the network layer, by selecting a neighbor node as the next forwarder of the data packet from the source node to the destination where the chance of channel interference is minimum. Simulation results verify the effectiveness of the proposed scheme in term of energy consumption, end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio especially in a sparse network.
... Researchers in [13], proposed impedance mindful and solid directing convention for UWSNs. Based on built up way from end-to-end, the following forwarder has been chosen for transmission of information parcels. ...
... In contrast the lesser values of Pb leads to high power obligatory for the transmission of data in 2nd stage. This trade-offs stated in certain research papers and in-depth exploration is planned as an approach to find optimum value of broadcast power [13]. ...
... Due to long transmission delays in UWSNs, addition scheme depends on analogue domain which flops as three signals reach to terminus at different time. Assortment merging methods are auspicious resolutions for processing the receive signals at terminus for UW communications with maximal ratio diversity, equal gain diversity and assortment diversity system [13]. It is observed that assortment methods diminish impacts of declining and increased channel excellence. ...
... Researchers in [13], proposed impedance mindful and solid directing convention for UWSNs. Based on built up way from end-to-end, the following forwarder has been chosen for transmission of information parcels. ...
... In contrast the lesser values of Pb leads to high power obligatory for the transmission of data in 2nd stage. This trade-offs stated in certain research papers and in-depth exploration is planned as an approach to find optimum value of broadcast power [13]. ...
... Due to long transmission delays in UWSNs, addition scheme depends on analogue domain which flops as three signals reach to terminus at different time. Assortment merging methods are auspicious resolutions for processing the receive signals at terminus for UW communications with maximal ratio diversity, equal gain diversity and assortment diversity system [13]. It is observed that assortment methods diminish impacts of declining and increased channel excellence. ...
One of the real issues in UWSN is congestion control. The need is to plan an optimized congestion control scheme which enhances the network life time and in addition limits the usage of energy in data transmission from source to destination. In this paper, we propose a routing protocol called Dist-Coop in UWSN. Dist-Coop is a distributed cooperation based routing scheme which uses mechanism for optimized congestion control in noisy links of underwater environment. It is compact, energy proficient and high throughput opportunistic routing scheme for UWSN. In this proposed protocol architecture, we present congestion control with cooperative transmission of data packets utilizing relay sensors. The final objective is to enhance the network life time and forward information utilizing cooperation procedure, limiting energy consumption amid transmission of information. At destination node, combining strategy utilized is based on Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNRC). Simulation results of Dist-Coop scheme indicate better outcomes in terms of energy consumption, throughput and network lifetime in contrast with Co-UWSN and EH-UWSN routing protocols. Dist-Coop has expended substantially less energy and better throughput when contrasted with these protocols.
... In Reliable And Interference Aware Routing (RIAR) protocol each sensor node find its neighbor node within its transmission range and calculates the physical distance toward sink and hop-count sink. In data-forwarding phase the sender node select the next forwarder node based on cost function (CF) [13]. ...
... The reliability of sparse node region is improved and probability of collision in dense region is reduced by using reliable and interference aware routing protocol. [13] shows the performance of RIAR and Weighting Depth And Forwarding Area Division (WDFAD)-DBR, in which the data transmission packet ratio is better, energy efficiency rate, is improved; energy consumption is less with short E-ED when compared with WDFAD-DBR. ...
The challenges faced in underwater communication systems are limited bandwidth, Energy consumption rate, larger propagation delay time, End-End Delay (E-ED), 3D topology, media access control, routing, resource utilization and power constraints. These issues and challenges are solved by means of deploying the energy efficient protocol. The protocol can either be localization-based protocol or localization free protocol. In this paper, review of localization free protocols were discussed and reviewed with reference to environmental factors, data transmission rate, transmission efficiency, energy consumption rate, E-ED and propagation delay. The review analysis gives the pros and cons to give rise to the new directions of research for future improvements in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). This manuscript propose a survey on localization free protocol according to the problem addressed or the major parameter considered during routing in UWSNs. Unlike the existing survey, the present survey focuses on present state and art of routing protocols, in terms of routing strategy issues addressed. The solutions of energy efficient protocol is arrived by highlighting the pros of each protocols. The description of routing strategy for each protocol is presented to understand its operation in an understandable form. The cons of each protocol is taken into consideration for further investigation and to arrive the best protocol. The presented routing strategy, pros and cons provide open challenges and research directions for future investigation.
... Avoiding void hole problem in sparse network and reducing collision probability due to channel interference in dense network are very challenging tasks. Many routing protocols like interference-aware routing (Intar) and a reliable and interference-aware routing (Re-Intar) protocols [15] are proposed to tackle void hole problem with their main concern to improve network performance. In Intar, long propagation paths are selected to avoid void holes and reduce collision probability due to channel interference. ...
... When the network is dense, there is a possibility of multiple chain formation from source node to sinks as shown in Fig. 3.8. The selection of chain for data forwarding is based on CF value of link-PFNs, which is calculated as in [15], 3.9 depicts that source node first select a Link-PFN having maximum CF value for data forwarding and include its unique id in its data packet. The source node then broadcasts the data packet to nodes in its transmission range. ...
In this work, we present two routing protocols for circular underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs); circular sparsity-aware energy efficient clustering (CSEEC) and circular depth-based sparsity-aware energy efficient clustering (CDSEEC) with sink mobility. In CSEEC, we divide circular network area into 5 concentric circular regions. We deployed sensor nodes randomly and placed a static sink at the top of the circular underwater network region. We further sub-divided the 5 concentric circles into 10 regions. Then, we identified sparse and dense regions based on the number of nodes in each region. We used cluster based routing approach in dense network regions and introduced sink mobility in least node density region to achieve balanced energy consumption in the network. In CDSEEC, circular network area is divided into upper and lower semi-circles. Sensor nodes are random uniformly deployed in upper and lower semi-circles and a static sink is placed at the surface of the network region. In upper semi-circle, each sensor node send its sensed data to surface sink using depth information of sensor nodes to achieve energy efficiency by selecting forwarder node with minimum depth. In lower semi-circle, we implement cluster based routing approach in high node density regions and used sink mobility in least density network regions to achieve balanced energy consumption. In UWSNs, uneven distribution of sensor nodes and dynamic network topology creates void holes and high collision probability due to channel interference in dense networks. For avoiding void holes and reducing collision probability, we proposed a virtual chain based routing (VCBR) protocol for UWSNs. In VCBR, we build virtual chains between sensor nodes and sinks to avoid void holes. VCBR also minimizes collision probability which is due to channel interference in the network. The proposed VCBR protocol, introduces a mechanism to forward data packet through best suitable virtual chain to manage the energy resources of sensor nodes efficiently during data communication. The shortest virtual chain between source node and destination is calculated based on the location information of sensor nodes. Furthermore, we also exploit cooperative diversity by presenting two routing protocols (i.e., fixed adaptive cooperative virtual chain based routing (FACVCBR) and incremental adaptive cooperative virtual chain based routing (IACVCBR) to achieve data reliability and prolong network lifetime. In FACVCBR, source node broadcasts data to destination and two relays to achieve diversity which results in data reliability. In IACVCBR, retransmission of data packet is done incrementally to improve data reliability and successful delivery of data packets. In proposed FACVCBR and IACVCBR protocols, we introduce adaptive power control mechanism to utilize energy of sensor nodes in an efficient manner. We validate our propositions via simulations. The results verify that our proposed routing protocols outperform baseline protocols in terms of selected performance parameters.
... WDFAD-DBR has achieved a lessened probability of void holes; however, considering the depth difference between two hops to avoid void holes does not eliminate them effectively, and eventually, packet drops affect the network lifetime [14]. Similarly, in [15], interference-aware routing protocols (Intar: interference-aware routing; Re-Intar: reliable and interference-aware routing) are presented. These protocols have adopted the sender-based approach to avoid void holes in UWSNs. ...
... E total is the total energy provided to all of the nodes in the network as initial energy (E initial ) in Equation (15). Energy tax is basically the amount of energy consumed in all of the simulation rounds, which is stated in Equation (16) as: ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) facilitate a wide range of aquatic applications in various domains. However, the harsh underwater environment poses challenges like low bandwidth, long propagation delay, high bit error rate, high deployment cost, irregular topological structure, etc. Node mobility and the uneven distribution of sensor nodes create void holes in UWSNs. Void hole creation has become a critical issue in UWSNs, as it severely affects the network performance. Avoiding void hole creation benefits better coverage over an area, less energy consumption in the network and high throughput. For this purpose, minimization of void hole probability particularly in local sparse regions is focused on in this paper. The two-hop adaptive hop by hop vector-based forwarding (2hop-AHH-VBF) protocol aims to avoid the void hole with the help of two-hop neighbor node information. The other protocol, quality forwarding adaptive hop by hop vector-based forwarding (QF-AHH-VBF), selects an optimal forwarder based on the composite priority function. QF-AHH-VBF improves network good-put because of optimal forwarder selection. QF-AHH-VBF aims to reduce void hole probability by optimally selecting next hop forwarders. To attain better network performance, mathematical problem formulation based on linear programming is performed. Simulation results show that by opting these mechanisms, significant reduction in end-to-end delay and better throughput are achieved in the network.
... To avoid the void hole in [33], the authors in [34] propose new routing mechanism called reliable and interference-aware routing for UWSNs. The protocol follows an end-to-end path, therefore, it eliminates the chances of a void hole in the predefined route from a source to a sink node. ...
Recently, the underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have been proposed
for the exploration of the aqueous resources and to obtain information about the aquatic
environment. The noise in UWSNs challenges a successful transmission of packets
from a source to the destination. There are many protocols in the literature that
address noise reduction/avoidance during underwater communication. However,
they require localization information of each node that itself is a challenging issue.
This thesis presents a depth and noise-aware routing (DNAR) protocol for UWSNs,
which considers the minimum channel noise and the lowest depth of the sensor
node in order to send the packets reliably from a sender node to a surface sink. In
the DNAR protocol, more energy is assigned to the sensor nodes that have a depth
level ≤ 150m. Therefore, the nodes which are deployed nearby to a surface sink have
more capability of transmission and will not die quickly. Also, the proposed protocol
selects the forwarder candidate that has the lowest depth and minimum channel
noise at the receiver. The proposed scheme requires no geographical information of
the nodes for data routing. The DNAR protocol is validated by Matlab and compared
with the DBR scheme. The simulation demonstrates that the DNAR has better results
in terms of total energy consumption, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and the network
lifetime.
Additionally, in this thesis, a cooperative depth and noise aware routing for
UWSNs is proposed. As compared to the existing cooperative routing protocols,
the CoDNAR protocol selects the destination node based on both the lowest depth
and lowest channel noise. In CoDNAR, a cooperative diversity technique is used
that combat fading and high noise. A Source node uses two paths that forwards
a data packet to the destination node. The one path is directly from a source to
the destination, while the other one is via the relay node(s) to the destination. The
destination node receives multiple copies that combining it by using a maximal ratio
combining technique (MRC). The CoDNAR has the best performance in data delivery
than counterpart techniques, as validated by Matlab simulation.
... A reliable and interference-aware routing (RIAR) scheme is proposed in [24] which mitigates the adverse channel effects. In the RIAR scheme, the picking of the best forwarder node depends on the desired attributes such as hop count, the neighbour in the communication dimension, and the distance. ...
In underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), protocols with efficient energy and reliable communication are challenging, due to the unpredictable aqueous environment. The sensor nodes deployed in the specific region can not last for a long time communicating with each other because of limited energy. Also, the low speed of the acoustic waves and the small available bandwidth produce high latency as well as high transmission loss, which affects the network reliability. To address such problems, several protocols exist in literature. However, these protocols lose energy efficiency and reliability, as they calculate the geographical coordinates of the node or they do not avoid unfavorable channel conditions. To tackle these challenges, this article presents the two novel routing protocol for UWSNs. The first one energy path and channel aware (EPACA) protocol transmits data from a bottom of the water to the surface sink by taking node’s residual energy (Re), packet history (Hp), distance (d) and bit error rate (BER). In EPACA protocol, a source node computes a function value for every neighbor node. The most prior node in terms of calculated function is considered as the target destination. However, the EPACA protocol may not always guarantee packet reliability, as it delivers packets over a single path. To maintain the packet reliability in the network, the cooperative-energy path and channel aware (CoEPACA) routing scheme is added which uses relay nodes in packet advancement. In the CoEPACA protocol, the destination node receives various copies from the source and relay(s). The received data at the destination from multiple routes make the network more reliable due to avoiding the erroneous data. The MATLAB simulations results validated the performance of the proposed algorithms. The EPACA protocol consumed 29.01% and the CoEPACA protocol 19.04% less energy than the counterpart scheme. In addition, the overall 12.40% improvement is achieved in the packet’s reliability. Also, the EPACA protocol outperforms for packets’ latency and network lifetime.
... However, node depth adjustment results in high and imbalance energy consumption and again void hole occurrence due to depth adjustment. In Avoiding Void Holes and Collision with Reliable Interface-Aware Routing (Re-INTAR) [6], the forwarder nodes are selected on the basis of two hops depth difference, where the current depth as well as the depth of expected hop is considered. If there exist a void hole, one hop backward transmission at source node is done. ...
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) have gained interest of many researches due to its challenges like long propagation delay , high bit error rate, limited battery power and bandwidth. Node mobility and the uneven load distribution of sensor nodes results in creation of void holes in UASNs. Avoiding void holes benefits better coverage over an area, less energy consumption and high throughput. Therefore, in our proposed scheme, the sleep awake scheduling of corona nodes is done in order to minimize the data traffic load as well as balance the energy consumption in each corona. After network initialization, nodes in the even numbered coronas are set to sleep mode whereas nodes in odd coronas are in active mode. When the nodes in a corona deplete certain amount of energy, the nodes in sleep mode are switched to active operation mode. Thus, by scheduling data traffic load on each corona node is minimized also the energy of corona nodes is balanced. Simulation results verify the effectiveness of our proposed scheme in terms of traffic load distribution and energy consumption in sparse network.
... Additionally, localization is difficult to achieve in underwater communications, as nodes change their positions frequently with water currents, and nodes within the restricted forwarding zone die early because of frequent selection as forwarders. In order to avoid interference and reduce void hole formation, a routing protocol is proposed in [17]. The protocol selects forwarder nodes on the basis of a cost function. ...
Interference and energy holes formation in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) threaten the reliable delivery of data packets from a source to a destination. Interference also causes inefficient utilization of the limited battery power of the sensor nodes in that more power is consumed in the retransmission of the lost packets. Energy holes are dead nodes close to the surface of water, and their early death interrupts data delivery even when the network has live nodes. This paper proposes a localization-free interference and energy holes minimization (LF-IEHM) routing protocol for UWSNs. The proposed algorithm overcomes interference during data packet forwarding by defining a unique packet holding time for every sensor node. The energy holes formation is mitigated by a variable transmission range of the sensor nodes. As compared to the conventional routing protocols, the proposed protocol does not require the localization information of the sensor nodes, which is cumbersome and difficult to obtain, as nodes change their positions with water currents. Simulation results show superior performance of the proposed scheme in terms of packets received at the final destination and end-to-end delay.
... However, the proposed system is based on too many assumptions in the routing and scheduling policies that make it less practical to implement. The work in [17] designs a routing protocol that avoids interference and hole formation for reliable data transfer. A sender or source node that has packets to send selects a potential forwarder node among its neighbors. ...
Interference-aware routing protocol design for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) is one of the key strategies in reducing packet loss in the highly hostile underwater environment. The reduced interference causes efficient utilization of the limited battery power of the sensor nodes that, in consequence, prolongs the entire network lifetime. In this paper, we propose an energy-efficient interference-aware routing (EEIAR) protocol for UWSNs. A sender node selects the best relay node in its neighborhood with the lowest depth and the least number of neighbors. Combination of the two routing metrics ensures that data packets are forwarded along the least interference paths to reach the final destination. The proposed work is unique in that it does not require the full dimensional localization information of sensor nodes and the network total depth is segmented to identify source, relay and neighbor nodes. Simulation results reveal better performance of the scheme than the counterparts DBR and EEDBR techniques in terms of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay.
... Avoiding void hole problem in sparse network and reducing collision probability due to channel interference in dense network are very challenging tasks. Many routing protocols like interferenceaware routing (Intar) and a reliable and interference-aware routing (Re-Intar) protocols in [8] are proposed to tackle void hole problem with their main concern to improve network performance. In Intar, long propagation paths are selected to avoid void holes and reduce collision probability due to channel interference. ...
In this paper, we present a virtual chain based routing (VCBR) protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). Due to sparse deployment of sensor nodes and dynamic network topology in UWSNs, void hole problem occurs. In VCBR, we build a virtual chains between sensor nodes and sink nodes to avoid void hole problem. VCBR also minimizes collision probability due to channel interference in the network. The proposed VCBR protocol, introduces a mechanism to forward data packet through the shortest virtual chain in order to manage the energy resources of sensor nodes. The shortest virtual chain between source node and destination is calculated based on the local knowledge of sensor nodes.
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have been proposed as a promising way in supporting the underwater internet of things (UIoT) applications. However, to guarantee and improve quality of service (QoS), they are still facing great challenges especially when it comes to enabling reliable data communication for the UIoT applications and meanwhile protecting the marine ecosystems for sustainable underwater monitoring and exploration; this is because the acoustic signals used by UASNs can do harmful interference to vocalizing marine mammals. Therefore the paper proposed an ecologically friendly data transmission scheme for UASNs, which adopts an interference-aware opportunistic route discovery method and a frequency division multiplexing (FDM)-based full-duplex communication scheme. Firstly, in the route discovery phase, a virtual-void zone scheme, an FDM-based channel allocation approach and a Bayesian network-based mammal avoidance strategy is introduced to establish interference-free routing paths for enabling reliable and environmentally friendly data transmissions. Then during the data transmission phase, an FDM-based full-duplex communication technique is adopted to enable high-speed data flow from the seabed to the surface. Extensive simulations indicate that the proposed scheme has excellent advantages in terms of QoS while also taking marine mammals into account since the signal interference to both underwater nodes and nearby vocalizing mammals is significantly mitigated.
Recently, the development of three-dimensional interference-aware data transmission methods has attracted the attention of scholars due to the increased interest in exploiting and studying the underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs). In this paper, an interference aware data transmission protocol based on cellular clustering architecture is proposed. The protocol involves two steps. The first one is an inter-cell time division multiple access (TDMA) scheduling, which reduces acoustic interference by restricting simultaneous data transmission via adjacent routing paths; and the second one is an intra-cell hierarchical routing, which targets efficient data collection in the submarine and reliable data transmission from the seabed to the surface. Moreover, a novel Ekman spiral-based low-cost location prediction method and a void hole recovery scheme are adopted in each step to support the practicability of proposed protocol. Theoretical analysis and simulations indicate that the proposed protocol has advantages related to the quality of service (QoS) of UASNs because the signal interference is significantly mitigated.
The protocols in underwater acoustic wireless sensor networks (UAWSNs) that address reliability in packets forwarding usually consider the connectivity of the routing paths up to one-or two-hops. Since senor nodes are connected with one another using other nodes in their neighborhood, such protocols have compromised reliability. It is because these protocols do not guarantee the presence of neighbors beyond the selected one-or two-hops for connectivity and path establishment. This is further worsened by the harshness and unpredictability of the underwater scenario. In addition, establishment of the routing paths usually requires the nodes' undersea geographical locations, which is infeasible because currents in water cause the nodes to move from one position to another. To overcome these challenges, this paper presents two routing schemes for UAWSNs: reliability-aware routing (RAR) and reliability-aware cooperative routing with adaptive amplification (RACAA). RAR considers complete path connectivity to advance packets to sea surface. This overcomes packets loss when connectivity is not established and forwarder nodes are not available for data routing. For all the established paths, the probability of successfully transmitting data packets is calculated. This avoids the adverse channel effects. However, sea channel is unpredictable and fluctuating and its properties may change after its computation and prior to information transmission. Therefore, cooperative routing is introduced to RAR with adaptive power control of relays, which makes the RACCA protocol. In RACAA, a relay node increases its transmit power than normal when the error in the data; it receives from the sender, is more than 50% before transferring it further to destination. This further increases the reliability when such packets are forwarded. Unlike the conventional approach, the proposed protocols are independent of knowing the geographical locations of nodes in establishing the routes, which is computationally challenging due to nodes' movements with ocean currents and tides. Simulation results exhibit that RAR and RACAA outperform the counterpart scheme in delivering packets to the water surface.
Sparse node deployment and dynamic network topology in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) result in void hole problem. In this paper, we present two interference-aware routing protocols for UWSNs (Intar: interference-aware routing; and Re-Intar: reliable and interference-aware routing). In proposed protocols, we use sender based approach to avoid the void hole. The beauty of the proposed schemes is that they not only avoid void hole but also reduce the probability of collision. The proposed Re-Intar also uses one-hop backward transmission at the source node to further improve the packet delivery ratio of the network. Simulation results verify the effectiveness of the proposed schemes in terms of end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio and energy consumption.
Recent research in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) has gained the attention of researchers in academia and industry for a number of applications. They include disaster and earthquake prediction, water quality and environment monitoring, leakage and mine detection, military surveillance and underwater navigation. However, the aquatic medium is associated with a number of limitations and challenges: long multipath delay, high interference and noise, harsh environment, low bandwidth and limited battery life of the sensor nodes. These challenges demand research techniques and strategies to be overcome in an efficient and effective fashion. The design of routing protocols for UWSNs is one of the promising solutions to cope with these challenges. This paper presents a survey of the routing protocols for UWSNs. For the ease of description, the addressed routing protocols are classified into two groups: localization-based and localization-free protocols. These groups are further subdivided according to the problems they address or the major parameters they consider during routing. Unlike the existing surveys, this survey considers only the latest and state-of-the-art routing protocols. In addition, every protocol is described in terms of its routing strategy and the problem it addresses and solves. The merit(s) of each protocol is (are) highlighted along with the cost. A description of the protocols in this fashion has a number of advantages for researchers, as compared to the existing surveys. Firstly, the description of the routing strategy of each protocol makes its routing operation easily understandable. Secondly, the demerit(s) of a protocol provides (provide) insight into overcoming its flaw(s) in future investigation. This, in turn, leads to the foundation of new protocols that are more intelligent, robust and efficient with respect to the desired parameters. Thirdly, a protocol can be selected for the appropriate application based on its described merit(s). Finally, open challenges and research directions are presented for future investigation.
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) have gained interest of many researches due to its challenges like long propagation delay, high bit error rate, limited battery power and bandwidth. Node mobility and the uneven load distribution of sensor nodes results in creation of void holes in UASNs. Avoiding void holes benefits better coverage over an area, less energy consumption and high throughput. Therefore, in our proposed scheme, the sleep awake scheduling of corona nodes is done in order to minimize the data traffic load as well as balance the energy consumption in each corona. After network initialization, nodes in the even numbered coronas are set to sleep mode whereas nodes in odd coronas are in active mode. When the nodes in a corona deplete certain amount of energy, the nodes in sleep mode are switched to active operation mode. Thus, by scheduling data traffic load on each corona node is minimized also the energy of corona nodes is balanced. Simulation results verify the effectiveness of our proposed scheme in terms of traffic load distribution and energy consumption in sparse network.
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) facilitate a wide range of aquatic applications in many domains. However, harsh underwater environment poses challenges like low bandwidth, long propagation delay, high bit error rate, etc. Node mobility and uneven distribution of sensor nodes create void holes in UWSNs. Avoiding void hole creation benefits in many ways: it is mandatory to avoid void hole creation for better coverage over an area, less energy consumption in the network and high throughput. In such conditions, minimization of void hole probability in locally sparse regions is focused in this paper. Two hop adaptive vector based forwarding (2hop-AHH-VBF) routing protocol selects forwarder based on two hop potential neighbor number information. Meeting the void holes during forwarding path is significantly reduced in this way. Moreover, successful transmissions guarantee reliable packet delivery and reduced energy tax. Simulation results verify that proposed scheme outperforms in packet delivery ratio and energy tax while compared with AHH-VBF.
We propose forwarding-function (íµí°¹ íµí°¹) based routing protocol for underwater sensor networks (UWSNs): improved adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized depth-based-routing (iAMCTD). Unlike existing depth-based acoustic protocols, the proposed protocol exploits network density for time-critical applications. In order to tackle flooding, path loss, and propagation latency, we calculate optimal holding time (íµí°» íµí±) and use routing metrics: localization-free signal-to-noise ratio (LSNR), signal quality index (SQI), energy cost function (ECF), and depth-dependent function (DDF). Our proposal provides on-demand routing by formulating hard threshold (íµí°» th), soft threshold (íµí± th), and prime energy limit (íµí±
prime). Simulation results verify effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed iAMCTD.
Recently, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have attracted much research attention from both academia and industry, in order to explore the vast underwater environment. UWSNs have peculiar characteristics; that is, they have large propagation delay, high error rate, low bandwidth, and limited energy. Therefore, designing network/routing protocols for UWSNs is very challenging. Also, in UWSNs, improving the energy efficiency is one of the most important issues since the replacement of the batteries of underwater sensor nodes is very expensive due to the unpleasant underwater environment. In this paper, we therefore propose an energy efficient routing protocol, named (energy-efficient depth-based routing protocol) EEDBR for UWSNs. EEDBR utilizes the depth of sensor nodes for forwarding data packets. Furthermore, the residual energy of sensor nodes is also taken into account in order to improve the network lifetime. Based on the comprehensive simulation using NS2, we observe that EEDBR contributes to the performance improvements in terms of the network lifetime, energy consumption, and end-to-end delay. A previous version of this paper was accepted in AST-2011 conference.
In dense underwater sensor networks (UWSN), the major confronts are high
error probability, incessant variation in topology of sensor nodes, and much
energy consumption for data transmission. However, there are some remarkable
applications of UWSN such as management of seabed and oil reservoirs,
exploration of deep sea situation and prevention of aqueous disasters. In order
to accomplish these applications, ignorance of the limitations of acoustic
communications such as high delay and low bandwidth is not feasible. In this
paper, we propose Adaptive mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized
Depth-based routing (AMCTD), exploring the proficient amendments in depth
threshold and implementing the optimal weight function to achieve longer
network lifetime. We segregate our scheme in 3 major phases of weight updating,
depth threshold variation and adaptive mobility of courier nodes. During data
forwarding, we provide the framework for alterations in threshold to cope with
the sparse condition of network. We ultimately perform detailed simulations to
scrutinize the performance of our proposed scheme and its comparison with other
two notable routing protocols in term of network lifetime and other essential
parameters. The simulations results verify that our scheme performs better than
the other techniques and near to optimal in the field of UWSN.
Due to the significant advances of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), researchers are eager to use this technology in the subsea applications. Because of rapid absorption of high radio frequency in the water, acoustic waves are used as communication medium, which pose new challenges, including high propagation delay, high path loss, low bandwidth, and high-energy consumption. Because of these challenges and high movement of nodes by water flow, end-to-end routing methods used in most of existing routing protocols in WSNs are not applicable to underwater environments. Therefore, new routing protocols have been developed for underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) in which most of the routing protocols take advantage of greedy routing. Due to inapplicability of global positioning system (GPS) in underwater environments, finding location information of nodes is too costly. Therefore, based on a need for location information, we divided the existing greedy routing protocols into two distinctive categories, namely, location-based and location-free protocols. In addition, location-free category is divided into two subcategories based on method of collecting essential information for greedy routing, including beacon-based and pressure-based protocols. Furthermore, a number of famous routing protocols belonging to each category are reviewed, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, these protocols are compared with each other based on their features.
Large-scale Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) is a novel networking paradigm to explore the uninhabited and complex oceans. However, the characteristics of UWSNs, such as huge propagation delay, floating node mobility, and limited acoustic link capacity, are significantly different from ground-based wireless sensor networks and existing small scale Underwater Acoustic Networks (UANs). The novel networking paradigm poses inter-disciplinary challenges that will require new technological solutions. In particular, in this technical report we adopt a top-down approach to explore the research challenges in UWSN design. Along the layered protocol stack, we roughly go down from the top application layer to the bottom physical layer. At each layer, a set of new design intricacies are studied. The conclusion is that building scalable and distributed UWSNs is a challenge that must be answered by inter-disciplinary efforts of acoustic communications, signal processing and mobile acoustic network protocol design.
In this paper, we tackle one fundamental problem in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs): robust, scalable and energy efficient
routing. UWSNs are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high
latency, node float mobility (resulting in high network dynamics), high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These
new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol,
called vector-based forwarding (VBF), to provide robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. VBF is essentially a position-based
routing approach: nodes close to the “vector” from the source to the destination will forward the message. In this way, only
a small fraction of the nodes are involved in routing. VBF also adopts a localized and distributed self-adaptation algorithm
which allows nodes to weigh the benefit of forwarding packets and thus reduce energy consumption by discarding the low benefit
packets. Through simulation experiments, we show the promising performance of VBF.
This paper investigates a fundamental networking problem in underwater sensor networks: robust and energy-efficient routing. We present an adaptive location-based routing protocol, called hop-by-hop vector-based forwarding (HH-VBF). It uses the notion of a "routing vector" (a vector from the source to the sink) acting as the axis of the "routing pipe", similar to the vector based forward (VBF) routing in the work of P. Xie, J.-H. Cui and L. Lao (VBF: Vector-Based Forwarding Protocol for Underwater Sensor Networks. Technical report, UCONN CSE Technical Report: UbiNet-TR05-03 (BECAT/CSE-TR-05-6), Feb. 2005). Unlike the original VBF approach, however, HH-VBF suggests the use of a routing vector for each individual forwarder in the network, instead of a single network-wide source-to-sink routing vector. By the creation of the hop-by-hop vectors, HH-VBF can overcome two major problems in VBF: (1) too small data delivery ratio for sparse networks; (2) too sensitive to "routing pipe" radius threshold. We conduct simulations to evaluate HH-VBF, and the results show that HH-VBF yields much better performance than VBF in sparse networks. In addition, HH-VBF is less sensitive to the routing pipe radius threshold. Furthermore, we also analyze the behavior of HH-VBF and show that assuming proper redundancy and feedback techniques, HH-VBF can facilitate the avoidance of any "void" areas in the network.
Underwater sensor nodes will find applications in oceanographic data collection, pollution monitoring, offshore exploration, disaster prevention, assisted navigation and tactical surveillance applications. Moreover, unmanned or autonomous underwater vehicles (UUVs, AUVs), equipped with sensors, will enable the exploration of natural undersea resources and gathering of scientific data in collaborative monitoring missions. Underwater acoustic networking is the enabling technology for these applications. Underwater networks consist of a variable number of sensors and vehicles that are deployed to perform collaborative monitoring tasks over a given area.In this paper, several fundamental key aspects of underwater acoustic communications are investigated. Different architectures for two-dimensional and three-dimensional underwater sensor networks are discussed, and the characteristics of the underwater channel are detailed. The main challenges for the development of efficient networking solutions posed by the underwater environment are detailed and a cross-layer approach to the integration of all communication functionalities is suggested. Furthermore, open research issues are discussed and possible solution approaches are outlined.
Underwater sensor networks are attracting increasing in-terest from researchers in terrestrial radio-based sensor net-works. There are important physical, technological, and eco-nomic di erences between terrestrial and underwater sensor networks. Previous surveys have provided thorough back-ground material in underwater communications, and an in-troduction to underwater networks. This has included detail on the physical characteristics of the channel [1], on under-water acoustic communications [2, 3, 4], and surveys of un-derwater acoustic networks [5, 6, 7, 8]. In this survey, we highlight a number of important practical issues that are not emphasized in the recent surveys of underwater networks, with an intended audience of researchers who are moving from radio-based terrestrial networks into underwater net-works. We focus on issues relevant to medium access control (MAC) protocols, which are an area of continuing work both
In this paper, architectures for two-dimensional and three -dimensional underwater sensor networks are discussed. A detailed overview on the current solutions for medium access control, network, and transport layer protocols are given and open research issues are dis- cussed.
The salient features of acoustic communications render many schemes that have been designed for terrestrial sensor networks unusable underwater. We therefore propose a novel virtual sink architecture for underwater sensor networks that aims to achieve robustness and energy efficiency under harsh underwater channel conditions. To overcome the long propagation delay and adverse link conditions in such environments, we make use of multipath data delivery. While conventional multipath routing tends to lead to contention near the sink, we avoid this caveat with the virtual sink design involving a group of spatially diverse physical sinks. Hence, we are able to exploit the reliability achieved from redundancy provided by multipath data delivery while mitigating the contention between the nodes.
The design of routing protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) poses many challenges due to long propagation, high mobility, limited bandwidth, multi-path and Doppler effect. Because of the void-hole caused by the uneven distribution of nodes and sparse deployment, the selection of next hop forwarding nodes only based on the state of current node may result in the failure of forwarding in the local sparse region. In order to reduce the probability of encountering void holes in the sparse networks, in this paper we present weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol, called WDFAD-DBR. The novelties of WDFAD-DBR lie in: firstly, next forwarding nodes are selected according to the weighting sum of depth difference of two hops, which considers not only the current depth but also the depth of expected next hop. In this way, the probability of meeting void holes is effectively reduced. Secondly, the mechanisms for forwarding area division and neighbor node prediction are designed to reduce the energy consumption caused by duplicated packets and neighbors' requests, respectively. Thirdly, we make theoretical analyses on routing performance in case of considering channel contending with respect to delivery ratio, energy consumption and average end-to-end delay. Finally we conduct extensive simulations using NS-3 simulator to verify the effectiveness and validity of WDFAD-DBR.
Underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) is a promising technique, which will facilitate a wide range of aquatic applications. However, because of adverse underwater environments, UASN faces grand challenges and problems such as limited bandwidth, node movement, long propagation delay, three-dimension deployment, energy-constraint, expensive manufacture and deployment costs. In order to address these problems and challenges, in this paper we propose an adaptive hop-by-hop vector-based forwarding routing protocol on the basis of HH-VBF (called AHH-VBF). Firstly, during the transmission process, the radius of virtual pipeline is adaptively changed hop by hop to restrict the forwarding range of packets so that the transmission reliability can be guaranteed effectively in the sparse sensor region and the duplicated packets can be reduced in the dense sensor region; secondly, the transmission power level is also adaptively adjusted hop by hop in cross-layer fashion so that the energy-efficiency can be improved effectively; thirdly, forwarding nodes are selected based on the distance from current node to destination node so that the end-to-end delays are reduced effectively. Eventually, we propose two metrics: propagation deviation factor and effective neighbor number, to evaluate the network performance of AHH-VBF. We conduct extensive simulations using ns-3 simulator and perform theoretical analyses to evaluate the network performance. Our experimental results verified that the AHH-VBF routing protocol outperforms HH-VBF protocol, naïve Flooding and RDBF in terms of energy efficiency, end-to-end delay and data delivery ratio.
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) offer their practicable applications in seismic monitoring, sea mine detection and disaster prevention. In these networks, fundamental difference between operational methodologies of routing schemes arises due to the requirement of time-critical applications therefore, there is a need for the design of delay-sensitive techniques. In this paper, Delay-Sensitive Depth-Based Routing (DSDBR), Delay-Sensitive Energy Efficient Depth-Based Routing (DSEEDBR) and Delay-Sensitive Adaptive Mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized Depth-based routing (DSAMCTD) protocols are proposed to empower the depth-based routing schemes. The performance of the proposed schemes is validated in UASNs. All of the three schemes formulate delay-efficient Priority Factors (PF) and Delay-Sensitive Holding time (DSH T) to minimize end-to-end delay October 6, 2014 DRAFT 2 with a small decrease in network throughput. These schemes also employ an optimal weight function (W F) for the computation of transmission loss and speed of received signal. Furthermore, solution for delay lies in efficient data forwarding, minimal relative transmissions in low-depth region and better forwarder selection. Simulations are performed to assess the proposed protocols and the results indicate that the three schemes largely minimize end-to-end delay along with improving the transmission loss of network.
SUMMARY Recently, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have attracted much research attention to support various applications for pollution monitoring, tsunami warnings, offshore exploration, tactical surveillance, etc. However, because of the peculiar characteristics of UWSNs, designing communication protocols for UWSNs is a challenging task. Particularly, designing a routing protocol is of the most importance for successful data transmissions between sensors and the sink. In this paper, we propose a reliable and energy-efficient routing protocol, named R-ERP2R (Reliable Energy-efficient Routing Protocol based on physical distance and residual energy). The main idea behind R-ERP2R is to utilize physical distance as a routing metric and to balance energy consumption among sensors. Furthermore, during the selection of forwarding nodes, link quality towards the forwarding nodes is also considered to provide reliability and the residual energy of the forwarding nodes to prolong network lifetime. Using the NS-2 simulator, R-ERP2R is compared against a well-known routing protocol (i.e. depth-based routing) in terms of network lifetime, energy consumption, end-to-end delay and delivery ratio. The simulation results proved that R-ERP2R performs better in UWSNs.Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Unlike terrestrial sensor networks, underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) have salient features such as a long propagation delay, narrow bandwidth, and high packet loss over links. Hence, path setup‐based routing protocols proposed for terrestrial sensor networks are not applicable because a large latency of the path establishment is observed, and packet delivery is not reliable in UWSNs. Even though routing protocols such as VBF (vector based forwarding) and HHVBF (hop‐by‐hop VBF) were introduced for UWSNs, their performance in terms of reliability deteriorates at high packet loss. In this paper, we therefore propose a directional flooding‐based routing protocol, called DFR, in order to achieve reliable packet delivery. DFR performs a so‐called controlled flooding, where DFR changes the number of nodes which participate in forwarding a packet according to their link quality. When a forwarding node has poor link quality to its neighbor nodes geographically advancing toward the sink, DFR allows more nodes to participate in forwarding the packet. Otherwise, a few nodes are enough to forward the packet reliably. In addition, we identify two types of void problems which can occur during the controlled flooding and introduce their corresponding solutions. Our simulation study using ns‐2 simulator proves that DFR is more suitable for UWSNs, especially when links are prone to packet loss. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Unlike terrestrial sensor networks, underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) have different characteristics such as a long propagation delay, a narrow bandwidth and high packet loss. Hence, existing path setup-based routing protocols proposed for terrestrial sensor networks are not applicable in the underwater environment. For example, they take much time when establishing a path between source and destination nodes due to the long propagation delay. In addition, the path establishment requires much overhead of control messages. Moreover, the dynamic and high packet loss degrades reliability, which invokes more retransmissions. Even though exiting routing protocols such as VBF were proposed to improve the reliability, they did not take into account the link quality. That is, there is no guarantee that packets reach the sink safely especially when a link is error-prone. In this paper, we therefore propose a directional flooding-based routing protocol, called DFR. Basically, DFR relies on a packet flooding technique to increase the reliability. However, the number of nodes which flood a packet is controlled in order to prevent a packet from flooding over the whole network and the nodes to forward the packet are decided according to the link quality. In addition, DFR also addresses a well-known void problem by allowing at least one node to participate in forwarding a packet. Our simulation study using ns-2 proves that DFR is more suitable for UWSNs especially when links are prone to packet loss.
Design of efficient routing protocols for underwater sensor networks is challenging because of the distinctive characteristics of the water medium. Currently, many routing protocols are available for terrestrial wireless sensor networks. However, specific properties of underwater medium such as limited bandwidth, high propagation delay, high bit error rates, and 3D deployment make the existing routing protocols inappropriate for underwater sensor networks. In this paper, we provide a guideline on use of existing underwater routing protocols, identify their shortcomings, and give an insight on what is needed to design an efficient and reliable underwater routing protocol.
Providing scalable and ecient routing services in underwater sensor net- works (UWSNs) is very challenging due to the unique characteristics of UWSNs. Firstly, UWSNs often employ acoustic channels for communications because radio signals do not work well in water. Compared with radio-frequency channels, acous- tic channels feature much lower bandwidths and several orders of magnitudes longer propagation delays. Secondly, UWSNs usually have very dynamic topology as sen- sors move passively with water currents. Some routing protocols have been proposed to address the challenging problem in UWSNs. However, most of them assume that the full-dimensional location information of all sensor nodes in a network is known in prior through a localization process, which is yet another challenging issue to be solved in UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a depth-based routing (DBR) protocol. DBR does not require full-dimensional location information of sensor nodes. Instead, it needs only local depth information, which can be easily obtained with an inex- pensive depth sensor that can be equipped in every underwater sensor node. A key advantage of our protocol is that it can handle network dynamics eciently with- out the assistance of a localization service. Moreover, our routing protocol can take advantage of a multiple-sink underwater sensor network architecture without intro- ducing extra cost. We conduct extensive simulations. The results show that DBR can achieve very high packet delivery ratios (at least 95%) for dense networks with only small communication cost.
Multi-hop transmission is considered for large coverage ar- eas in bandwidth-limited underwater acoustic networks. In this paper, we present a scalable routing technique based on location information, and optimized for minimum energy per bit consumption. The proposed Focused Beam Rout- ing (FBR) protocol is suitable for networks containing both static and mobile nodes, which are not necessarily synchro- nized to a global clock. A source node must be aware of its own location and the location of its final destination, but not those of other nodes. The FBR protocol can be defined as a cross-layer ap- proach, in which the routing protocol, the medium access control and the physical layer functionalities are tightly cou- pled by power control. It can be described as a distributed algorithm, in which a route is dynamically established as the data packet traverses the network towards its final destina- tion. The selection of the next relay is made at each step of the path after suitable candidates have proposed themselves. The system performance is measured in terms of energy per bit consumption and average packet end-to-end delay. The results are compared to those obtained using pre-establi- shed routes, defined via Dijkstra's algorithm for minimal power consumption. It is shown that the protocol's perfor- mance is close to the ideal case, as the additional burden of dynamic route discovery is minimal.
Underwater sensor network (UWSN) has emerged in recent years as a promising networking technique for various aquatic applications. Due to specific characteristics of UWSNs, such as high latency, low bandwidth, and high energy consumption, it is challenging to build networking protocols for UWSNs. In this paper, we focus on addressing the routing issue in UWSNs. We propose an adaptive, energy-efficient, and lifetime-aware routing protocol based on reinforcement learning, QELAR. Our protocol assumes generic MAC protocols and aims at prolonging the lifetime of networks by making residual energy of sensor nodes more evenly distributed. The residual energy of each node as well as the energy distribution among a group of nodes is factored in throughout the routing process to calculate the reward function, which aids in selecting the adequate forwarders for packets. We have performed extensive simulations of the proposed protocol on the Aqua-sim platform and compared with one existing routing protocol (VBF) in terms of packet delivery rate, energy efficiency, latency, and lifetime. The results show that QELAR yields 20 percent longer lifetime on average than VBF.
As an emerging technique, underwater sensor network (UWSN) will enable a wide range of aquatic applications. However, due to the adverse underwater environmental conditions as well as some system constraints, an underwater sensor network is usually viewed as an intermittently connected network (ICN) (or delay/disruption tolerant network (DTN)), which requires specialized routing protocols. Moreover, applications may have different requirements for different types of messages, as demands a smart protocol to handle packets adaptively. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol where routing is performed adaptively based on the types of messages and application requirements. This is obtained by exploiting message redundancy and resource reallocation in order to achieve different performance requirements. We demonstrate through simulations that our protocol can satisfy different application requirements and achieve a good trade-off among delivery ratio, end-to-end delay and energy consumption.
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