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Planck 2015 results. X. Diffuse component separation: Foreground maps
Abstract and Figures
Planck has mapped the microwave sky in temperature over nine frequency bands between 30 and 857 GHz and in polarization over seven frequency bands between 30 and 353 GHz in polarization. In this paper we consider the problem of diffuse astrophysical component separation, and process these maps within a Bayesian framework to derive an internally consistent set of full-sky astrophysical component maps. Component separation dedicated to cosmic microwave background (CMB) reconstruction is described in a companion paper. For the temperature analysis, we combine the Planck observations with the 9-yr Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) sky maps and the Haslam et al. 408 MHz map, to derive a joint model of CMB, synchrotron, free-free, spinning dust, CO, line emission in the 94 and 100 GHz channels, and thermal dust emission. Full-sky maps are provided for each component, with an angular resolution varying between 7.5 and 1deg. Global parameters (monopoles, dipoles, relative calibration, and bandpass errors) are fitted jointly with the sky model, and best-fit values are tabulated. For polarization, the model includes CMB, synchrotron, and thermal dust emission. These models provide excellent fits to the observed data, with rms temperature residuals smaller than 4μK over 93% of the sky for all Planck frequencies up to 353 GHz, and fractional errors smaller than 1% in the remaining 7% of the sky. The main limitations of the temperature model at the lower frequencies are internal degeneracies among the spinning dust, free-free, and synchrotron components; additional observations from external low-frequency experiments will be essential to break these degeneracies. The main limitations of the temperature model at the higher frequencies are uncertainties in the 545 and 857 GHz calibration and zero-points. For polarization, the main outstanding issues are instrumental systematics in the 100-353 GHz bands on large angular scales in the form of temperature-to-polarization leakage, uncertainties in the analogue-to-digital conversion, and corrections for the very long time constant of the bolometer detectors, all of which are expected to improve in the near future.
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... For each simulation, we estimate β and construct the histograms given in figure 6. These are obtained by building the covariance through simulations, setting a harmonic binning ∆ℓ = 100 in the range [100,700], displayed in orange, or [50,750], displayed in blue. In the same figure 6, we show histograms of β obtained through spectra with and without noise + foregrounds debiasing. ...
... • Pipeline "D-estimator" Figure 6: Histograms of β with and without debiasing, as obtained for all simulation phases. For each phase, we considered two harmonic ranges: [100,700], shown in orange, and [50,750], shown in blue. Shaded histograms represent the case without debiasing, while empty histograms indicate the case with debiasing. ...
... An accurate estimation of β ≈ 0.3 • is still possible under a small mismodelling of foreground emission, like assuming d0s0 templates to describe an d1s1 sky. Models d0 and d1 are based on the same dust template derived from Planck 2015 data, but scaled with different SEDs: a fixed β d = 1.54 and T d = 20K for d0; and the spatially varying T d and β d obtained by Commander from the analysis of Planck 2015 data [100] for d1. Likewise, s0 and s1 share the synchrotron template derived from Haslam and WMAP data [101,102], but are scaled with different SEDs: a fixed β s = −3.0 for s0; and the spatially varying β s obtained by [103] from the analysis of Haslam and WMAP data for s1. ...
Cosmic birefringence (CB) is the rotation of the photons' linear polarisation plane during propagation. Such an effect is a tracer of parity-violating extensions of standard electromagnetism and would probe the existence of a new cosmological field acting as dark matter or dark energy. It has become customary to employ cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarised data to probe such a phenomenon. Recent analyses on Planck and WMAP data provide a hint of detection of the isotropic CB angle with an amplitude of around at the level of 2.4 to . In this work, we explore the LiteBIRD capabilities in constraining such an effect, accounting for the impact of the more relevant systematic effects, namely foreground emission and instrumental polarisation angles. We build five semi-independent pipelines and test these against four different simulation sets with increasing complexity in terms of non-idealities. All the pipelines are shown to be robust and capable of returning the expected values of the CB angle within statistical fluctuations for all the cases considered. We find that the uncertainties in the CB estimates increase with more complex simulations. However, the trend is less pronounced for pipelines that account for the instrumental polarisation angles. For the most complex case analysed, we find that LiteBIRD will be able to detect a CB angle of with a statistical significance ranging from 5 to , depending on the pipeline employed, where the latter uncertainty corresponds to a total error budget of the order of .
... Common choices are spatial (real-space) domains, harmonic domains (harmonic ILC; HILC), and needlet domains (NILC) [6], the last of which combines some of the aspects of the first two. ILC has been applied to CMB datasets for many years; see [9] for an application to COBE data and [10,47] for WMAP data (all spatial ILC), as well as later applications of NILC on WMAP data [6], Planck data [48,49] (including to isolate the tSZ effect [13,16,50,51] and other signals like the spatially varying μ distortion [52]), and ACT data [19], and HILC on Planck data [12] and ACT data [14]. We will briefly discuss spatial and HILC below. ...
... We refer the reader to the PySM3 documentation for descriptions of these models, although we note that the dust SED is described by a modified blackbody with spatially varying temperature and spectral index and that the synchrotron SED is described by a power-law with spatially varying spectral index. The non-Gaussian templates at reference frequencies are based on the Commander dust map from the Planck data [48] and the synchrotron map based on the WMAP 27 GHz data [63]. ...
Analysis of microwave sky signals, such as the cosmic microwave background, often requires component separation using multifrequency methods, whereby different signals are isolated according to their different frequency behaviors. Many so-called blind methods, such as the internal linear combination (ILC), make minimal assumptions about the spatial distribution of the signal or contaminants, and only assume knowledge of the frequency dependence of the signal. The ILC produces a minimum-variance linear combination of the measured frequency maps. In the case of Gaussian, statistically isotropic fields, this is the optimal linear combination, as the variance is the only statistic of interest. However, in many cases the signal we wish to isolate, or the foregrounds we wish to remove, are non-Gaussian and/or statistically anisotropic (in particular for the case of Galactic foregrounds). In such cases, it is possible that machine learning (ML) techniques can be used to exploit the non-Gaussian features of the foregrounds and thereby improve component separation. However, many ML techniques require the use of complex, difficult-to-interpret operations on the data. We propose a hybrid method whereby we train an ML model using only combinations of the data that , and combine the resulting ML-predicted foreground estimate with the ILC solution to reduce the error from the ILC. We demonstrate our methods on simulations of extragalactic temperature and Galactic polarization foregrounds and show that our ML model can exploit non-Gaussian features, such as point sources and spatially varying spectral indices, to produce lower-variance maps than ILC—e.g., reducing the variance of the B-mode residual by factors of up to 5—while preserving the signal of interest in an unbiased manner. Moreover, we often find improved performance even when applying our ML technique to foreground models on which it was not trained.
Published by the American Physical Society 2025
... (B. T. Draine 2011), which is supposed to be valid for the frequency down to 10 MHz (R.Adam et al. 2016;B. Thorne et al. 2017): ...
The Generalized Needlet Internal Linear Combination (GNILC) method is a nonparametric component separation algorithm to remove the foreground contamination of the 21 cm intensity mapping data. In this work, we perform the discrete cosine transform along the frequency axis in the expanded GNILC framework (denoted eGNILC), which helps reduce the power loss in low multipoles, and further demonstrates its performance. We also calculate the eGNILC bias to modify the criterion for determining the degrees of freedom (dof) of the foreground, and embed the robust principal component analysis in mixing matrix computation to obtain a blind component separation method. We find that the eGNILC bias is related to the averaged domain size and the dof of the foreground but not the underlying 21 cm signal. In the case of no beam effect, the eGNILC bias is negligible for simple power-law foregrounds outside the Galactic plane. We also examine the eGNILC performance in the SKA Phase-I in mid-frequency (SKA-MID) and Baryon Acoustic Oscillations from Integrated Neutral Gas Observations (BINGO) simulations. We show that if the adjacent frequency channels are not highly correlated, eGNILC can recover the underlying 21 cm signal with good accuracy. With the varying Airy-disk beam applied to both SKA-MID and BINGO, the power spectra of 21 cm can be effectively recovered at the multipoles ℓ ∈ [20, 250] and [20, 300], respectively. With no instrumental noise, the SKA-MID exhibits ≲20% power loss, and BINGO exhibits ~10% power loss. The varying Airy-disk beam only causes significant errors at large multipoles.
The Primordial Inflation Explorer (PIXIE) is an Explorer-class mission concept to measure the energy spectrum and linear polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). A single cryogenic Fourier transform spectrometer compares the sky to an external blackbody calibration target, measuring the Stokes I, Q, U parameters to levels ∼200 Jy/sr in each 2.65° diameter beam over the full sky, in each of 300 frequency channels from 28 GHz to 6 THz. With sensitivity over 1000 times greater than COBE/FIRAS, PIXIE opens a broad discovery space for the origin, contents, and evolution of the universe. Measurements of small distortions from a CMB blackbody spectrum provide a robust determination of the mean electron pressure and temperature in the universe while constraining processes including dissipation of primordial density perturbations, black holes, and the decay or annihilation of dark matter. Full-sky maps of linear polarization measure the optical depth to reionization at nearly the cosmic variance limit and constrain models of primordial inflation. Spectra with sub-percent absolute calibration spanning microwave to far-IR wavelengths provide a legacy data set for analyses including line intensity mapping of extragalactic emission and the cosmic infrared background amplitude and anisotropy. We describe the PIXIE instrument sensitivity, foreground subtraction, and anticipated science return from both the baseline 2-year mission and a potential extended mission.
The neutral hydrogen (HI) signal is a crucial probe for astrophysics and cosmology, but it is quite challenging to measure from raw data because of bright foreground contaminants at radio wavelengths. Cross-correlating the radio observations with large-scale structure tracers (LSS) could detect faint cosmological signals since they are not correlated with the foreground, but exquisite component separation procedures must be performed to reduce the variance induced by the foreground. In this work, we adopt the lensing of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) as the LSS tracer and investigate the cross-correlation of CMB lensing and HI observations at the post-reionization epoch. We use simulations to study lensing and HI cross-correlations in the context of next-generation CMB and intensity mapping experiments. We investigate the impact of the component separation based on linear combinations of the HI observations at different frequencies and estimate the signal-to-noise ratios for the cross-correlation measurements in different scenarios.
We present six nearly full-sky maps made from data taken by radiometers on the Juno satellite during its 5 yr flight to Jupiter. The maps represent integrated emission over ∼4% passbands spaced approximately in octaves between 600 MHz and 21.9 GHz. Long-timescale offset drifts are removed in all bands, and, for the two lowest-frequency bands, gain drifts are also removed from the maps via a self-calibration algorithm similar to the NPIPE pipeline used by the Planck Collaboration. We show that, after this solution is applied, statistical noise in the maps is consistent with thermal radiometer noise and expected levels of correlated noise on the gain and noise drift solutions. We verify our map solutions with several consistency tests and end-to-end simulations. We also estimate the level of systematic pixelization noise and polarization leakage via simulations.
Mapping the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen (H i ) in the Universe through its 21 cm emission line provides a powerful cosmological probe to map the large-scale structures and shed light on various cosmological phenomena. The baryon acoustic oscillations at low redshifts can potentially be probed by sensitive H i intensity mapping experiments and constrain the properties of dark energy. However, the 21 cm signal detection faces formidable challenges owing to the dominance of various astrophysical foregrounds, which can be several orders of magnitude stronger. Our current work introduces a novel and model-independent internal linear combination (ILC) method in harmonic space using the principal components of the 21 cm signal for accurate foreground removal and power spectrum estimation. We estimate the principal components by incorporating prior knowledge of the theoretical 21 cm covariance matrix. We test our methodology by detailed simulations of radio observations, incorporating synchrotron emission, free–free radiation, extragalactic point sources, and thermal noise. We estimate the full-sky 21 cm angular power spectrum after application of a mask on the full-sky cleaned 21 cm signal by using the mode–mode coupling matrix. These full-sky estimates of angular spectra can be directly used to measure the cosmological parameters. For the first time, we demonstrate the effectiveness of a foreground-model-independent ILC method in harmonic space to reconstruct the 21 cm signal.
This paper presents cosmological results based on full-mission Planck observations of temperature and polarization anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. Our results are in very good agreement with the 2013 analysis of the Planck nominal-mission temperature data, but with increased precision. The temperature and polarization power spectra are consistent with the standard spatially-flat 6-parameter ΛCDM cosmology with a power-law spectrum of adiabatic scalar perturbations (denoted "base ΛCDM" in this paper). From the Planck temperature data combined with Planck lensing, for this cosmology we find a Hubble constant, H0 = (67.8 ± 0.9) km s⁻¹Mpc⁻¹, a matter density parameter Ωm = 0.308 ± 0.012, and a tilted scalar spectral index with ns = 0.968 ± 0.006, consistent with the 2013 analysis. Note that in this abstract we quote 68% confidence limits on measured parameters and 95% upper limits on other parameters. We present the first results of polarization measurements with the Low Frequency Instrument at large angular scales. Combined with the Planck temperature and lensing data, these measurements give a reionization optical depth of τ = 0.066 ± 0.016, corresponding to a reionization redshift of \hbox{}. These results are consistent with those from WMAP polarization measurements cleaned for dust emission using 353-GHz polarization maps from the High Frequency Instrument. We find no evidence for any departure from base ΛCDM in the neutrino sector of the theory; for example, combining Planck observations with other astrophysical data we find Neff = 3.15 ± 0.23 for the effective number of relativistic degrees of freedom, consistent with the value Neff = 3.046 of the Standard Model of particle physics. The sum of neutrino masses is constrained to â'mν < 0.23 eV. The spatial curvature of our Universe is found to be very close to zero, with | ΩK | < 0.005. Adding a tensor component as a single-parameter extension to base ΛCDM we find an upper limit on the tensor-to-scalar ratio of r0.002< 0.11, consistent with the Planck 2013 results and consistent with the B-mode polarization constraints from a joint analysis of BICEP2, Keck Array, and Planck (BKP) data. Adding the BKP B-mode data to our analysis leads to a tighter constraint of r0.002 < 0.09 and disfavours inflationarymodels with a V(φ) φ² potential. The addition of Planck polarization data leads to strong constraints on deviations from a purely adiabatic spectrum of fluctuations. We find no evidence for any contribution from isocurvature perturbations or from cosmic defects. Combining Planck data with other astrophysical data, including Type Ia supernovae, the equation of state of dark energy is constrained to w =-1.006 ± 0.045, consistent with the expected value for a cosmological constant. The standard big bang nucleosynthesis predictions for the helium and deuterium abundances for the best-fit Planck base ΛCDM cosmology are in excellent agreement with observations. We also constraints on annihilating dark matter and on possible deviations from the standard recombination history. In neither case do we find no evidence for new physics. The Planck results for base ΛCDM are in good agreement with baryon acoustic oscillation data and with the JLA sample of Type Ia supernovae. However, as in the 2013 analysis, the amplitude of the fluctuation spectrum is found to be higher than inferred from some analyses of rich cluster counts and weak gravitational lensing. We show that these tensions cannot easily be resolved with simple modifications of the base ΛCDM cosmology. Apart from these tensions, the base ΛCDM cosmology provides an excellent description of the Planck CMB observations and many other astrophysical data sets.
We have constructed all-sky y-maps of the thermal Sunyaev-Zeldovich (tSZ) effect by applying specifically tailored component separation algorithms to the 30 to 857 GHz frequency channel maps from the Planck satellite survey. These reconstructed y-maps are delivered as part of the Planck 2015 release. The y-maps are characterised in terms of noise properties and residual foreground contamination, mainly thermal dust emission at large angular scales and CIB and extragalactic point sources at small angular scales. Specific masks are defined to minimize foreground residuals and systematics. Using these masks we compute the y-map angular power spectrum and higher order statistics. From these we conclude that the y-map is dominated by tSZ signal in the multipole range, 20-600. We compare the measured tSZ power spectrum and higher order statistics to various physically motivated models and discuss the implications of our results in terms of cluster physics and cosmology.
This paper presents the Planck 2015 likelihoods, statistical descriptions of the 2-point correlationfunctions of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature and polarization fluctuations that account for relevant uncertainties, both instrumental and astrophysical in nature. They are based on the same hybrid approach used for the previous release, i.e., a pixel-based likelihood at low multipoles (l< 30) and a Gaussian approximation to the distribution of cross-power spectra at higher multipoles. The main improvements are the use of more and better processed data and of Planck polarization information, along with more detailed models of foregrounds and instrumental uncertainties. The increased redundancy brought by more than doubling the amount of data analysed enables further consistency checks and enhanced immunity to systematic effects. It also improves the constraining power of Planck, in particular with regard to small-scale foreground properties. Progress in the modelling of foreground emission enables the retention of a larger fraction of the sky to determine the properties of the CMB, which also contributes to the enhanced precision of the spectra. Improvements in data processing and instrumental modelling further reduce uncertainties. Extensive tests establish the robustness and accuracy of the likelihood results, from temperature alone, from polarization alone, and from their combination. For temperature, we also perform a full likelihood analysis of realistic end-to-end simulations of the instrumental response to the sky, which were fed into the actual data processing pipeline; this does not reveal biases from residual low-level instrumental systematics. Even with the increase in precision and robustness, the ΛCDM cosmological model continues to offer a very good fit to the Planck data. The slope of the primordial scalar fluctuations, n_s, is confirmed smaller than unity at more than 5σ from Planck alone. We further validate the robustness of the likelihood results against specific extensions to the baseline cosmology, which are particularly sensitive to data at high multipoles. For instance, the effective number of neutrino species remains compatible with the canonical value of 3.046. For this first detailed analysis of Planck polarization spectra, we concentrate at high multipoles on the E modes, leaving the analysis of the weaker B modes to future work. At low multipoles we use temperature maps at all Planck frequencies along with a subset of polarization data. These data take advantage of Planck’s wide frequency coverage to improve the separation of CMB and foreground emission. Within the baseline ΛCDM cosmology this requires τ = 0.078 ± 0.019 for the reionization optical depth, which is significantly lower than estimates without the use of high-frequency data for explicit monitoring of dust emission. At high multipoles we detect residual systematic errors in E polarization, typically at the μK^2 level; we therefore choose to retain temperature information alone for high multipoles as the recommended baseline, in particular for testing non-minimal models. Nevertheless, the high-multipole polarization spectra from Planck are already good enough to enable a separate high-precision determination of the parameters of the ΛCDM model, showing consistency with those established independently from temperature information alone.
© 2016 ESO.This paper presents a study of the integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect from the Planck 2015 temperature and polarization data release. This secondary cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropy caused by the large-scale time-evolving gravitational potential is probed from different perspectives. The CMB is cross-correlated with different large-scale structure (LSS) tracers: radio sources from the NVSS catalogue; galaxies from the optical SDSS and the infrared WISE surveys; and the Planck 2015 convergence lensing map. The joint cross-correlation of the CMB with the tracers yields a detection at 4σ where most of the signal-to-noise is due to the Planck lensing and the NVSS radio catalogue. In fact, the ISW effect is detected from the Planck data only at ≠3σ (through the ISW-lensing bispectrum), which is similar to the detection level achieved by combining the cross-correlation signal coming from all the galaxy catalogues mentioned above. We study the ability of the ISW effect to place constraints on the dark-energy parameters; in particular, we show that ΩΛ is detected at more than 3σ. This cross-correlation analysis is performed only with the Planck temperature data, since the polarization scales available in the 2015 release do not permit significant improvement of the CMB-LSS cross-correlation detectability. Nevertheless, the Planck polarization data are used to study the anomalously large ISW signal previously reported through the aperture photometry on stacked CMB features at the locations of known superclusters and supervoids, which is in conflict with ΛCDM expectations. We find that the current Planck polarization data do not exclude that this signal could be caused by the ISW effect. In addition, the stacking of the Planck lensing map on the locations of superstructures exhibits a positive cross-correlation with these large-scale structures. Finally, we have improved our previous reconstruction of the ISW temperature fluctuations by combining the information encoded in all the previously mentioned LSS tracers. In particular, we construct a map of the ISW secondary anisotropies and the corresponding uncertainties map, obtained from simulations. We also explore the reconstruction of the ISW anisotropies caused by the large-scale structure traced by the 2MASS Photometric Redshift Survey (2MPZ) by directly inverting the density field into the gravitational potential field.
Full-sky CMB maps from the 2015 Planck release allow us to detect departures from global isotropy on the largest scales. We present the first searches using CMB polarization for correlations induced by a non-trivial topology with a fundamental domain intersecting, or nearly intersecting, the last scattering surface (at comoving distance ). We specialize to flat spaces with toroidal and slab topologies, finding that explicit searches for the latter are sensitive to other topologies with antipodal symmetry. These searches yield no detection of a compact topology at a scale below the diameter of the last scattering surface. The limits on the radius of the largest sphere inscribed in the topological domain (at log-likelihood-ratio relative to a simply-connected flat Planck best-fit model) are for the cubic torus and for the slab. The limit for the cubic torus from the matched-circles search is numerically equivalent, (99% CL) from polarisation data alone. We also perform a Bayesian search for a Bianchi VII geometry. In the non-physical setting where the Bianchi cosmology is decoupled from the standard cosmology, Planck temperature data favour the inclusion of a Bianchi component. However, the cosmological parameters generating this pattern are in strong disagreement with those found from CMB anisotropy data alone. Fitting the induced polarization pattern for this model to Planck data requires an amplitude of compared to +1 if the model were to be correct. In the physical setting where the Bianchi parameters are fit simultaneously with the standard cosmological parameters, we find no evidence for a Bianchi VII cosmology and constrain the vorticity of such models to (95% CL). [Abridged]
© ESO, 2016.We present foreground-reduced cosmic microwave background (CMB) maps derived from the full Planck data set in both temperature and polarization. Compared to the corresponding Planck 2013 temperature sky maps, the total data volume is larger by a factor of 3.2 for frequencies between 30 and 70 GHz, and by 1.9 for frequencies between 100 and 857 GHz. In addition, systematic errors in the forms of temperature-to-polarization leakage, analogue-to-digital conversion uncertainties, and very long time constant errors have been dramatically reduced, to the extent that the cosmological polarization signal may now be robustly recovered on angular scales â μ 40. On the very largest scales, instrumental systematic residuals are still non-negligible compared to the expected cosmological signal, and modes with â < 20 are accordingly suppressed in the current polarization maps by high-pass filtering. As in 2013, four different CMB component separation algorithms are applied to these observations, providing a measure of stability with respect to algorithmic and modelling choices. The resulting polarization maps have rms instrumental noise ranging between 0.21 and 0.27μK averaged over 55′ pixels, and between 4.5 and 6.1μK averaged over \hbox{3\parcm4} pixels. The cosmological parameters derived from the analysis of temperature power spectra are in agreement at the 1σ level with the Planck 2015 likelihood. Unresolved mismatches between the noise properties of the data and simulations prevent a satisfactory description of the higher-order statistical properties of the polarization maps. Thus, the primary applications of these polarization maps are those that do not require massive simulations for accurate estimation of uncertainties, for instance estimation of cross-spectra and cross-correlations, or stacking analyses. However, the amplitude of primordial non-Gaussianity is consistent with zero within 2σ for all local, equilateral, and orthogonal configurations of the bispectrum, including for polarization E-modes. Moreover, excellent agreement is found regarding the lensing B-mode power spectrum, both internally among the various component separation codes and with the best-fit Planck 2015 Λ cold dark matter model.