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Attempt to validate the Self-Construal Scale in French: Systematic approach and model limitation
Abstract
Independent and interdependent self-construals are included in individuals’ self-definitions. The 24-item Self-Construal Scale (SCS) was developed by Singelis (1994) as a means of measuring the “two selves” of individual identity, namely the independent self and the interdependent self. It has been translated into a number of different languages including French. Yet, proper psychometric validation procedures of the scale in foreign languages are lacking which is problematic given the recurrently reported subscales poor reliabilities.
... A notre connaissance, trois études ont porté sur une validation française de l'échelle des construits du Soi (Fernández, Paez, & González, 2005;Gentet, 2014;Gibas et al., 2016). En se basant sur l'échelle originale en 24 items de Singelis (1994), Fernández et al. (2005) l'IH. ...
... Par conséquent, il nous semblait bienvenu de tenter de valider l'échelle sur une population française plus hétérogène. Dans cette perspective, nous avons repris un des modèles de l'échelle deGibas et al. (2016), en 14 items, qui présentait des indices d'ajustement satisfaisants et qui nous semblait être la version française la plus satisfaisante et la plus fidèle à la version originale deSingelis (1994). Nous avons toutefois exclu de cette échelle un item que nous jugions peu approprié à une population générale et non spécifiquement étudiante (« Je devrais prendre en considération les conseils de mes parents lorsque j'établis mon projet professionnel, mes plans de carrière (ou d'éducation) »). ...
On the road, men and young drivers are more often involved in serious and fatal crashes than women and older drivers worldwide. Among the various factors considered, traffic offences constitute an explanatory variable for these gender and age differences, on which it would be possible to act. The literature suggests that risky and offending driving behaviours could be motivated by the search for a sense of belonging and social status, but also by the affirmation of values relating to competence, power, independence and masculinity, which support positive self-esteem, especially among men and young people. Indeed, these different values would be symbolically linked to risky and offending behaviours on the road, and theses links would be shaped by culture but also by socialisation, which can operate differently depending on the social affiliations of the individual. To our knowledge, few studies have proposed to directly test the mediating role of these different values in explaining gender and age differences that characterize risky and offending driving behaviours. Moreover, while several studies show that risky and offending behaviours among men and young drivers are regulated by social norms, to our knowledge no study has yet investigated the existence of such norms from the perspective of the sociocognitive approach to social norms, which makes it possible to consider the social value that individuals attribute to behaviour. In this sense, our work proposes (a) to explore the role of adherence to certain values (notably the dimensions of individualism-collectivism, Schwartz' personal values, masculinity-femininity) in the occurrence of risky and offending behaviours among drivers; (b) to test the mediating and/or moderating role of these values in gender and age differences in these behaviours; (c) to confirm the normativity of these behaviours among men (vs. women) and young (vs. older) drivers by identifying the dimensions of social value that underlie it; (d) explore and consider the multidimensionality of risky and offending driving behaviours as well as the possible context-dependent aspect of some of the previous relationships (considering the salience of the gender group, for example). A total of 6 studies were carried out. The main results indicate that (a) adherence to values oriented toward the pursuit of high social status is particularly associated with risky and offending driving behaviours; (b) these values partially mediate gender and age differences observed in risky and offending driving behaviours; (c) risky and offending behaviours related to speed are more socially valued among men (vs. women) and young (vs. older) drivers; (d) among men (vs. women), this last observation could be explained by the attribution of low social desirability to compliant and cautionary behaviours, while it could be explained by the attribution of a higher social status to risky and offending behaviours among young (vs. older) drivers; (e) several tools - such as those used to measure individualism-collectivism - have psychometric properties and share relationships with other constructs that call into question the validity of their theoretical models. The theoretical implications of these results are mainly discussed in terms of (a) the empirical relationships between the different models and constructs used; (b) their interest in understanding risky and offending
behaviours more broadly. Applied perspectives for behavior change in the field of road safety are also discussed.
... Although we accounted for language differences statistically, there remains linguistic differences that could not be possibly accounted for. Notably, self-construal, which is relevant to the study of we-talk and interdependence, might differ across languages (Gibas et al., 2016). Similarly, it should be noted that the positive association between we-talk and marital satisfaction might be more pronounced in individualistic cultures. ...
We-talk, the use of first-person plural pronouns over the use of singular pronouns when describing relationship events, is regarded as a linguistic indicator of marital relationship functioning. A meta-analysis revealed that we-talk is positively associated with relationship satisfaction. However, this literature is based mostly on cross-sectional studies. This study tested the hypothesis that we-talk would be associated with greater marital satisfaction over time. The sample comprised 77 couples enrolled in a longitudinal study of parents of preschool-aged children. We-talk was assessed at baseline during a marital discussion task about parenting challenges. Couples completed a measure of marital satisfaction at baseline, 6- and 12-month follow-ups. An actor–partner interdependence model examined the effects of spouses' we-talk on their own marital satisfaction (actor effects), and their partners' marital satisfaction (partner effects). Results indicated a positive partner effect of we-talk at baseline, but not over time. Moreover, there was an actor effect of we-talk on changes in marital satisfaction over time, whereby low actor we-talk was associated with a reduction in marital satisfaction, but high actor we-talk was not associated with such a decrease. These findings suggest that greater cognitive interdependence, as indicated by we-talk, may protect from declines in marital satisfaction over time.
... Similar psychometric problems with the adaptation of the I/C scale as in the current study were observed for instance in Poland (cf.Pilarska, 2011), Spain (cf.Gouveia et al., 2003), India (cf.Sivadas et al., 2008), Malaysia (cf.Miramontes, 2011;Ramley et al., 2020),Mexico (cf.Miramontes, 2011), Singapore (cf.Soh & Leong, 2002), Italy (cf.Bobbio & Sarrica, 2009;D'Amico & Scrima, 2015;Germani et al., 2020), France (cf.Gibas et al., 2016), Philippines (cf.Miramontes, 2011;Bernardo et al., 2012;Datu, 2014), Australia (cf.Freeman & Bordia, 2001;Miramontes, 2011), Portugal (cf.Gonçalves et al., 2017), Thailand (cf.Christopher et al., 2011) or Argentina (cf.Chiou, 2001). ...
This doctoral thesis consists of four research articles dealing with how cultural
influences shape cognitive processes. The first article describes cross-cultural
differences in analytic-holistic cognitive style, individualism/collectivism and map
reading. The next two articles describe the psychometric properties of the methods
measuring behavioral impulsivity and individualism/collectivism. The fourth article
demonstrates the risk of ignoring measurement invariance on a cross-cultural
comparison of individualism/collectivism. In the closing, I discuss the implications for
cross-cultural research and its measurement
... Bobbio and Sarrica, 2009;D'Amico and Scrima, 2015;Germani et al., 2020), France (cf. Gibas et al., 2016), Philippines (cf. Miramontes, 2011;Bernardo et al., 2012;Datu, 2014), Australia (cf. ...
This article introduces a validation study of the Czech version of an independent and interdependent self-construal questionnaire (SCS, Vignoles et al., 2016) conducted on 330 Czech subjects. In this study, the reliability, convergent validity and factor validity were verified. However, the confirmatory factor analysis revealed unsatisfactory factor structure (RMSEA = 0.053 [0.048, 0.057], SRMR = 0.080, CFI = 0.775, TLI = 0.755). These results are discussed with respect to other adaptations of individualism/collectivism scales in countries beyond typical West-East dichotomy. Hence, the article not only critically discusses the shortcoming of the Czech and original versions of the questionnaires, but also the general issues of the individualism-collectivism construct in the cross-cultural context as a whole.
Objective
To validate Indonesian versions of two social/cultural psychological scales: the Self-Construal Scale (SCS) that measures independent and interdependent cultural values, and the Behavioral Inhibition (Avoidance) System and Behavioral Approach System (BIS/BAS) that measures motivation focus. We also explored the cultural background for the rising prevalence of depression in Indonesia.
Design
Case (hospital)–control (population) study.
Setting
Hasanuddin University Hospital (cases) and Makassar city region (controls), Indonesia.
Participants
Participants (N=369) were 165 patients with depression recruited from a university hospital, and 204 healthy controls without a history of mental disorders recruited from locations within a 30-minute walk from the hospital.
Outcome Measures
Depression was diagnosed by psychiatrists with reference to Indonesian mental disorder guidelines (Pedoman Penggolongan dan Diagnosa Gangguan Jiwa edisi 3). Participants’ independent and interdependent cultural values, and neural motivational systems were measured with the SCS and BIS/BAS.
Results
Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that our revised 12-item SCS and the 13-item, three-factor BIS/BAS had a good model fit for the Indonesian population. MANCOVA showed that the SCS Independent subscale and the BAS subscales were significantly associated with depression after adjustment for age, sex, religion, education, and occupation.
Conclusion
These findings may guide provision of appropriate treatment for patients based on their social and cultural environment. In addition, this study contributes to understanding underlying reasons for the increasing prevalence of depression in Indonesia, where society is changing from traditional collectivism to global individualism.
Many studies have discussed how motivation in task‐related groups is affected by culture. Despite this, the psychological processes underlying these cultural differences have not yet been fully investigated. This study examined the effects of self‐construal on social compensation, that is, motivation gain caused by the expectation of coworkers' poor performance. Participants were 111 Japanese undergraduate students. They were asked to engage in nine tasks as a team with a coworker whose intelligence was inferior or superior and allocate tasks between themselves and their coworkers. We measured the number of tasks that participants selected as their own work as a dependent measure. The results showed that those with interdependent selves were less likely to engage in social compensation even when their coworkers' capability was low.
Although shyness has been verified to play a key role in internalizing problems among Chinese adolescents, scarce research has explored the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relation. Based on the contextual-developmental perspective, this study investigated the mediating role of independent interpersonal stress and the moderating role of rumination in this association. A total of 1036 Chinese adolescents from an urban school filled out questionnaires regarding shyness, internalizing problems, independent interpersonal stress, and rumination. The results indicated that shyness was positively related to internalizing problems. Moreover, independent interpersonal stress partially mediated this relation. Importantly, the associations between shyness and independent interpersonal stress as well as that between shyness and internalizing problems were moderated by rumination. Specifically, the paths from shyness to independent interpersonal stress and shyness to internalizing problems were strengthened in the context of higher levels of rumination. This study contributes to our understanding of how shyness predicts high levels of internalizing problems in urban Chinese adolescents. Intervention programs should focus on helping shy adolescents reduce independent interpersonal stress and engage in less rumination.
O Relational Interdependent Self-construal (RISC) pode ser descrito como o grau em que os indivíduos se definem em termos das suas relações íntimas. Devido à importância deste constructo e da sua medida, a escala RISC, em processos individuais e sociais, realizámos dois estudos de validação da escala para a população Portuguesa. A escala RISC, unidimensional e composta por 11 itens, foi traduzida para o português e as suas propriedades psicométricas foram analisadas com duas amostras: 399 participantes para o estudo 1 (62.9% mulheres e 30.8% homens, com idades entre os 18 e os 59 anos - M = 26.4; DP = 8.90) e 292 participantes para o estudo 2 (57.9% mulheres e 42.1% homens, com idades entre os 17 e os 59 anos - M = 26.37, DP = 8.87). Os resultados confirmaram a estrutura unidimensional da escala, mostrando bons valores de validade e de ajustamento do modelo (CFI = 0.92; TLI = 0.87; NFI = 0.89; RMSEA = 0.09). A escala RISC-P mostrou ser invariante entre géneros, observando-se que as mulheres apresentam valores mais elevados de RISC. Os bons indicadores psicométricos e de ajustamento do modelo validam o uso desta versão para a população Portuguesa em muitas áreas de investigação (e.g., controlo da desejabilidade social, análise de validade convergente e preditiva).
Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL), metaanalyze
cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effectsof IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic—valuing personal independence more—and less collectivistic—feeling duty to in-groups less—than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style.
This paper aims to identify the effect of using the maximum likelihood (ML) parameter estimation method when data do not meet the assumption of multivariate normality and are not continuous. Both ML and the diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) procedure were applied to simulated sets of data, which have different distributions and include variables that can take different numbers of possible values. Results were also compared to the ideal situation of a data set consisting of continuous, normally distributed variables. Outcomes indicate that ML provides accurate results when data are continuous and uniformly distributed, but is not as precise with ordinal data that is not treated as continuous, especially when variables have a small number of categories and data do not meet the assumption of multivariate normality. In contrast, DWLS provides more accurate parameter estimates, and a model fit that is more robust to variable type and non-normality.
On the basis of self-determination theory (R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000) and cultural descriptions drawn from H. C. Triandis (1995), the authors hypothesized that (a) individuals from different cultures internalize different cultural practices; (b) despite these differences, the relative autonomy of individuals' motivation for those practices predicts well-being in all 4 cultures examined; and (c) horizontal practices are more readily internalized than vertical practices across all samples. Five hundred fifty-nine persons from South Korea, Russia, Turkey and the United States participated. Results supported the hypothesized relations between autonomy and well-being across cultures and gender. Results also suggested greater internalization of horizontal relative to vertical practices. Discussion focuses on the distinction between autonomy and individualism and the relative fit of cultural forms with basic psychological needs.
The effects of culture on impression formation are widely documented but poorly understood. Priming independent and interdependent self-construals, and focusing on particular stages of impression formation, could help remedy this because such self-construals differ across cultures. In three experiments, participants’ were primed with independent or interdependent self-construals before they formed spontaneous or intentional impressions of others. In Experiment 1, lexical decision reaction times showed that both traits and situational properties were activated spontaneously, but were unaffected by self-construal priming. In Experiment 2, a false-recognition paradigm showed that spontaneous trait inferences were bound to relevant actors’ faces, again regardless of self-construal priming. In Experiment 3, explicit ratings did show priming effects. Those primed with independent (but not interdependent) self-construal inferred traits more strongly than situational properties. Primed self-construals appear to affect intentional but not spontaneous stages of impression formation. The differences between effects of primed and chronic self-construals are discussed.
The study compares Chilean and Norwegian self-construal with regard to the concepts of independence and interdependence. Chile has been characterized as collectivistic and Norway as individualistic, and the hypothesis is that this characterization also distinguishes self-perception as independent and interdependent, respectively. The total sample consists of 368 university students. The instrument, Self-Construal Scale (SCS), measures the strength of independence and interdependence. The Chilean sample reports a higher score on both constructs. Both samples report the highest score on independence. The results are inconsistent with previous models that characterize Chile as collectivistic and Norway as individualistic. These characterizations are questioned. The findings also imply that a particular score on either independence or interdependence does not predict the score on the opposite variable. Individuals in the two cultures have a unique blend of independent and interdependent self-appraisal, which represent a composite mix of individualistic and collective elements in each culture.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not “self‐construals” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) are an aspect of culture that accounts for the perceived importance of conversational constraints. To spell out the way in which culture influences communication styles, we developed a mediation model. The model assumes that the perceived importance of conversational constraints is determined by values, e.g., independent versus interdependent self‐construals, and that values (self‐construals) are determined in part by culture. Participants were 972 undergraduates studying in Korea, Japan, Hawai'i, and the mainland United States. After being presented with six situations, participants rated the perceived importance of each of three constraints in relation to each situation. They then completed a scale reflecting the independent and interdependent dimensions of their self‐construals. The results were consistent with the proposed mediation model. Culture‐level individualism influenced independent self‐construals, which, in turn, correlated positively with the two outcome‐oriented conversational constraints. The study also showed that culture‐level collectivism affects interdependent self‐construals, and, in turn, correlated positively with the three relational constraints. Of the various self‐construal patterns, individuals simultaneously maintaining high independent and high interdependent construals ("biculturals") had the highest totals for the importance ratings of all the constraints combined, even though the mean for biculturals did not significantly differ from the mean for interdependents (tow independent and high interdependent self‐construals).
Two studies investigated how self-enhancement relates to interdependent and independent self-construals typical of collectivist and individualist cultures, respectively. Participants from three cultures were surveyed, two of them collectivist (Singaporean Chinese and Israeli Druze) and one individualist (Israeli Jews). Study 1 shows that the two collectivist cultures differ in their self-enhancement level among university students: Self-enhancement level among Singaporeans was weaker for academic self-enhancement and for other agentic traits. No cultural difference in self-enhancement of communal traits was found (N = 418). Study 2 replicated these results for high school students and evaluated the relations between self-construals, modesty, and self-enhancement. Regression analyses show that self-enhancement of agentic traits is predicted by independent self-construal and modesty (negatively), whereas self-enhancement of communal traits is predicted by interdependent self-construal (N = 362). The role of modesty norms in self-enhancement is discussed.
Relationships between self-construal and emotion experiences in social interactions were examined in two countries. Participants in Greece (a more collectivist culture) and the United Kingdom (a more individualist culture) described the social interactions they had each day for 7 days using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record. For UK participants, independent self-construal was positively related to positive affect, whereas for Greek participants, independent self-construal was negatively related to positive affect. There were few relationships between interdependent self-construal and affect in either study. The results point to the interplay of cultural values and individual differences in self-construal and their relationships to people's affective experiences.
students from 29 nations answered a shortened version of the Singelis scales for Independent- Interdependent self-construal. A pan-cultural factor analysis found four factors: Group Loyalty, Relational Interdependence, Uniqueness, and low Contextual Self. Multisample Confirmatory Factor Analysis indicated a cross- culturally stable, and comparable, six item scale for Interdependence. Interdependence was related to low English fluency and high national identification, low social status and higher social sharing of positive feel- ings. Independence was associated with high English fluency and high social status. A multivariate analysis controlling for national income, national identification, English fluency, students' relative social status, parent's educational level
The Self-Construal Scale (SCS) is an important measure of self-construal. However, new data are needed on the structure of the SCS using more appropriate statistical techniques and investigating the existence of multiple (i.e., more than two) factors. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of data front two groups of European American and Asian/Asian American college students reveal six factors underlying items on the SCS that seem to represent four specific aspects of Independence and two specific aspects of Interdependence. Results also provide initial support for the relative usefulness of these new factors in exploring between-groups differences. Implications for the conceptualization of self-construal and future research are discussed.
Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a cross-cultural validation methodology that allows for the validation of French versions of English psychological scales. The 7 basic steps in the method are described: (1) preparation of a preliminary French version; (2) evaluation and modification of the preliminary version; (3) evaluation of the experimental French version in a pretest; (4) evaluation of content and concomitant validity; (5) evaluation of reliability; (6) evaluation of construct validity; and (7) preparation of norms for the French version. Examples of each step are presented. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A large number of previous studies have used self-construal to predict communication outcomes. Recent evidence, however, suggests that validity problems may exist in self-construal measurement. The current study conducted a multimethod multitrait (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) validation study of self-construal measures with data (total N= 578) collected in Korea (N= 200), Japan (N= 212), and the U.S. (N= 166). The data showed that the Singelis (1994) Self-Construal Scale, the Cross, Bacon, and Morris (2000) Relational Interdependent Self-Construal Scale (RISC), and the Kuhn and McPartland (1954) Twenty Statements Test (TST) lacked convergent and discriminant validity, both pan-culturally and within each of the three countries included in the study. Scores on the TST were not significantly related to scores on the self-construal scales, and the various self-construal measures correlated more highly with measures of communication directness than with alternative measures of the same type of self-construal. Substantial method effects were also observed. The results were tested for both 2- and 3-dimensional models of self-construal and for refined scales and scales with all items retained. The results of all analyses were inconsistent with the claim that self-construal measures are construct valid.
Self-construal is thought to mediate and explain the effects of culture on a wide variety of outcome variables. A meta-analysis of published cross-cultural self-construal research is reported in this article, and the results across studies suggests that the evidence for the predicted cultural differences is weak, inconsistent, or nonexistent. The results of 3 priming experiments (N = 121, N = 99, and N = 361) suggest that (a) priming does not account for the inconsistent results observed in the meta-analysis, (b) that scores on a self-construal scale appear to be measuring trait-like constructs that are not sensitive to priming, and (c) that measures of self-construals lack convergent validity. The results of several measurement studies (N = 121, 223, 230, 323, 214, 206, 126, 204, 148, 141, and 150) were inconsistent with the a priori two-factor measurement model in every case. Self-construal scales were found to be radically multidimensional and highly unstable within and across cultures. These results lead us to conclude that catastrophic validity problems exist in research involving the use of self-construal scales in cross-cultural research.
This paper offers a critical rejoinder in the discussion concerning the viability of self-construal scales. It is our contention that the existing data reported in our previous article (Levine et al., 2003) and elsewhere are more than sufficient to justify the conclusion that self-report scales purporting to measure interdependent and independent self-construals as 2 orthogonal constructs lack validity. The arguments to the contrary offered by Gudykunst and Lee (2003) and Kim and Raja (2003) are disputed. Additional data (N = 1,013) show that neither age, occupation, sample size, standardization, nor a 2nd-order structure can account for the problems we documented previously. Although we see potential utility in the self-construal construct, we believe that the 3 primary scales fail to meet reasonable and accepted social scientific standards. Difficult conceptual problems will need to be solved prior to the development of new and improved measures.
This study presents a comprehensive 4-factor model of autonomy in middle and late adolescence. Partially overlapping sets of scales on adolescent individuation and family functioning were correlated with each other in 2 independent studies. Data for the first study were taken from a sample of high school students in Grades 9–12 (N = 601), whereas the data for the second study were derived from a sample of 1st-year university students (N = 374). Confirmatory factor analysis on all of the scales and derivative subscales in both studies revealed a model that comprised 4 different but related factors, that is, Connectedness, Separation, Detachment, and Agency, all of which occupy a central place in different theories of adolescent autonomy. Connectedness and Detachment, and to a lesser extent Connectedness and Separation, were inversely related to one another. Correlations between Agency and the 3 other factors were much lower. Results are discussed with respect to the different views on autonomy that exist in the literature, and with respect to the term autonomy, which should be used as an umbrella term only. Implications for the conceptual basis of the Emotional Autonomy Scale are also outlined.
Stereotype priming can lead to assimilation or contrast effects on behavior. We argue that self-activation is a moderator of both assimilation and contrast effects. To test this hypothesis, in two studies, we activated independent or interdependent self-knowledge before priming participants with the dumb Blonde stereotype or a control category (Study 1) or no prime (Study 2). Participants then answered a knowledge test. Results support our expectations: Participants presented assimilation under interdependence (i.e., underperformance compared to control group) while they presented no assimilation (i.e., comparable performance with control group in Study 1) and contrast (better performance than control group in Study 2) under independence. We discuss implications of these findings in regards of previous research and recent models such as the Active Self Account [Wheeler, S. C., DeMarree, K. G., & Petty, R. E. (2005). The roles of the self in priming-to-behavior effects. In A. Tesser, J. V. Wood, & D. A. Stapel (Eds.), On building, defending and regulating the self: A psychological perspective (pp. 245–271). New York, NY, USA: Psychology Press].
Le modèle des « Big Five » rencontre aujourd’hui un large consensus pour l’évaluation de la personnalité. Le Big Five Inventory (BFI), développé par John et al., a été traduit et validé en France. Le but de cette étude est de présenter la poursuite du travail de validation du BFI français (BFI-Fr) sur un large échantillon d’étudiants, pour vérifier (1) ses qualités psychométriques internes et (2) assurer une validation convergente avec le NEO Personality Inventory, Revised (NEO-PI-R). Une première étude de validation interne et de comparaison interculturelle a été réalisée auprès d’étudiants (n = 2499). Elle a mis en évidence une réplication satisfaisante de la structure factorielle américaine et une confirmation des premiers travaux de validation en langue française. Elle atteste de la solidité de la structure factorielle du BFI-Fr et de ses bonnes qualités psychométriques. La comparaison des scores et écarts-types entre les étudiants français, américains et espagnols montre des résultats très similaires, témoignant indirectement de la comparabilité des outils. Une seconde étude a mis en évidence une validation convergente et discriminante satisfaisante par rapport au NEO-PI-R. Le BFI-Fr est désormais un outil valide, permettant aux cliniciens et chercheurs de disposer d’un inventaire des cinq grands facteurs de la personnalité en langue française. Il est simple et robuste, fiable et économique.
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is a complex, multi-step process. The goal of this paper is to collect, in one article, information that will allow researchers and practitioners to understand the various choices available through popular software packages, and to make decisions about "best practices" in exploratory factor analysis. In particular, this paper provides practical information on making decisions regarding (a) extraction, (b) rotation
Since the publication of Markus and Kitayama's pivotal article on culture and the self, the concepts of independent, relational, and interdependent self-construal have become important constructs in cultural psychology and research on the self. The authors review the history of these constructs, their measurement and manipulation, and their roles in cognition, emotion, motivation, and social behavior. They make suggestions for future research and point to problems still to be sorted out. Researchers interested in these constructs have many opportunities to make important contributions to the literature in a variety of fields, including health psychology, education, counseling, and international relations.
Three studies describe the development and validation of a measure of the relational-interdependent self-construal, which is defined as the tendency to think of oneself in terms of relationships with close others. Study 1 reports the development, psychometric properties, and tests of validity of this new measure. Individuals who scored high on the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal (RISC) Scale characterized their important relationships as closer and more committed than did individuals who scored low on this measure (Study 1) and were more likely to take into account the needs and wishes of others when making decisions (Study 2). In Study 3, using a dyadic interaction paradigm with previously unacquainted participants, the partners of persons who scored high on the RISC scale viewed them as open and responsive to their needs and concerns; these perceptions were related to positive evaluations of the relationship.
We disagree with Levins et al.'s (2003) conclusion that the 3 self construed scales currently in use have "severe" or "fatal" flaws. We argue that the results of Levine et al.'s meta-analysis and priming studies do not raise problems with the validity of self construal scales, in part, because their results are compatible with theorizing about self construals. We also contend that Levine et al.'s measurement studies do not necessarily lead to the conclusion that there are problems with the validity of the scales (e.g., there may be multiple dimensions that form independent and interdependent self construals in second-order factor analyses). We summarize other evidence for the construct validity of self construal scales which indicates that there are theoretically consistent findings across approximately 50 studies using the 3 scales. This would not be possible if there were major problems with the 2-dimensional model of self construals or the scales used to measure them. We conclude that the 2-dimensional model of self construals and the current scales are viable for use in future research.
Three studies describe the development and validation of a measure of the relational-interdependent self-construal, which is defined as the tendency to think of oneself in terms of relationships with close others. Study 1 reports the development, psychometric properties, and tests of validity of this new measure. Individuals who scored high on the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal (RISC) Scale characterized their important relationships as closer and more committed than did individuals who scored low on this measure (Study 1) and were more likely to take into account the needs and wishes of others when making decisions (Study 2). In Study 3, using a dyadic interaction paradigm with previously unacquainted participants, the partners of persons who scored high on the RISC scale viewed them as open and responsive to their needs and concerns; these perceptions were related to positive evaluations of the relationship.
A large number of previous studies have used self-construal to predict communication outcomes. Recent evidence, however, suggests that validity problems may exist in self-construal measurement. The current study conducted a multimethod multitrait (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) validation study of self-construal measures with data (total N = 578) collected in Korea (N = 200), Japan (N = 212), and the U.S. (N = 166). The data showed that the Singelis (1994) Self-Construal Scale, the Cross, Bacon, and Morris (2000) Relational Interdependent Self-Construal Scale (RISC), and the Kuhn and McPartland (1954) Twenty Statements Test (TST) lacked convergent and discriminant validity, both pan-culturally and within each of the three countries included in the study. Scores on the TST were not significantly related to scores on the self-construal scales, and the various self-construal measures correlated more highly with measures of communication directness than with alternative measures of the same type of self-construal. Substantial method effects were also observed. The results were tested for both 2-and 3-dimensional models of self-construal and for refined scales and scales with all items retained. The results of all analyses were inconsistent with the claim that self-construal measures are construct valid.
The death of self-construal research has been greatly exaggerated. Levine et al. (2003) highlight the alleged methodological limitations of the current body of the self-construal model of culture. Their allegations, whether true or not, require a fair investigation. Careful examination of Levine et al. reveals pervasive logical flaws, methodological errors, and interpretation biases, which stem from ethnic stereotyping and other erroneous assumptions at various junctures. These fundamental errors, in turn, render their conclusions untenable. In testing their 1st set of hypotheses, which they proclaim to be "central to the validity" of self-construal scales, Levine et al bifurcate the participants into "Westerners" versus "Asians," and then impose their a priori stereotype of how Westerners ought to be versus how Asians ought to be, which is scientifically unacceptable. This is an unscientific validation criterion (comparable to crude ethnic stereotypes such as "Asians are smarter") and should not be used to judge the scales' validity. Next, in their discussion of priming, Levine et al. assert that the construct validity of the interdependent self-construal requires that it must be susceptible to priming. This is an elementary logical fallacy. It simply does not follow from the definition of the interdependent self-construal and therefore cannot be used as a criterion which reflects on construct validity. Their priming experiments are also deeply flawed by the unrepresentative sample of participants. Further, in their factor analyses, Levine et al. set up the "straw man" of a "universal a priori 2-factor solution" although no self-construal scholar or theory insists that there are precisely 2 universally applicable self-construals or that the current self-construal scales are perfect. The results of statistical analyses, such as those in Levine et al., crucially depend on the selection of presuppositions. Levine et al.'s presuppositions are untenable, yet they are passed off as self-evident criteria for validity testing. Their article tries to create an illusion of finality, but is pervasively and fundamentally flawed.
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The present research extends the self-concept literature by examining the self-brand congruity hypothesis in two different cultures: the United States as an example of an individualistic culture and Korea as a collectivistic culture. The results of this research demonstrate that brands with distinct personality traits that are congruent with consumers’ self-concepts are evaluated more positively than brands with incongruent personality traits across cultures. More important, the findings suggest that the self-brand congruity effects are more evident in the United States than in Korea, lending empirical evidence that self-consistency is less emphasized and salient in East Asian cultures than in Western cultures.
In two studies, we investigate how differences in self-construal patterns affect preferences for consumption symbols through the process of self-expression. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that individuals with a dominant independent self-construal hold attitudes that allow them to express that they are distinct from others. In contrast, individuals with a dominant interdependent self-construal are more likely to hold attitudes that demonstrate points of similarity with their peers. Study 2 provides additional evidence for the mechanism presumed to underlie the results by identifying differential schematic processes as the driver of expressed preferences. We find that differential levels of recall for similar and distinct items exist across culturally-encouraged selves, documenting higher recall for schema-inconsistent information. We discuss the results and encourage future research that expands the framework to group decisions and social preferences.
A new method for encoding a videoconference image sequence, termed adaptive neural net vector quantisation (ANNVQ), has been derived. It is based on Kohonen's self-organised feature maps, a neural network type clustering algorithm. The new method differs from it, in that after training the initial codebook, a modified form of adaptation resumes, in order to respond to scene changes and motion. The main advantages are high image quality with modest bit rates and effective adaptation to motion and scene changes, with the capability to quickly adjust the instantaneous bit rate in order to keep the image quality constant. This is a good match to packet switched networks where variable bit rate and uniform image quality are highly desirable. Simulation experiments have been carried out with 4 × 4 blocks of pixels from an image sequence consisting of 20 frames of size 112 × 96 pixels each. With a codebook size of 512, ANNVQ results in high image quality upon image reconstruction, with peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) of about 36 to 37 dB, at coding bit rates of about 0.50 bit/pixel. This compares quite favourably with classical vector quantisation at a similar bit rate. Moreover, this value of PSNR remains approximately constant, even when encoding image frames with considerable motion.
Individualism-collectivism has a direct effect on communication styles and an indirect effect that is mediated through self construals and values. It was hypothesized that cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and values would have separate effects on individuals’use of low- and high-context communication styles. As predicted, the results of this study suggest that independent self construals and individualistic values mediate the influence of cultural individualism-collectivism on the use of low-context communication, and interdependent self construals and collectivistic values mediate the influence of cultural individualism-collectivism on the use of high-context communication. The patterns for cultural individualism-collectivism were not as clear-cut. The findings suggest that individual level factors (i.e., self construals and values) are better predictors of low- and high-context communication styles across cultures than cultural individualism-collectivism.
This article reviews the literature on cross-cultural assessment of self-construals and proposes to refine their conceptualization by incorporating principles derived from self-categorization theory and a critique of cross-cultural research. A Sixfold Self-Construal Scale is devised to measure six subcategories of self-construal: the personal self, relational horizontal and relational vertical selves, collective horizontal and collective vertical selves, and humanity-bound self-construal. The instrument's reliability and factor structure are tested in four student samples ( N = 855) from the United Kingdom, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. Convergent validity of the Sixfold Self-Construal Scale is tested with measures of Group Identification, Inclusion of the Other in the Self, the Schwartz value survey, and comparison of national mean scores. Results support the reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the scale in all samples.
Self-compassion is a self-attitude construct derived from Buddhist psychology (Neff, 2003a). It entails being kind rather than harshly critical toward oneself, perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience, and holding painful feelings in mindful awareness. Given that self-compassion is an Asian construct, this study compares self-compassion levels in the United States, Thailand, and Taiwan. Results indicate that self-compassion is highest in Thailand and lowest in Taiwan, with the United States falling in between. Interdependence is linked to self-compassion in Thailand only, whereas independence is linked to self-compassion in Taiwan and the United States. Results suggest that self-compassion levels in these societies are linked to specific cultural features rather than general East—West differences. However, self-compassion is significantly associated with well-being in all three cultures.
Autonomy and agency are used extensively and often interchangeably; there is a debate regarding their intersections with relatedness and separateness. This scholarship occurs within mainly a Euro-American cultural context that provides an ideological background of individualism, shedding light on psychological thinking. The article attempts to provide a broad overview of the issues involved. Two distinct dimensions, agency and interpersonal distance, are seen to underlie the self constructs involving autonomy and relatedness that are developed in different spheres of psychological inquiry. Autonomy and relatedness are viewed as basic human needs, and though apparently conflicting, are proposed to be compatible. Problems of conceptualization and operationalization are noted that have prevented the recognition of this compatibility. A model is put forward that involves a fourfold combination of the two dimensions, leading to different types of self and the societal and familial contexts in which they develop. Recent research provides credibility to the model proposed.
It has been proposed that part of the resistance to affirmative action in the U.S. derives from the American discomfort with categorical social arrangements. An instance of gender discrimination was described to samples of Japanese and American students. The students then evaluated a set of remedies, one of which was a classic affirmative action solution and filled out Singelis’ Self-Construal Scale (Singelis, 1994). The Japanese sample was more collectivist than the American sample and endorsed the affirmative action solution more strongly than the American sample.
We disagree with Levine et al.'s (2003) conclusion that the 3 self construal scales currently in use have “severe” or “fatal” flaws. We argue that the results of Levine et al.'s meta-analysis and priming studies do not raise problems with the validity of self construal scales, in part, because their results are compatible with theorizing about self construals. We also contend that Levine et al.'s measurement studies do not necessarily lead to the conclusion that there are problems with the validity of the scales (e.g., there may be multiple dimensions that form independent and interdependent self construals in second-order factor analyses). We summarize other evidence for the construct validity of self construal scales which indicates that there are theoretically consistent findings across approximately 50 studies using the 3 scales. This would not be possible if there were major problems with the 2-dimensional model of self construals or the scales used to measure them. We conclude that the 2-dimensional model of self construals and the current scales are viable for use in future research.
The death of self-construal research has been greatly exaggerated. Levine et al. (2003) highlight the alleged methodological limitations of the current body of the self-construal model of culture. Their allegations, whether true or not, require a fair investigation. Careful examination of Levine et al. reveals pervasive logical flaws, methodological errors, and interpretation biases, which stem from ethnic stereotyping and other erroneous assumptions at various junctures. These fundamental errors, in turn, render their conclusions untenable. In testing their 1st set of hypotheses, which they proclaim to be “central to the validity” of self-construal scales, Levine et al. bifurcate the participants into “Westerners” versus “Asians,” and then impose their a priori stereotype of how Westerners ought to be versus how Asians ought to be, which is scientifically unacceptable. This is an unscientific validation criterion (comparable to crude ethnic stereotypes such as “Asians are smarter”) and should not be used to judge the scales' validity. Next, in their discussion of priming, Levine et al. assert that the construct validity of the interdependent self-construal requires that it must be susceptible to priming. This is an elementary logical fallacy. It simply does not follow from the definition of the interdependent self-construal and therefore cannot be used as a criterion which reflects on construct validity. Their priming experiments are also deeply flawed by the unrepresentative sample of participants. Further, in their factor analyses, Levine et al. set up the “straw man” of a “universal a priori 2-factor solution” although no self-construal scholar or theory insists that there are precisely 2 universally applicable self-construals or that the current self-construal scales are perfect. The results of statistical analyses, such as those in Levine et al., crucially depend on the selection of presuppositions. Levine et al.'s presuppositions are untenable, yet they are passed off as self-evident criteria for validity testing. Their article tries to create an illusion of finality, but is pervasively and fundamentally flawed.
In this paper, I critically evaluate the logic underlying Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals, and examine the evidence that directly tests its major assumptions. On the basis of my review of the studies they cite, and literature from three other sources, I conclude that the evidence severely challenges the validity of their theoretical framework for explaining observed national differences in psychological phenomena. I offer some ideas about alternative methodologies for research in this important area of psychology that may aid in developing and testing theories of culture and self in the future.
The purpose of this study was to examine cultural variability influence on intimacy expressions of love commitment, disclosure maintenance, ambivalence, and conflict in France, Japan, and the United States. The MANOVA analyses revealed significant main effects for culture type (France. Japan, and the United States) and for gender type (male versus female) on the intimacy expression patterns. No significant interaction effect was found for culture and gender. Respondents in France and the United States reported a significantly higher degree of love commitment and disclosure maintenance than the Japanese respondents. In addition, the U.S. respondents reported a higher degree of relational ambivalence than their Japanese counterparts. Further, the French respondents reported the lowest degree of conflict expression in comparison to the Japanese group and the United States group. In terms of gender differences, females reported a significantly higher degree of love commitment, disclosure maintenance and interpersonal conflict expressions than their male counterparts. The findings and the implications of the study along culture and gender lines are discussed.
Following concepts introduced by Markus and Kitayama, this study describes the theoretical and empirical development of a scale to measure the strength of an individual's interdependent and independent self-construals. These two images of self are conceptualized as reflecting the emphasis on connectedness and relations often found in non-Western cultures (interdependent) and the separateness and uniqueness of the individual (independent) stressed in the West. It is argued that these two images of self can and do coexist in individuals and that they can be measured. A 24-item Self-Construal Scale measuring two dimensions of self-image is presented. The two distinct dimensions of the scale were supported in confirmatory factor analyses of two multiethnic samples of college students. The scale was found to have satisfactory reliability and validity. Its implications and potential applications are discussed.