No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between insecure attachment and subjective health outcomes
Abstract
This study investigated the mediating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between adult insecure attachment and subjective ill health. A sample of 343 Australian adults, aged between 18 and 77 years, completed measures of attachment, emotional intelligence and four facets of subjective health: somatic, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction and severe depression. Structural equation modelling showed that both anxious insecure attachment and avoidant insecure attachment were associated with lower emotional intelligence, which in turn was related to poorer subjective health outcomes. Emotional intelligence partially mediated the relationship between anxious insecurity and health outcomes. However, emotional intelligence fully mediated the relationship between avoidant insecurity and health outcomes. Results support a model in which insecure attachment is associated with deficits in emotional intelligence, which in turn is related to poorer health outcomes. We explore different mechanisms through which the two types of insecure attachment may impact on health.
... Huprich, Rosen, and Kiss (2013) reported that maladaptive attachment was related to anaclitic and introjective depression symptoms for a participant sample comprised of outpatient psychotherapy Pdf_Folio:96 patients. Marks, Horrocks, and Schutte (2016) found that avoidant attachment and anxious attachment were significantly related to depression symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college undergraduates. Similarly, Gnilka, Ashby, and Noble (2013) found that avoidant and anxious attachment-predicted depression in a nonclinical sample of college students. ...
... Jimenez (2017) reviewed interdisciplinary scholarly literature on the effects of attachment on medical outcome and found that attachment profiles were significant predictors of several important variables including treatment adherence, consumption of medical resources, and mortality. Marks et al. (2016) found that avoidant and anxious attachment were significantly related to patients' subjective assessments of health outcomes including somatic symptoms and health anxiety. Sela-Kaufman, Rassovsky, Agranov, Levi, and Vakil (2013) found that TBI patients' premorbid attachment profiles predicted psychological and occupational functioning 1 year after injury. ...
... At the bivariate level, depression correlated positively with the insecure attachment domains (i.e., anxious and avoidant) and negatively with secure attachment, which supports previous findings by Kidd et al. (2016) and Marks et al. (2016). Also similar to previous studies (e.g., Alarcon et al., 2013), depression correlated negatively with hope. ...
Purpose
Test hope as mediator of relationships between attachment and depressive symptoms for trauma patients, and evaluate relationships among psychological variables (i.e., attachment, hope, and depression) and medical variables (i.e., patient admission disposition, length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay, discharge status, intubation, and days on ventilator).
Design
Quantitative descriptive design using multiple regression and correlational techniques.
Participants
106 participants were recruited from among admitted patients at a nationally verified university Level I trauma center.
Results
Hope was a significant mediator of the relationship between attachment and depression. Admission to the ICU instead of less intensive care was associated with lower secure attachment and elevated avoidant attachment. Longer ICU stays were related to lower secure attachment, elevated anxious attachment, low hope, and elevated depression. Discharge to a facility (rather than home) was associated with elevated anxious attachment and elevated depression. Intubation and days on a ventilator were associated with elevated anxious attachment. Secure attachment, anxious attachment, and hope were related to depression.
Conclusion
screening trauma patients for personality and psychological characteristics that hamper recovery may improve outcomes. Hope-enhancing interventions may decrease attachment-predicted depression and improve recovery for trauma patients.
... Avoidant attachment has its sub-categories as well. For example, 'fearful avoiders' resist intimacy in an attempt to avoid experiencing rejection (Marks et al., 2016), whereas 'dismissing-avoidant' subjects develop compulsive independence due to low expectations of obtaining comfort from others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991;Marks et al., 2016;Wearden et al., 2005). In light of previous findings, attachment is closely associated with self-regulation (Drake et al., 2014), suggesting that attachment patterns play a significant role in shaping our capacity to regulate emotions. ...
... Avoidant attachment has its sub-categories as well. For example, 'fearful avoiders' resist intimacy in an attempt to avoid experiencing rejection (Marks et al., 2016), whereas 'dismissing-avoidant' subjects develop compulsive independence due to low expectations of obtaining comfort from others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991;Marks et al., 2016;Wearden et al., 2005). In light of previous findings, attachment is closely associated with self-regulation (Drake et al., 2014), suggesting that attachment patterns play a significant role in shaping our capacity to regulate emotions. ...
Alexithymia is a personality trait with its primary characteristic being a deficiency in handling emotions. Previous literature has found inconsistent findings on the relationship between insecure attachment and alexithymia. Therefore, this study adopted a three-level random-effect meta-analysis approach with the goal of understanding the underlying mechanism between insecure attachment and alexithymia based on the 415 effects from 67 studies. As shown in our findings, insecure attachment was significantly and positively correlated to alexithymia (r = 0.306; 95% CI: 0.286, 0.325; p < 0.0001). Furthermore, the moderator analysis demonstrated that category of insecure attachment (F(4, 399) = 5.896; p < 0.001), measurement of insecure attachment (F(13, 397) = 2.074; p = 0.015), and facet of alexithymia (F(4, 406) = 26.218; p < 0.001) showed significant moderating effects. In terms of different categories of attachment, individuals with anxious attachment could show more severe alexithymia than those with preoccupied attachment. As for diverse measurements of attachment, the moderating effect of the Experiences in Close Relationship (ECR) on the relationship between insecure attachment and alexithymia is the most significant, followed by the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ), then the Relationship Style Questionnaire (RSQ), with the Relationship Questionnaire (RQ) being the least. Regarding various facets of alexithymia, the significance of their moderating effect is, in descending order, externally oriented thinking, general alexithymia, and difficulty describing feelings. Overall, this review confirms the aggravating effect of insecure attachment on alexithymia, providing a feasible gateway to prevent emotional management impairments, that is, reducing the likelihood of high-level alexithymia by averting individuals from developing insecure attachment.
... In this context, the results of previous studies suggest that the relationship between insecure attachment and loneliness is mediated by low social skills [11] and by a weakened tendency to "catch" other people's positive emotions [17] (although the latter is applied only to avoidantly attached participants). A different study, conducted by Marks et al. [18], suggests that another mediating mechanism may be emotional abilities understood as emotional intelligence (EI). These authors found that EI mediated the relationships between insecure attachment and subjective mental health outcomes, whose indicators included social dysfunction. ...
... For this reason, it was this concept that we relied on when operationalizing EI in both of our studies. However, regardless of approach (trait or ability) and regardless of the results reported by Marks et al. [18], viewing EI as a potential mediator between attachment and loneliness is also theoretically justified. It is assumed that the attachment styles forming in the early stages of development may influence the later development of EI (both as a trait and as an ability). ...
(1) Background: The aim of the presented research was to examine if emotional intelligence (EI) could be regarded as a mechanism mediating the relationship between attachment and loneliness. The authors also tested the moderating role of this variable, investigating whether EI was a protective factor against loneliness in insecurely attached individuals. (2) Methods: In two cross-sectional studies (N = 246 in Study 1 and N = 186 in Study 2), participants completed a set of questionnaires measuring attachment styles, trait emotional intelligence, and loneliness. (3) Results: Both studies revealed a consistent pattern of results, indicating a dual role of EI in the relationships between attachment styles and loneliness. Firstly, EI was a mediator between attachment and loneliness—both anxious and avoidant attachment were associated with a low level of EI, which in turn translated into increased loneliness. Secondly, EI moderated the relationship between anxious attachment and loneliness. It turned out that the strength of the positive relationship between anxious attachment and loneliness decreased with an increase in EI. (4) Conclusions: These results point to EI as an underlying mechanism between insecure attachment and loneliness. They also suggest that EI is an important psychological resource protecting anxiously attached individuals against a subjective sense of social isolation.
... In addition, the results of Arshiha et al. (2016) showed a positive and significant relationship between moral intelligence and social skills. Marks et al. (2016) concluded in a study that insecure attachment had a significant negative effect on emotional intelligence. In another study, Ghorbanian et al. (2016) reported that attachment style had a direct and significant effect on social skills and that it had an indirect and significant effect on emotional intelligence. ...
... Other findings showed that avoidant and ambivalent insecure attachment styles had a direct and negative effect on moral intelligence and social skills. These findings are consistent with the results of Gholizadeh et al. (2018), Marks et al. (2016) and Alborzi et al. (2015) in terms of the effect of insecure attachments on moral intelligence and in line with the results of Dereli & Karakus (2011). Explaining these findings based on Fuchs & Taubner (2019) research, it can be said that attachment style is a process during which an emotional bond is formed in the mother or caregiver relationship with the baby and the baby becomes emotionally attached to his parents. ...
... This was to say that higher attachment insecurity was linked to lower trait emotional intelligence. This idea was consistently supported by many cross-sectional studies demonstrating that attachment insecurity could negatively predict emotional intelligence (Brumariu et al., 2012;Lanciano et al., 2012;Marks et al., 2016;Scarlat, 2021) among children, adolescents and young adults while limited studies found a reversed correlation. Given relevant theories and empirical evidence, therefore, we posited that emotional intelligence (EI) could be predicted from maternal attachment security. ...
Anxiety is associated with negative outcomes such as behaviour disorder and suicide. Previous literature has established the association between maternal attachment and anxiety. However, the effects of emotional intelligence and gender on the pathway are understudied among older adolescents and young adults. The study aims to investigate the potential mediating effect of emotional intelligence in the association between maternal attachment and anxiety in youth, with a consideration of gender as a moderator that may influence the strength of the indirect effect. Adolescents and young adults (N = 239) completed a set of scales measuring their maternal attachment, trait emotional intelligence and anxiety level. Analysis was based on the existing dataset and obtained ethical approval. A PROCESS macro was employed for mediation and moderation analysis. The results indicated that emotional intelligence mediated the association between maternal attachment and anxiety. Furthermore, moderated mediation analysis showed a significant indirect effect from maternal attachment to anxiety through emotional intelligence in females but not in males, with gender moderated the pathway from emotional intelligence to anxiety. The results highlight the importance of trait emotional intelligence and gender pathways in the development of anxiety. Emotional intelligence only mediates the relationship between maternal attachment and anxiety in female adolescents and young adults. However, the moderating effect of gender should be carefully generalised due to potential problems.
... In conclusion, it can be argued that people with high EI are good at identifying and regulating their own and other people's emotions (Petrides & Furnham, 2006). People with low EI find it difficult to solve daily life problems which may negatively influence their subjective health (Marks et al., 2016;Megías et al., 2018). In contrast, researchers (Petrides et al., 2016) have also noted that high scores on self-report measures of EI are usually but not always adaptive. ...
The present study aimed to investigate gender differences in emotional intelligence in university students of Lahore, Pakistan as well as to identify the predictive role of emotional intelligence related to gender. A cross-sectional research design was carried out and 300 university students (Men = 150; Women = 150) of 18-25 years (Mage = 21.36; SD = 1.47) were taken from University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan through purposive sampling strategy. Participants completed a demographic information sheet and a Scale for Emotional Intelligence-Short Form (Dawood, 2021). Data were analyzed through independent sample t-test and multiple binary logistic regression analysis. Findings indicated that men university students were significantly more emotionally intelligent in terms of motivation and social skills as compared to women university students. Moreover, self-awareness, motivation, and empathy significantly predicted the outcome of gender in university students. Implications for further research related to gender differences in emotional intelligence are discussed.
... Avoidance scores were found to be positively associated in that EI was negatively related to patients' cues and concerns. In another article, Marks et al. [53] found that EI mediated the relationship between adults' insecure attachment and subjective health outcomes. Anxious and avoidant attachment orientations were both associated with lower EI, which in turn was associated with more detrimental subjective health outcomes (somatic, anxiety/insomnia, severe depression and social dysfunction). ...
Attachment orientations reflect the inner representations of the self and others that are formed in early childhood. Emotional intelligence is seen as a set of skills involved in the expression of emotion, its effective regulation of emotion, and the use of feelings. Attachment orientations are thought to derive from infants’ experiences with their primary caregivers and are associated with a range of cognitions, emotions and behaviors, including the interpretation of emotional experiences, the use of coping mechanisms, and affect regulation strategies to deal with stressful events and as such are closely related to emotional experiences and the broader concept of emotional intelligence. This chapter presents the foundational studies and recent empirical findings on attachment theory and emotional intelligence and then discusses ways to integrate these two concepts from a dual psychodynamic-cognitive perspective.
... 12 In yet another study, it was established that EI partially mediated the connection between anxious insecurity and health outcomes while it fully mediated the relationship between avoidant insecurity and health outcomes. 13 Another study found positive relations between secure attachment, EI and resiliency, negative relationship between insecure ambivalent attachment, EI and resiliency and that secure attachment predicted EI positively while ambivalent attachment predicted EI negatively. 14 However, even attachment may have suffered due to the social restrictions brought about because of the COVID-19 pandemic. ...
Recent articles have claimed that the COVID-19 pandemic may have had unfavorable effects on both the emotional intelligence and attachment styles of individuals on a global scale. A number of studies have established a connection between attachment styles and emotional intelligence. This research sought to verify the existence of such a relationship. 106 volunteers from a private college in Manila, Philippines took part as respondents. The Revised Adult Attachment Scale (RAAS) was administered to measure the respondents' attachment style while the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Scale was used to measure their emotional intelligence. Based on the findings, it would appear that females possess higher EI scores than males, respondents whose parents are living together possess higher EI scores than those whose parents are separated and respondents with a romantic partner possess higher EI scores than those without. Furthermore, it would seem that females have higher anxiety attachment scores than males, respondents whose parents are living together possess higher anxiety attachment scores than those whose parents are separated and respondents without a romantic partner have higher anxiety attachment scores than those with a romantic partner. In addition, it would appear that males have higher close attachment scores than females, respondents whose parents are living together possess higher close attachment scores than those whose parents are separated, and respondents without a romantic partner have higher close attachment scores than those with a romantic partner. Moreover, it was observed that females have higher depend attachment scores than males, respondents whose parents are living together possess very slightly higher depend attachment scores than those whose parents are separated and respondents with a romantic partner have higher depend attachment scores than those without a romantic partner. A significant moderate positive relationship was found between the respondents' close attachment scores and their EI scores. Lastly, a significant low positive relationship between the respondents depends attachment scores and their EI scores was also established.
... Entonces, ¿una persona con un estilo de apego inseguro está condicionada a experimentar menos satisfacción en sus relaciones adultas? Estudios previos sugieren que las competencias emocionales, y la regulación emocional en particular, median la relación del apego con otras variables similares como el bienestar subjetivo (Karreman y Vingerhoets, 2012;Mónaco et al., 2022) y la salud (Marks et al., 2016;Nielsen et al., 2017). Sin embargo, esta mediación no se ha estudiado con la satisfacción en las relaciones (Abbasi et al., 2016;Steele y Steele, 2017). ...
El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar la relación entre el apego y la satisfacción con la relación de pareja, considerando el papel mediador de las competencias emocionales, y controlando la influencia del género, la edad y la duración de la relación. En el estudio participaron 265 jóvenes españoles (59,2% mujeres) de entre 18 y 36 años con pareja. Los resultados más relevantes indican que el estilo evitativo alejado presenta una menor satisfacción en la relación. Junto con el estilo temeroso son los que tienen las habilidades emocionales más pobres. La ansiedad y la evitación del apego se relacionan negativamente con la satisfacción en la relación, siendo mediadas por la regulación emocional. Se discute la importancia de desarrollar programas de educación emocional en los jóvenes como forma de mitigar el efecto de un estilo de apego inseguro.
... A large body of research demonstrates that satisfying relationships are a crucial factor for health (e.g., Berkman, 1995;Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017;Robles et al., 2014). Individuals with insecure attachment orientations, however, are more likely to struggle to maintain satisfying and stable romantic relationships (Li & Chan, 2012) and are therefore at risk to experience poorer health outcomes (e.g., Marks et al., 2016;McWilliams & Bailey, 2010;Widom et al., 2018). One primary health concern in late adulthood is the maintenance of cognitive functioning: Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative disorders become increasingly prevalent with age (Cummings & Cole, 2002) representing the greatest health challenge of our time (Livingston et al., 2017). ...
This study examined the link between insecure attachment and cognitive functioning in 1,043 middle-aged and older romantic couples (Mage = 64.7 years), and tests whether stress acts as a mediator. Participants were asked about their romantic attachment (anxiety and avoidance), cognitive impairment, their and their partner’s dementia symptoms, and were tested on their memory performance. Findings suggest that anxiously attached individuals experience more stress and report worse cognitive functioning, while partners of avoidantly attached individuals experience more stress, report worse cognitive functioning, and show worse memory performance. Post-hoc robustness analyses suggest that relationship satisfaction accounts for the link between avoidance and stress and serves as a mediator. Insecure attachment reflects a potential risk for worse cognitive health in older couples.
... A large body of research demonstrates that satisfying relationships are a crucial factor for health (e.g., Berkman, 1995;Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017;Robles et al., 2014). Individuals with insecure attachment orientations, however, are more likely to struggle to maintain satisfying and stable romantic relationships (Li & Chan, 2012) and are therefore at risk to experience poorer health outcomes (e.g., Marks et al., 2016;McWilliams & Bailey, 2010;Widom et al., 2018). One primary health concern in late adulthood is the maintenance of cognitive functioning: Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative disorders become increasingly prevalent with age (Cummings & Cole, 2002) representing the greatest health challenge of our time (Livingston et al., 2017). ...
This study examined the link between insecure attachment and cognitive functioning in 1,043 middle-aged and older romantic couples (Mage = 64.7 years), and tests whether stress acts as a mediator. Participants were asked about their romantic attachment (anxiety and avoidance), cognitive impairment, their and their partner’s dementia symptoms, and were tested on their memory performance. Findings suggest that anxiously attached individuals experience more stress and report worse cognitive functioning, while partners of avoidantly attached individuals experience more stress, report worse cognitive functioning, and show worse memory performance. Post-hoc robustness analyses suggest that relationship satisfaction accounts for the link between avoidance and stress and serves as a mediator. Insecure attachment reflects a potential risk for worse cognitive health in older couples.
... Participants reported the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 5-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). The EIS is the most widely used emotional intelligence scale within sport research (Laborde et al., 2016), has been utilized as an observer-rating measure (Ölçer et al., 2014), and demonstrated acceptable reliability and predictive validity in previous research (Marks et al., 2016;Schutte et al., 1998). Cronbach's alpha in the present sample for perception of emotion was .86, ...
Although coaching is a co-created process, researchers investigating the psychological aspects of Olympic coaching have tended to overlook the perceptions of athletes and whether these distinguish between performance-related outcomes. The objective of this research was to examine whether athletes’ perceptions of their coaches discriminate between world-leading (i.e., Olympic gold medal winning) and world-class (i.e., Olympic non-gold medal winning) coaches. Observer-reported psychometric questionnaires were completed by 38 Olympic swimmers who had collectively won 59 Olympic medals, of which 31 were gold. The questionnaires assessed perceptions of 12 variables within the Big Five personality traits, the dark triad, and emotional intelligence, and the data was analyzed using three one-way multivariate analysis of variance and follow-up univariate F-tests. The results showed that world-leading coaches were perceived to be significantly higher on conscientiousness, openness to experience, perception of emotion, and management of others emotion, and lower on narcissism, than world-class coaches. This suggests that athletes’ perceptions of their coaches may discriminate between world-leading and world-class coaches. The implications for coaches’ psychological development are discussed and compared with previously reported Olympic coaches’ perceptions of themselves.
... Sin embargo, la utilización de una estrategia de análisis que asume causalidad en estudios de corte transversal es una cuestión que siempre genera controversia en nuestro ámbito. La asunción teórica de que las dimensiones o estilos de apego preceden evolutivamente al surgimiento de capacidades de inteligencia emocional y, por tanto, pueden explicarlas (p.ej., Marks et al., 2016;Stevens, 2016) pudiera ser un argumento válido para proponer y testar modelos de este tipo. El origen de la vinculación afectiva en la infancia y su continuidad o estabilidad hacia la adultez estaría en la base del planteamiento, reforzado por el hecho de que la asociación entre apego inseguro vs. seguro en la infancia y su estabilidad en la adultez se demostró en el meta-análisis de Pinquart et al., (2013). ...
La conceptualización de la inteligencia emocional (IE) y la teoría del apego en personas adultas constituyen dos de los marcos teóricos más relevantes para la comprensión del desarrollo socioemocional de los individuos y se originan de manera casi simultánea en 1990. Como consecuencia de ello, numerosos estudios afloraron para dar cuenta del influjo de las diferencias individuales en las diferentes dimensiones del apego y de la IE en diversas variables de personalidad y salud, y en ámbitos distintos (educativo, clínico, organizacional, etc.). En la presente revisión teórica se han examinado las investigaciones realizadas hasta la fecha que asocian medidas de ambos constructos con el objetivo de constatar su posible relación empírica. Así, se llevó a cabo una búsqueda sistemática en las bases de datos Web of Science, PsycArticles, PsycInfo y Psicodoc para localizar artículos de revistas revisados por pares, escritos en idioma castellano o inglés, que evaluasen de manera empírica la relación existente entre la IE y apego en población adulta. De un total inicial de 420 registros, tras las fases de escaneo y elegibilidad, fueron 25 los artículos analizados en el presente trabajo. En 24 artículos que describen estudios con metodología correlacional se constata la asociación empírica entre IE y apego, siendo esta positiva con respecto a la seguridad en el apego y negativa con las dos dimensiones de inseguridad. Los estudios se llevaron a cabo en 14 países diferentes y con muestras de población general, clínicas y de personas empleadas. Las correlaciones son mayores para la IE percibida que para las capacidades y para algunas dimensiones específicas. Se discuten las limitaciones y futuras líneas de trabajo en el ámbito emocional.
... Items included: "I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them," "I have control over my emotions," "I help other people feel better when they are down," and "when I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last." The EIS is the most utilized emotional intelligence questionnaire in sport (Laborde et al., 2016) and has demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research (e.g., Marks, Horrocks, & Schutte, 2016;Schutte et al., 1998), with Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004 meta-analysis indicating that the EIS has the highest predictive validity of all the included emotional intelligence measures. Cronbach's alpha in the present sample for perception of emotion was 0.77, management of own emotion was 0.72, management of other emotion was 0.65, and utilization of emotion was 0.62. ...
Objectives
Researchers investigating the psychological aspects of Olympic coaching have studied coaches as a homogenous group, and the effect of coaches' psychological characteristics on performance-related outcomes remains unclear. The objective of this research, therefore, was to examine whether psychological factors discriminate between world-leading (i.e., Olympic gold medal winning) and world-class (i.e., Olympic non-gold medal winning) coaches.
Method
Self-reported psychometric questionnaires were completed by 36 Olympic coaches who had collectively coached 169 swimmers to win 352 Olympic medals, of which 155 were gold medals. The questionnaires assessed 12 variables within the Big Five personality traits, the dark triad, and emotional intelligence, and the data was analyzed using three one-way multivariate analysis of variance and follow-up univariate F-tests.
Results
The results showed that the 21 world-leading coaches were significantly more agreeable, had greater perception of emotion, were better at managing their own emotion, and were less Machiavellian and narcissistic than the 15 world-class coaches. The groups of coaches showed no differences in levels of conscientiousness, openness to experience, extraversion, neuroticism, psychopathy, managing other emotion, or utilization of emotion.
Conclusions
Psychological factors discriminate between world-leading and world-class coaches. The implications of these differences are discussed for psychology researchers and practitioners operating in Olympic sport.
... There is increasing evidence that Emotional Intelligence and Self and Other Representations are correlated constructs (Doinita, 2015;Iliceto & Fino, 2017;Kafetsios, 2004). In this regard, Marks, Horrocks, and Schutte (2016) recently hypothesized that Self and Other Representations influence the development of Emotional Intelligence and the authors recommended further exploration of the association between the two constructs. Based on the conceptual commonalities between trait Emotional Intelligence theory, the Attachment Theory, and the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, and evidence from recent literature discussing the role of Emotional Intelligence and Self and Other Representations in Suicidal Ideation and Problem Gambling, in the present study we aimed to test the following hypotheses: (1) Emotional Intelligence and Self and Other Representations of adult attachment combine into a latent factor representing Interpersonal Security; (2) Interpersonal Security negatively predicts Problem Gambling and Suicidal Ideation, respectively, the latter defined from an interpersonalpsychological perspective; (3) Problem Gambling positively predicts Suicidal Ideation. ...
Suicidality and problem gambling represent global health issues. Based on evidence from recent literature, the aim of the present study was to test a theoretical model, in which: (1) Emotional Intelligence and Self and Other Representations of adult attachment combine into a latent factor representing Interpersonal Security; (2) Interpersonal Security negatively predicts Problem Gambling and Suicidal Ideation, respectively; (3) Problem Gambling positively predicts Suicidal Ideation. We used Structural Equation Modelling to test the study hypotheses. The model showed good fit to the data. Factor loadings were high and statistically significant. We found that the hypothesis of Emotional Intelligence and Self and Other Representations combining into a common factor, Interpersonal Security, is empirically supported. The joint effect of Interpersonal Security and Problem Gambling explains about the 63% of variance of Suicidal ideation. The path from Interpersonal Security to Suicidal Ideation is significant and high, whilst the path from Problem Gambling to Suicidal Ideation is not significant. Interpersonal Security explains about 16% of the variance of Problem Gambling. These results outline an integrated model of Suicidal Ideation and Problem Gambling in the community from an interpersonal-psychological perspective, with important implications for researchers, mental health practitioners, and policymakers.
... Therefore, the ability to use emotional capacities is highly needed in the present age. In this regard, research findings have proved that individuals with higher EI have a higher mental health status (16,17). It can be concluded that self-efficacy and EI are very important in T2DM patients and the findings of the studies conducted in this field can be used to improve the delivery of services to the T2DM patients. ...
Objective: The theory of self-efficacy is based on the assumption
that people’s beliefs about their abilities and talents have a favorable
effect on their actions. It is the most important determinant of
behavior. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between
Emotional Intelligence (EI) and self-efficacy in type II diabetes
(T2DM) patients.
Materials and Methods: In this analytical cross-sectional study,
128 T2DM patients were selected via simple random sampling. At
first, the patients’ demographic data were recorded. Then, the persian
version of Diabetes Management Self-Efficacy Scale (DMSES) and
EI questionnaire developed by Petrides and Furnham were
completed.
Results: The mean (±SD) age of the patients was 53.55 (±6.2) years.
The results showed a significant positive correlation between the
total scores of self-efficacy and EI (P-value: 0.001). Accordingly,
increase in the EI score was accompanied with an increase in the
score of self-efficacy.
Conclusion: EI plays an important role in nurturing self-efficacy
beliefs and positive self-concepts in patients and promoting their
mental and physical health status. Hence, training courses on EI
components can make patients feel highly self-efficacious.
... Petugas kesehatan seperti perawat, dokter, fisioterapis, asisten perawat, rehabilitator, petugas ambulasi, dan petugas perawatan akut yang memiliki kecerdasan emosional yang baik terbukti dapat berkolaborasi dengan baik dan meningkatkan angka kesembuhan pasien sebesar 63.4 %. Penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa kecerdasan emosional baik yang dimiliki petugas kesehatan dengan salah satu komponennya yakni social skill dapat meningkatkan kemandirian pasien sebesar 42 % (Marks, Horrocks, & Schutte, 2016). ...
Background: High demands in all conditions require proffesional health workers. In dealing with patients, health workers need high emotional intelligence and problem solving skills that are qualified to deal with various problems. Objective: To analyze correlation between emotional intelligence with problem solving skill of health student of Faculty of Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin. Method: This quantitative research was conducted in August-September 2017, using observational study design with cross sectional analytic approach. Population in this research is health students Faculty of Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin who forced in 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 (N=1995). Sampling technique using cluster random sampling (n=333). The data were analyzed with Spearman’s Rho test. Results: More than half of respondents had a low emotional intelligence (58.3%) and medium level of problem solving skill (51,4%). Correlation coefficient both of them is weak (r=0,222; p value = 0.000 <0,05). Conclusion: There is a weak correlation between emotional intelligence with problem solving skill of health student of Faculty of Medicine Hasanuddin University. The higher the emotional intelligence of the student, the higher the level of problem solving skill.
... Marks, Horrocks, and Schutte's (2016) outcomes support a model that insecure attachment is connected with deficits in emotional intelligence, which in turn shows connection with imperfect health results. They investigate various mechanisms through which the two sorts of insecure attachment may influence on health. ...
Many factors influence human and social systems’ behaviour. The main aim of the current study was to check the status of intelligence in emotional, cultural, and ethical dimensions. Besides, the study examined the effect of those dimensions of intelligence on improving the performance of public and private banks in Ardabil. The current study was practical in terms of the method; cross-sectional in terms of time; inductive in terms of implementation logic; quantitative in terms of the implementation process; and causal in terms of purpose. The population of the study included the managers of public banks of Melli and Sepah and private banks of Pasargad, Eghtesad-e Novin, and Mehr of Ardabil. A questionnaire was set up by the researcher to evaluate the effects of intelligence in emotional, cultural, and ethical dimensions on the banks’ performance. The Cronbach test was used to test the reliability of the questionnaire. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, medium, and mean were used to describe the demographic of the participants. Inferential statistic tests such as Kolmogorov-Smirnov, regression, and independent t were used to analyse the data. The findings of the study showed that in both public and private banks, intelligence in emotional, cultural, and ethical dimensions had a positive impact on the performance of the banks. The effects of cultural intelligence on the performance of the public banks were more than the private banks. However, the impact of emotional and ethical intelligence on the performance of the private banks was more than the public banks.
... The questionnaire captures core symptoms of depression through subscales for severe depression, emotional (e.g., anxiety and social dysfunction) and somatic symptoms linked to depression. These subscales are highly correlated 41 and suggest an overall general factor of depression 42 . Participants rated the 28 items on a four-point Likert scale from 0 to 3 to assess its degree or severity 40 (e.g., Have you recently felt that life is entirely hopeless? ...
Depression has well-established influences from genetic and environmental risk factors. This has led to the diathesis-stress theory, which assumes a multiplicative gene-by-environment interaction (GxE) effect on risk. Recently, Colodro-Conde et al. empirically tested this theory, using the polygenic risk score for major depressive disorder (PRS, genes) and stressful life events (SLE, environment) effects on depressive symptoms, identifying significant GxE effects with an additive contribution to liability. We have tested the diathesis-stress theory on an independent sample of 4919 individuals. We identified nominally significant positive GxE effects in the full cohort (R2 = 0.08%, p = 0.049) and in women (R2 = 0.19%, p = 0.017), but not in men (R2 = 0.15%, p = 0.07). GxE effects were nominally significant, but only in women, when SLE were split into those in which the respondent plays an active or passive role (R2 = 0.15%, p = 0.038; R2 = 0.16%, p = 0.033, respectively). High PRS increased the risk of depression in participants reporting high numbers of SLE (p = 2.86 × 10−4). However, in those participants who reported no recent SLE, a higher PRS appeared to increase the risk of depressive symptoms in men (β = 0.082, p = 0.016) but had a protective effect in women (β = −0.061, p = 0.037). This difference was nominally significant (p = 0.017). Our study reinforces the evidence of additional risk in the aetiology of depression due to GxE effects. However, larger sample sizes are required to robustly validate these findings.
... Likewise, Silter et al. (2013) reported that emotional intelligence partially mediates the relationship of age and emotional labor strategies (surface and deep acting) among the service employees. A recent study concluded that emotional intelligence partially mediates the relationship between the anxious insecurity and health outcomes, whereas fully mediates the association among avoidant insecurity and health outcomes (Marks et al. 2016). ...
The aspect of emotional intelligence towards psychological capital is still not perfectly and adequately certified and is awaited for further analysis and investigation. Similarly, the growing interest on psychological capital within the managerial literature is rarely researched in Pakistan context. The current study aims to examine the mediating effect of emotional intelligence in the relationship between psychological capital and project success. Main focus is on how employees of construction organizations use their psychological strengths to accomplish their professional objectives. Sample of 213 respondents from 45 construction companies was collected from all over the Pakistan. The findings of the research revealed that psychological capital has significant relationship with emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence has also positive relationship with project success. Emotional intelligence mediated the relationship between three dimensions of psychological capital (self-efficacy, resilience and optimism) and project success whereas no mediation found between hope and project success. The results also indicated that three dimensions of psychological capital (self-efficacy, optimism and resilience) have positive significant relationship with project success and significant mediating effect of emotional intelligence.
Adolescents are the future, yet they are faced with many challenges in navigating their life. The present cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence to Holistic Individual Characteristics among Malaysian adolescents. A sample of 395 Form Four students were selected using the stratified random sampling method. Two survey questionnaires adopted and adapted from established scales were used to collect data. A pilot study was done to test the reliability and validity of the resultant adapted scales. Data from the main study was analysed for descriptive statistics using IBM SPSS version 27. The data were also analysed using the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) methodology with IBM Amos version 27 as the tool. All measurement models were validated through the pooled confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A second order CFA done confirmed that Emotional Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence were important component factors of Holistic Individual Characteristics. The fitness indices achieved the required level, specifically, the value of RMSEA= 0.041, GFI=0.982, CFI=0.980, TLI=0.970, CMIN/DF=1.645 and P= 0.037; while the b values showed that the most important component factor was Emotional Intelligence (b= 0.794) as compared to Spiritual Intelligence (b= 0.774). This study findings lend evidence to the importance of these constructs in shaping the holistic individual among Malaysian adolescents. It can help relevant authorities and parents to actually focus their efforts in developing the younger generation. Besides that, this study finding also helps to fill in the gap of theoretical knowledge in the area of emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence in relation to holistic individual development as well as in terms of its methodology of analysis.
The COVID-19 pandemic and its accompanying restrictions, apart from the destructive global economic and social impact, brought negative psychological consequences to the world. The aim of the current study is to investigate the factors that help individuals maintain psychological well-being under the condition of self-isolation, a global restriction against the spread of the pandemic. Specifically, the role of trait emotional intelligence, self-compassion, and rumination was explored in order to determine how these variables relate to psychological well-being. According to the results, trait emotional intelligence and self-compassion positively correlate with psychological well-being, while rumination is negatively correlated. Self-compassion mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and well-being. The relationship between rumination and well-being is affected by emotional intelligence and self-compassion: Self-compassion mediates the relationship between depression related rumination and well-being, while self-control and emotionality factors of trait emotional intelligence moderate the relationship between reflection rumination and well-being. The findings of the current study provide insight about self-compassion, rumination, and emotional intelligence as different contributing factors to the individuals’ well-being in self-isolation, suggesting further implications about the use of these strategies to help people cope with this stressful situation.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Studienarbeit war es, den Effekt von Bindungssicherheit auf soziale Angst zu untersuchen. Außerdem wurde überprüft, ob und inwieweit der Selbstwert und die emotionale Kompetenz diesen Effekt mediierten. Dafür beantworteten 148 Versuchspersonen die deutsche Übersetzung des Relationship Scales Questionnaire (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994; übersetzt von Mestel, 1994; Steffanowski, 2021), den SASKO – Fragebogen zu sozialer Angst und sozialen Kompetenzdefiziten (Kolbeck & Maß, 2009), die Frankfurter Selbstkonzeptskala zur allgemeinen Selbstwertschätzung (Deusinger, 1986) und den Emotionale-Kompetenz-Fragebogen von Rindermann (2009). Hypothese 1 postulierte Korrelationen zwischen Bindungssicherheit, sozialer Angst, Selbstwert und emotionaler Kompetenz und wurde in sechs Subhypothesen unterteilt. Die Bindungssicherheit korrelierte stark negativ mit sozialer Angst und stark positiv mit dem Selbstwert und der emotionalen Kompetenz. Die soziale Angst hing wiederum stark negativ mit dem Selbstwert und der emotionalen Kompetenz zusammen. Ebenfalls standen der Selbstwert und die emotionale Kompetenz in einem stark positiven Zusammenhang. Dementsprechend konnten die sechs Subhypothesen bestätigt werden. Es wurde zudem nachgewiesen, dass der Selbstwert den Effekt von Bindungssicherheit auf soziale Angst partiell mediierte, sodass Hypothese 2 bestätigt werden konnte. Ebenfalls erklärte die emotionale Kompetenz teils den Effekt von Bindungssicherheit auf soziale Angst, weshalb auch Hypothese 3 als belegt gilt. Mittels weiterführender Analysen wurde nachgewiesen, dass die Angst vor Trennung stark positiv mit sozialer Angst korrelierte, wobei der Effekt vom Selbstwert und der emotionalen Kompetenz partiell mediiert wurde. Andererseits hing die Angst vor Nähe mittelstark positiv mit der sozialen Angst zusammen. Dieser Effekt wurde vom Selbstwert teils und von der emotionalen Kompetenz gänzlich mediiert.
Attachment styles form during childhood emotional experiences. These experiences may be shaped by emotion-related traits such as how children interpret and regulate their own and others' emotions. These emotion-related traits appear in many emotional intelligence (EI) models, such that EI may relate to attachment styles. We conduct a meta-analysis to estimate the association between EI and attachment styles (26 studies, N = 6914). We include only non-clinical adult samples and validated psychometric assessments. We examine EI type as a moderator, comparing ability EI versus EI rating-scales using subgroups analysis and meta-regression. We find that lower anxious attachment is significantly associated with EI rating-scales (r = −0.25, k = 26) and ability EI (r = −0.16, k = 45), lower avoidant attachment is significantly associated with EI rating-scales (r = −0.36, k = 21) and ability EI (r = −0.21, k = 40), but secure attachment is significantly associated with EI rating-scales only (r = 0.31, k = 30). EI type significantly moderated the EI/avoidant attachment association only (β = −0.14, p = .01). We discuss possible mechanisms by which EI could influence early development of attachment styles (and vice-versa) while acknowledging that the causal direction underlying EI/attachment associations is unclear.
هدف: هدف پژوهش تعیین میزان رابطه بین دلبستگی به پدر و مادر و همسالها با نمویافتگی هیجانی نوجوانان و
نقش میانجیگر دلبستگی به همسالها بود. روش: روش پژوهش همبستگی و جامعه آماری 3223 دانشآموز دختر
63 بود. بر اساس جدول - 11 ساله در 61 دبیرستان دولتی منطقه یک شهر تهران در سال تحصیلی 69 - و پسر 11
کرجسی-مورگان 1691 حجم نمونه 211 نفر برآورد و با روش نمونهگیری در دسترس، دبیرستان پسرانه شهید مطهری
و رضاییراد و دخترانه نظر و خدیجه کبری و از هر دبیرستان 1 کلاس انتخاب شد. دادهها با سیاهه تجدیدنظر شده
دلبستگی پدر و مادر و همسالهای آرمسدن و گرنبرگ 1619 و سنجه نمویافتگی هیجانی سینک و بهارگاوا 1699
که نمرهگذاری آن وارونه و نمرۀ کم در آن بهمعنای نمویافتگی بیشتر است گردآوری و پس از حذف دادههای مخدوش
،r = -1/ 126 نفر و پرت 9 نفر، دادههای 339 نفر تحلیل شد. یافتهها: یافتهها نشان داد دلبستگی به مادر ) 565
با نمویافتگی هیجانی نوجوانان )P=1/111 ، r= -1/ و همسالها ) 565 )P=1/119 ،r = -1/ به پدر ) 339 ،)P=1/119
رابطه دارد. دلبستگی به پدر و همسالها در مجموع تبیینکننده 19 درصد از پراکنش نمویافتگی هیجانی نوجوانان بود
و در رابطۀ بین دلبستگی به پدر و مادر و نمویافتگی هیجانی، دلبستگی به همسالها نقش میانجیگر را )P=1/111(
نتیجهگیری: برای پیشگیری و درمان مشکلات روانی-اجتماعی نوجوانان توجه .)P=1/112( ،β= -1/ داشت ) 111
بیشتر به تأثیر دلبستگی نوجوانان به همسالها در سلامت هیجانی آنها بایسته است.
A majority of current leadership programs are failing to deliver a comprehensive approach to leadership development by not providing middle and frontline managers the skills to enhance their potential to develop others. In failing to generate a comprehensive system, animosity towards all types of leadership has been festering for over 40 years as first identified by Greenleaf in 1977. The purpose of the study was to establish a link between the theoretical paradigms of servant leadership and self-leadership using the lens of emotional intelligence to generate an integral leadership development framework. The conceptual framework used Goleman et al.’s version of emotional intelligence, Spears’s model of servant leadership, and Manz’s concepts of self-leadership. The research question examined the interrelationship between the three theoretical paradigms and used the analysis to create a theoretical framework. A paradigm and systematic word search phrase yielded an initial sample of 1356 research articles. Using text scrutinization to achieve saturation, I used 342 articles to evaluate the gap between the three theoretical paradigms. The analysis of the secondary data used Edwards’s approach to metatheory-building. The results yielded the beginnings of a new theory of self-perpetuating leadership style called sustainable leadership. Also noted based on the literature a serious absence of ethics, morality, or spirituality in leadership development. This study is important because it uses a holistic framework based on development techniques found in three theoretical leadership paradigms to help aspiring leaders to develop others. The positive social change that may result is an improvement in leadership skills, over time, through a comprehensive approach to leadership development for aspiring leaders.
Predicting High School Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence based on their Attachment Styles
A.A. Haddadi Kuhsar, Ph.D.
J. Hassani, Ph.D.
The purpose of the present study was to predict high school teachers’ emotional intelligence based on their attachment styles (Close, Depend, and Anxiety Dimensions). To this end, 80 high school teachers were selected through convenience sampling in Tabriz. The participants completed Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995) and Revised Adult Attachment Scale (Collins, 1996). The results of correlation analysis showed that components of emotional intelligence (emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair) were associated with teachers’ attachment styles (Depend and Anxiety). Results of multiple regression analysis demonstrated that anxious attachment style in teachers was the only predictor of the components of emotional intelligence (attention, clarity, and repair). Teachers with dependent attachment style (trust in others) reported higher emotional intelligence and teachers with anxious attachment style reported lower emotional intelligence. Result of the study indicated that the components of teachers’ emotional intelligence can be predicted on the basis of their anxiety attachment style; hence, individuals’ emotional intelligence is closely correlated with their attachment style. The practical implications of the study for treating mental disorders are discussed in the paper.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, attachment styles, high school teachers
Faculty of Psychology and Education, University of Tehran, (Corresponding Author).
E-mail: haddadi280@ut.ac.ir
Quarterly Journal of Family and Research
A small body of literature has considered associations between attachment theory and a range of chronic health conditions, with particular attention to mechanisms linking attachment insecurity and the development and management of these conditions. In this paper, two inceptive models are reviewed, followed by consideration of the emerging literature in this field, stimulated by emerging physiological and neurobiological evidence. Although implications for treatment are available, treatment protocols and outcome studies are rare. Further research is needed to develop a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the links between insecure attachment and chronic conditions with a view to developing and implementing treatment protocols. These emerging interventions must recognize the complex personal and social/physical environmental contexts within which chronic conditions manifest.
The aim of this study was to develop an inventory to assess social skills of adults and to investigate basic psychometric properties of the scale. Initially, researchers prepared 350 items in line with the related studies assessing social skills. Subsequently, two test administrations were done. In the first study a total of 1210 people, between the ages of 18 and 69 years, 845 women and 365 men participated. Through this study 80 items were selected for the target test using item analysis and item response theory. In the second study 80 items were administered to a total of 2186 people, 1108 women and1078 men, age range was between 18 to 72. Some of the participants received the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the General Self-efficacy Scale, the Empathy Quotient, the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, the Big-Five Personality Questionnaire along with the scale for the validity study. The results showed that internal consistency coefficient of the scale was 0.956 for the whole group, 0.955 for both men and women. Test re-test correlation coefficient was 0.698. Correlation coefficients between the scale and aforementioned instruments ranged from 0.080 to 0.761. The results revealed that the scale included basic psychometric characteristics and was suitable for use in related studies.
Despite clear evidence that manifest variable path analysis requires highly reliable measures, path analyses with fallible measures are commonplace even in premier journals. Using fallible measures in path analysis can cause several serious problems: (a) As measurement error pervades a given data set, many path coefficients may be either over- or underestimated. (b) Extensive measurement error diminishes power and can prevent invalid models from being rejected. (c) Even a little measurement error can cause valid models to appear invalid. (d) Differential measurement error in various parts of a model can change the substantive conclusions that derive from path analysis. (e) All of these problems become increasingly serious and intractable as models become more complex. Methods to prevent and correct these problems are reviewed. The conclusion is that researchers should use more reliable measures (or correct for measurement error in the measures they do use), obtain multiple measures for use in latent variable modeling, and test simpler models containing fewer variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
In 3 studies, 352 undergraduate Israeli students were classified into secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment groups, and their differences in traitlike measures of self-disclosure willingness and flexibility and in disclosure reciprocity and liking of hypothetical or real partners were assessed. Findings indicated that both secure and ambivalent people disclosed more information to, felt better interacting with, and were more attracted to a high discloser partner than a low discloser partner. In contrast, avoidant people's self-disclosure and liking were not affected by the partner's disclosure. Secure people showed more disclosure flexibility and topical reciprocity than ambivalent and avoidant people. Findings are discussed in terms of the interaction goals of attachment groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study examined the relations between adult attachment orientations and both emotional intelligence and cognitive fragmentation. Authentic self, which refers to a genuine sense of the self, was proposed as a mediator of such relations. One hundred and fifteen undergraduate students participated in the study. Applying Structural Equation Modeling, the results showed that degree of authentic self mediated the relations between attachment dimensions and either emotional intelligence or cognitive fragmentation. Specifically, a higher score on the secure attachment dimension was associated with a greater degree of authentic self, which in turn, was associated with greater levels of emotional intelligence and having fewer fragmented cognitive concepts about the self and romantic relationships. On the other hand, a higher score on the anxious-ambivalent attachment dimension was associated with lower degree of authentic self, which in turn, was associated with a lower level of emotional intelligence and having more fragmented cognitive concepts about the self and romantic relationships. Findings highlight the importance of the self for clearly understanding how the internal working models of attachment are manifested emotionally and cognitively.
The study tested hypotheses about the relationship between attachment orientations and emotional intelligence, measured as a set of abilities (perception, facilitation, understanding and management of emotion). The sample consisted of 239 adults aged between 19 and 66 years who completed the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT V2.0) and the relationship questionnaire. Secure attachment was positively related to all sub-scales (except perception of emotion) and total EI score. Contrary to expectations, dismissing attachment was positively associated with the ability to understand emotion. The results also found differences in emotional intelligence abilities between age and gender groups. Older participants scored higher on three out of four branches of EI (facilitation, understanding and management) and females scored higher than males on emotion perception and the experiential area. The study highlights the importance of distinguishing fearful and dismissing avoidance and the associated cognitive and affective processes and provides a validation for the recent emotional intelligence abilities test.
A meta-analysis of 44 effect sizes based on the responses of 7898 participants found that higher emo- tional intelligence was associated with better health. Emotional intelligence had a weighted average associ- ation of r = .29 with mental health, r = .31 with psychosomatic health, and r = .22 with physical health. Emotional intelligence measured as a trait was more strongly associated with mental health than emotional intelligence measured as an ability. Comparison of three measures of perceived trait emotional intelligence, the EQ-i (Bar-On, 2000), the Assessing Emotions Scale (Schutte et al., 1998), and the Trait Meta Mood Scale (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995), showed that the EQ-i had a significantly stron- ger association with mental health than the other measures. The findings provide a basis for research aimed at determining the causal relationship between trait emotional intelligence and health.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
The Assessing Emotions Scale, in some literature called the Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test, or the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale, is based on Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original model of emotional intelligence. This model proposed that emotional intelligence consists of appraisal of emotion in the self and others, expression of emotion, regulation of emotion in the self and others, and utilization of emotion in solving problems. Subsumed under these branches are functions such as verbal and nonverbal appraisal and expression of emotion and using emotions to motivate as part of the utilisation of emotions. Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) have since refined their 1990 model, but the basic aspects of emotional intelligence proposed in the newer model remain similar to those of the 1990 model.
Attachment insecurity has been hypothesized to be a risk factor for the development of disease and chronic illness. This study was the first to investigate associations between adult attachment ratings and a wide range of health conditions.
Cross-sectional data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (N = 5645) were used.
Participants completed Hazan and Shaver's (1987) measure of adult attachment and provided reports regarding 15 health conditions.
Logistic regression analyses that adjusted for demographic variables indicated that avoidant attachment ratings were positively associated with conditions defined primarily by pain (e.g., frequent or severe headaches). Anxious attachment ratings were positively associated with a wider range of health conditions, including several involving the cardiovascular system (i.e., stroke, heart attack, high blood pressure). Secure attachment ratings were unrelated to the health conditions. Additional analyses investigated whether the attachment ratings accounted for unique variance in the health conditions beyond that accounted for by lifetime histories of depressive, anxiety, and alcohol- or substance-related disorders. In these analyses, anxious attachment ratings continued to have significant positive associations with chronic pain, stroke, heart attack, high blood pressure, and ulcers.
The findings were generally supportive of the theory that insecure attachment is a risk factor for the development of disease and chronic illness, particularly conditions involving the cardiovascular system. Further research regarding the role of attachment in the development of specific health conditions is warranted.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
This study examines the association between adult attachment style and the way people reacted to the Iraqi missile attack on Israel during the Gulf War. One hundred forty Israeli students were interviewed 2 weeks after the war and classified according to their attachment style (secure, avoidant, or ambivalent) and residence area (dangerous vs. less dangerous). Ambivalent people reported more distress than secure people. Avoidant persons reported higher levels of somatization, hostility, and trauma-related avoidance than secure persons. These results characterized Ss living in dangerous areas. In addition, secure people used relatively more support-seeking strategies in coping with the trauma, ambivalent people used more emotion-focused strategies, and avoidant people used more distancing strategies. Findings are discussed in terms of attachment working models.
Research suggests that increased collaboration and satisfaction in the patient-provider relationship is associated with better outcomes in patients with diabetes. In adults, an interpersonal style characterized by low trust of others and excessive self-reliance is known as "dismissing attachment style." We hypothesized that diabetic patients with dismissing attachment style, due to a decreased ability to collaborate with providers and others, would have significantly higher HbA(1c) levels than patients with secure attachment style.
From 276 adult tertiary care patients with type 1 diabetes, we obtained mean HbA(1c) levels over the prior year and assessed patient attachment style, demographics, and clinical characteristics. We used chi(2) tests and logistic regression to determine whether attachment style was associated with HbA(1c) levels.
We found that 62% of patients with dismissing attachment style had mean HbA(1c) levels >or=8% compared with 34% of patients with secure attachment style (P = 0.002). After adjusting for demographics, diabetes severity, medical comorbidity, and depression, dismissing attachment style remained significantly associated with HbA(1c) levels >or=8%, compared with secure attachment style (odds ratio 2.5, 95% CI 1.1-6.0).
We have found that dismissing attachment style is associated with a higher risk for poor glycemic control. This has relevance from a population-based perspective because approximately 25% of the general population has a dismissing attachment style. Attachment style is easily measured using self-report instruments and may inform clinicians how to work with patients who are less engaged in the health care relationship.
Three studies examine the psychometric properties (i.e., the test-retest reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity) of Fraley, Waller, and Brennan's Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR-R) self-report measure of romantic attachment anxiety (model of self) and avoidance (model of others). Longitudinal analyses suggest that the ECR-R provided highly stable indicators of latent attachment during a 3-week period (85% shared variance). Hierarchical linear modeling analyses further validated the ECR-R, suggesting that it explained between 30% to 40% of the between-person variation in social interaction diary ratings of attachment-related emotions experienced during interactions with a romantic partner and only 5% to 15% of that in interactions with family and friends. Guidelines are offered regarding the conditions where highly reliable and precise measures of romantic attachment, such as the ECR-R, are deemed necessary and where shorter, albeit slightly less reliable measures, such as Bartholomew and Horowitz's Relationship Questionnaire, may also be viable.
Contemporary attachment research is based on the assumption that at least three types of infant attachment patterns exist: secure, avoidant, and resistant. It is not known, however, whether individual differences in attachment organization are more consistent with a continuous or a categorical model. The authors addressed this issue by applying P. E. Meehl's (1973, 1992) taxometric techniques for distinguishing latent types (i.e., classes, natural kinds) from latent continua (i.e., dimensions) to Strange Situation data on 1,139 fifteen-month-old children from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. The results indicate that variation in attachment patterns is largely continuous, not categorical. The discussion focuses on the implications of dimensional models of individual differences for attachment theory and research.
We developed a 12-item, short form of the Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 19985.
Brennan , K. A. ,
Clark , C. L. and
Shaver , P. R. 1998. “Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview”. In Attachment theory and close relationships, Edited by:
Simpson , J. A. and
Rholes , W. S. 46–76. New York: Guilford. [CrossRef]View all references) across 6 studies. In Study 1, we examined the reliability and factor structure of the measure. In Studies 2 and 3, we cross-validated the reliability, factor structure, and validity of the short form measure; whereas in Study 4, we examined test-retest reliability over a 1-month period. In Studies 5 and 6, we further assessed the reliability, factor structure, and validity of the short version of the ECR when administered as a stand-alone instrument. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that 2 factors, labeled Anxiety and Avoidance, provided a good fit to the data after removing the influence of response sets. We found validity to be equivalent for the short and the original versions of the ECR across studies. Finally, the results were comparable when we embedded the short form within the original version of the ECR and when we administered it as a stand-alone measure.
Contemporary attachment theory is inspiring a burgeoning literature on adult attachment. This literature offers counseling psychology a compelling framework for understanding the healthy and effective self. In this article, the authors review studies probing the cognitive processes, affect self-regulatory dynamics, and relationship behaviors associated with secure (primary) and insecure (secondary) adult attachment strategies. They then offer a portrait of the healthy, effective personality that is consistent with theory and research on adult attachment. Finally, in an effort to understand key characteristics of successful movement toward the healthy and effective self, the authors review empirical extensions of attachment theory to the therapeutic context.
Hazan and Shaver have identified three adult attachment styles corresponding to the infant-mother attachment patterns observed by Ainsworth and associates in the first year of life: secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent. These three styles are related to a wide variety of close relationship processes and outcomes. To date, however; little research has focused on relations between attachment styles and major personality constructs. Such re-search can clarify, the nature of attachment styles and ensure that they are not simply redundant with existing constructs. The present research examined associations between attachment measures, relationship quality and outcome measures, and the 'Big Five"personality traits assessed by the NEO Personality Inventory. Attachment styles were related in theoretically predictable ways to the Big Five dimensions and especially to some of their 'facet' subscales but were not simply redundant with them. The NEO scales were generally not as powerful as the attachment style measures in predicting romantic relationship outcomes, probably because of the greater specificity of the attachment measures.
Both theory and previous research suggest a link between emotional intelligence and emotional well-being. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to understand and regulate emotions; emotional well-being includes positive mood and high self-esteem. Two studies investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and mood, and between emotional intelligence and self-esteem. The results of these studies indicated that higher emotional intelligence was associated with characteristically positive mood and higher self-esteem. The results of a third study indicated that higher emotional intelligence was associated with a higher positive mood state and greater state self-esteem. The third study also investigated the role of emotional intelligence in mood and self-esteem regulation and found that individuals with higher emotional intelligence showed less of a decrease in positive mood and self-esteem after a negative state induction using the Velten method, and showed more of an increase in positive mood, but not in self-esteem, after a positive state induction. The findings were discussed in the light of previous work on emotional intelligence, and recommendations were made for further study.
This series of studies describes the development of a measure of emotional intelligence based on the model of emotional intelligence developed by Salovey and Mayer [Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211.]. A pool of 62 items represented the different dimensions of the model. A factor analysis of the responses of 346 participants suggested the creation of a 33-item scale. Additional studies showed the 33-item measure to have good internal consistency and testretest reliability. Validation studies showed that scores on the 33-item measure 1.(a) correlated with eight of nine theoretically related constructs, including alexithymia, attention to feelings, clarity of feelings, mood repair, optimism and impulse control;2.(b) predicted first-year college grades;3.(c) were significantly higher for therapists than for therapy clients or for prisoners;4.(d) were significantly higher for females than males, consistent with prior findings in studies of emotional skills;5.(e) were not related to cognitive ability and6.(f) were associated with the openness to experience trait of the big five personality dimensions.
examines the working-models component of attachment theory in some detail, considering what it meant to J. Bowlby and has meant to subsequent attachment theorists, how it is similar to and different from other conceptions of social–cognitive structures (e.g., schemas and scripts), and how it might be productively researched / begin with a brief overview of attachment theory, showing how it led to seminal research on individual differences in relational orientations / describe the role played in the theory by internal working models and explain how these models are related to discourse processes in close relationships / summarize research on infant and adult attachment, showing that it can be organized around the internal working-models construct
use emotion regulation as an example of important psychological domains in which working models operate / conclude with suggestions for future research on attachment and internal working models (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The biasing effects of measurement error in path analysis models can be overcome by the use of latent variable models. In cases where path analysis is used in prac-tice, it is often possible to use parcels as indicators of a latent variable. The pur-pose of the current study was to compare latent variable models in which parcels were used as indicators of the latent variables, path analysis models of the aggre-gated variables, and models in which reliability estimates were used to correct for measurement error in path analysis models. Results showed that point estimates of path coefficients were smallest for the path analysis models and largest for the la-tent variable models. It is concluded that, whenever possible, it is better to use a la-tent variable model in which parcels are used as indicators than a path analysis model using total scale scores. Structural equation modeling is a data analytic technique commonly used to exam-ine patterns of relationships among constructs. Often, some or all of these con-structs are measured by multi-item scales. The researcher then has several options for specifying the constructs in the structural equation model. These options have different implications for the parameter estimates and fit of the model and each of these options has advantages and disadvantages. In this article we suggest using parcels as indicators of latent variables, where parcels are aggregations (sums or averages) of several individual items. Advantages of using parcels as indicators of latent variables in structural equation models will be discussed.
This paper presents two experiments concerning trait emotional intelligence (‘trait EI’). In study 1, ten high and ten low trait EI individuals were selected from a sample of 85 persons to participate in a computerized experiment involving the recognition of morphed emotional expressions. As hypothesized, high trait EI participants were faster at identifying the expressions than their low trait EI counterparts. In study 2, trait EI scores from 102 persons were residualized on the Big Five and subsequently 15 high and 15 low trait EI individuals were selected to participate in a mood induction experiment. As hypothesized, high trait EI participants exhibited greater sensitivity to the mood induction procedure than their low trait EI counterparts. The findings are discussed in terms of the construct validity of trait EI, with particular emphasis on the issue of incremental validity vis-à-vis broad personality traits. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sixty White middle-class infants were seen in the Ainsworth Strange Situation at 12 months of age; 50 of these participants (21 males, 29 females) were recontacted 20 years later and interviewed by using the Berkeley Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). The interviewers were blind to the participants' Strange Situation classifications. Overall, 72% of the infants received the same secure versus insecure attachment classification in early adulthood, κ= .44, p < .001. As predicted by attachment theory, negative life events—defined as (1) loss of a parent, (2) parental divorce, (3) life-threatening illness of parent or child (e.g., diabetes, cancer, heart attack), (4) parental psychiatric disorder, and (5) physical or sexual abuse by a family member—were an important factor in change. Forty-four percent (8 of 18) of the infants whose mothers reported negative life events changed attachment classifications from infancy to early adulthood. Only 22% (7 of 32) of the infants whose mothers reported no such events changed classification, p < .05. These results support Bowlby's hypothesis that individual differences in attachment security can be stable across significant portions of the lifespan and yet remain open to revision in light of experience. The task now is to use a variety of research designs, measurement strategies, and study intervals to clarify the mechanisms underlying stability and change.
Attachment theory (J. Bowlby, 1982/1969, 1973) is one of the most useful and generative frameworks for understanding both normative and individual-differences aspects of the process of affect regulation. In this article we focus mainly on the different attachment-related strategies of affect regulation that result from different patterns of interactions with significant others. Specifically, we pursue 3 main goals: First, we elaborate the dynamics and functioning of these affect-regulation strategies using a recent integrative model of attachment-system activation and dynamics (P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer, 2002). Second, we review recent findings concerning the cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies following the arousal of positive and negative affect. Third, we propose some integrative ideas concerning the formation and development of the different attachment-related strategies.
Over the past decade, emotional intelligence (EI) has received much attention in the literature. Previous studies indicated that higher trait or ability EI was associated with greater mental distress. The present study focused on mediating effects of positive and negative affect on the association between trait EI and mental distress in a sample of Chinese adults. The participants were 726 Chinese adults (384 females) with an age range of 18-60 years. Data were collected by using the Wong Law Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale, and the General Health Questionnaire. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that EI was a significant predictor of positive affect, negative affect and mental distress. Further mediation analysis showed that positive and negative affect acted as partial mediators of the relationship between EI and mental distress. Furthermore, effect contrasts showed that there was no significant difference between the specific indirect effects through positive affect and through negative affect. This result indicated that positive affect and negative affect played an equally important function in the association between EI and distress. The significance and limitations of the results are discussed.
Childhood adversity alters the relational world of the child and inhibits the development of secure attachment bonds. The purpose of this article is to survey recent evidence that attachment insecurity has the potential to impair physical health throughout the lifespan. It is proposed that attachment insecurity contributes to disease risk through a range of mechanisms which include (1) disturbances in arousal and recovery within physiological systems that respond to stress; (2) physiological links between the mediators of social relationships, stress, and immunity; (3) links between relationship style and various health behaviors; and (4) disease risk factors that serve as external regulators of dysphoric affect, such as nicotine and alcohol. The evidence for these mechanisms, particularly the evidence that has accumulated since the model was first proposed in 2000, is presented and discussed.
Research on the psychological mechanisms underlying the link between personality and health is still premature. This study argues for an integrated multistage approach in which lower-order traits mediate the impact of higher-order traits on health. A total of 1038 university students (738 female and 300 male) completed the Big Five, trait Emotional Intelligence (EI), Humour Styles and General Health questionnaires. Structural equation modelling showed that, as hypothesized, trait EI and three of the humour styles fully mediated the paths from Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness to General Health. Moreover, the link between Neuroticism and General Health was partially mediated by trait EI and three of the humour styles. This study provides empirical evidence for an integrated multistage model that shows how multiple traits can be integrated to jointly impact on General Health.
In everyday life, people have the notion that acknowledging and dealing effectively with emotions contributes to their wellbeing. A recent meta-analysis by Schutte, Malouff, Thorsteinsson, Bhullar, and Rooke (2007) indicated that Emotional Intelligence (EI) is associated with better health. Our purpose is to expand their work by including: (1) studies published after the date considered by them; (2) non-English studies; and (3) a cumulative meta-analysis to check for the sufficiency and stability in the history of this research domain. Based on 105 effect sizes and 19,815 participants, the results globally support previous findings. When measured as a trait, EI was more strongly associated with health ( = .34) than when it was measured as an ability ( = .17). The weighted average association with mental ( = .36) and psychosomatic health ( = .33) was higher, than the association with physical health ( = .27). Within the trait approach, the TEIQue showed the strongest association with mental health ( = .50), followed by the EQ-i ( = .44), SEIS ( = .29) and TMMS ( = .24). Furthermore, the cumulative meta-analysis indicated that this line of research has already reached sufficiency and stability. Overall, the results are encouraging regarding the value of EI as a plausible health predictor.
Research has started to examine mediators between personality traits and health. The current research aims to investigate the roles of Trait Emotional Intelligence (Trait EI) and Work Locus of Control (WLC) as mediators of the paths between the Big Five personality traits and General Health in a sample of 328 university students (160 male). Structural Equation Modelling and mediation analyses, demonstrated as hypothesised, that Trait EI and WLC mediated the paths between personality and health. Direct effects on health were observed for Trait EI, WLC, Emotional Stability and to a lesser extent Openness to Experience. The study provides further evidence for the role of mediating variables in the path between personality traits and health.
A central tenet of attachment theory is that a person's attachment pattern in adulthood is a reflection of his or her attachment history—-beginning with the person's earliest attachment relationships. However, the precise way in which early representations might shape adult attachment patterns is ambiguous, and different perspectives on this issue have evolved in the literature. According to the prototype perspective, representations of early experiences are retained over time and continue to play an influential role in attachment behavior throughout the life course. In contrast, the revisionist perspective holds that early representations are subject to modification on the basis of new experiences and therefore may or may not reflect patterns of attachment later in life. In this article, I explore and test mathematical models of each of these theoretical processes on the basis of longitudinal data obtained from meta-analysis. Results indicate that attachment security is moderately stable across the first 19 years of life and that patterns of stability are best accounted for by prototype dynamics.
SYNOPSIS
This study reports the factor structure of the symptoms comprising the General Health Questionnaire when it is completed in a primary care setting. A shorter, 28-item GHQ is proposed consisting of 4 subscales: somatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction and severe depression. Preliminary data concerning the validity of these scales are presented, and the performance of the whole 28-item questionnaire as a screening test is evaluated. The factor structure of the symptomatology is found to be very similar for 3 independent sets of data.
Two studies examined attachment style differences in social perception. In Study 1, participants wrote open-ended explanations for hypothetical relationship events and described how they would feel and behave in response to each event. Compared with secure participants, preoccupied participants explained events in more negative ways; they also reported more emotional distress and behaviors that were likely to lead to conflict. Avoidant participants also provided negative explanations, but did not report emotional distress. Path analysis indicated that attachment style differences in behavior were mediated by explanation patterns and emotional distress. Study 2 was designed to replicate Study 1 and test the relative importance of attachment style and relationship quality to predicting each outcome. Results indicated that both variables were significant predictors of explanations, but only attachment style predicted emotional responses. These findings are consistent with the idea that adults with different working models of attachment are predisposed to think, feel, and behave differently in their relationships.
The construct of trait emotional intelligence (trait EI or trait emotional self-efficacy) provides a comprehensive operationalization of emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions. In the first part of the present study (N=274, 92 males), we performed two joint factor analyses to determine the location of trait EI in Eysenckian and Big Five factor space. The results showed that trait EI is a compound personality construct located at the lower levels of the two taxonomies. In the second part of the study, we performed six two-step hierarchical regressions to investigate the incremental validity of trait EI in predicting, over and above the Giant Three and Big Five personality dimensions, six distinct criteria (life satisfaction, rumination, two adaptive and two maladaptive coping styles). Trait EI incrementally predicted four criteria over the Giant Three and five criteria over the Big Five. The discussion addresses common questions about the operationalization of emotional intelligence as a personality trait.