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Tourist Flows and Spatial Behavior
Abstract
It is important to understand tourist movements to gain a better idea of tourist behavior, the operationalization of motives, and how to better manage destinations. The study of movements, historically, has been inhibited by a number of pragmatic method challenges. As such, most research focused on modeling interdestination movement patterns. Recently, though, the development of Global Positioning System tracking devices and Geographic Information System software have overcome these limitations, providing the opportunity to examine movements at a much finer scale. As a result, the focus has shifted to intradestination movements or movements with in destination. This chapter reviews the historical development of movement studies, presents the core inter- and intradestination movement models and also discusses a range of intervening factors that can affect movements.
... Tourism, as a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon, entails movements of people to places outside their usual environment (UN World Tourism Organization [UNWTO] 2015). Therefore, the spatial scope of tourist movements can also be represented through the notion of activity space (McKercher and Zoltan 2014). In the context of tourism, activity space contains the locations visited or traveled through by a traveler. ...
... Traditionally, such cross-scale tourist movements and their hidden hierarchical structures are depicted from the micro to macro spatial scales by tourist movement models (Xia and Arrowsmith 2005;McKercher and Zoltan 2014). Macroscale descriptions of tourist movements provide a higher level of simplification, for example, describing the order of cities in which an international tourist travels in a foreign country (Oppermann 1995). ...
... A variety of tourism models have been developed to depict the topological structure of tourist movements at two major scales: interdestination and intradestination. These models recognize that tourism movements involve two components-a destination touring component and a transit component (McKercher and Zoltan 2014). The concept of destination usually refers to destination cities, although it could vary according to the research context. ...
Destination, as a key concept in tourism geography, has largely determined the scale at which tourist activity space was modeled and studied. Existing studies usually focused on investigating tourists’ activities and movements either at the intradestination (e.g., within a city) or interdestination scale. Although useful in numerous research contexts, these models based on fixed spatial scales are incapable of portraying the complex spatial structure of tourist activity spaces, which sometimes exhibit hierarchical structures, and could span across different spatial scales. In this study, we propose a new representation of tourist activity space to bridge these gaps. The representation takes tourists’ accommodation locations as key reference points. At the macroscale, the sequence of accommodation locations forms the backbone of tourist activity space, denoted as itinerary type. At the microscale, we introduce the concept of territory to describe how individuals organize activities around these overnight “base camps” (i.e., accommodation locations). We apply this representation over a large-scale mobile phone data set of international travelers visiting South Korea to demonstrate its capability. Results show that four generic itinerary types capture the activity space structure of 89 percent of the tourists. The interrelationships of territories and their topological structures further categorize activity spaces into subtypes, leading to a new method of tourist classification based on their spatiotemporal activity patterns. We believe the proposed representation could enrich new perspectives and debates on how tourist activities can be studied. The representation can also be extended as a generic framework to delineate complex forms of human activity space.
... • proactive tourism planning [12,14] • spatio-temporal zoning of the territory in relation to tourism (e.g., [8,12,14]), • monitoring, modelling and forecasting visitor flows, motivation, behaviour and impacts of visitors [2,12,14,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] • concept of visiting limitations to the area [14] in the frame of tourism-carrying capacity [1,8,[25][26][27] and/or limits of acceptable changes (LAC; [1,8,12,28,29]), including various visitor management models [30] and considering different distributions of visitor pressure on the tourism carrying capacity of the territory [31] • preserving the visitor experience with an emphasis on its multi-component character [32]; this approach is the basis of some visitor management models [14] and a measure of the success of visitor management [33] • the establishment of visiting rules in connection with the appropriate development of the visitor infrastructure (type and conduct of trails, viewpoints, visitor centres, etc.; [12,14]), and informing visitors and interpreting local heritage [34] • modelling and predicting tourism-activated processes and changes in ecosystems, cultural and "tourism visiting space" in protected areas [17,30,[35][36][37][38][39] Tourism visiting space refers to all processes and changes associated with visiting protected areas, including visitor flows and the mental space (perceptual and cognitive maps, the environmental bubble [3] etc.) of all visitors to the area. Computational social The optimization of tourism impacts in protected areas is closely related to the appropriate quality of visitor management, which is an important part of destination management [2,8,9,12]. ...
... • proactive tourism planning [12,14] • spatio-temporal zoning of the territory in relation to tourism (e.g., [8,12,14]), • monitoring, modelling and forecasting visitor flows, motivation, behaviour and impacts of visitors [2,12,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] • concept of visiting limitations to the area [14] in the frame of tourism-carrying capacity [1,8,[25][26][27] and/or limits of acceptable changes (LAC; [1,8,12,28,29]), including various visitor management models [30] and considering different distributions of visitor pressure on the tourism carrying capacity of the territory [31] • preserving the visitor experience with an emphasis on its multi-component character [32]; this approach is the basis of some visitor management models [14] and a measure of the success of visitor management [33] • the establishment of visiting rules in connection with the appropriate development of the visitor infrastructure (type and conduct of trails, viewpoints, visitor centres, etc.; [12,14]), and informing visitors and interpreting local heritage [34] • modelling and predicting tourism-activated processes and changes in ecosystems, cultural and "tourism visiting space" in protected areas [17,30,[35][36][37][38][39] Tourism visiting space refers to all processes and changes associated with visiting protected areas, including visitor flows and the mental space (perceptual and cognitive maps, the environmental bubble [3] etc.) of all visitors to the area. Computational social science approaches are applicable to the modelling and subsequent prediction and optimization of qualitative and quantitative aspects of various phenomena in tourism, such as tourism infrastructure in protected areas [40,41], tourism flows [30,42], the spatial distribution of visitors, spatio-temporal curves of visitor behaviour [30] or the impacts of tourism, including their relation to tourism-carrying capacity or the application of the LAC (Limits of Acceptable Change) concept. ...
... . The method selected to obtain structured knowledge for the formulation of a simulation model of visitors was mind mapping, based on the analysis of the concepts of various authors [2,9,14,21,22,27]. The resulting mind map ( Figure 5) was used to visualize various types of factors influencing the behaviour of visitors to protected areas. ...
The research was motivated by the growing importance of visitor management in protected areas, which can be based on knowledge management, system modelling of processes and phenomena, and a deeper knowledge of the experience of visitors in connection with the concept of psychological carrying capacity. The work builds on previous publications and research by the authors, focused on the optimization of tourism impacts, visitor management and the development of the theory and applicability of the concept of carrying capacity. It emphasizes the overview analysis of the possibilities of using agent-based modelling and visualization of visitor flows in protected areas. The analysis of suitable sources was based on the PRISMA method, which showed the main research directions for the use of the agent-based approach in visitor management. For the practical application of modelling, the NetLogo environment was chosen, in which the visitor flows of the model area were simulated. The visitor attendance was evaluated in relation to the psychological carrying capacity. Subsequently, visitor management measures were implemented in the model, and repeated simulations of visitor attendance, based on monitored flows, were run for a specific location around Oheb Castle (the Železné hory/Iron Mountains, Bohemia). The main result is the innovative use of agent-based modelling in visitor management in the context of visitor experience, visitor satisfaction and psychological carrying capacity. The contribution of the presented research is also the proposal of future research directions for more accurate use of psychological carrying capacity in visitor management.
... However, official tourism statistics are often unable to provide information regarding the number of destinations visited since they are based on the collection of information at only one point in the tourism system: where the trip began (region of origin) or in the destination region (Leiper, 1989). Although a considerable number of studies have focused their attention on multi-destination travel (Lue, Crompton, & Fesenmaier, 1993;Lue, Crompton, & Stewart, 1996;McKercher & Zoltan, 2014), little empirical evidence is available, mainly due to the problems in gathering data on travel itineraries (Lew & McKercher, 2002). Multi-destination trips have been recognized as a positive phenomenon for tourism destinations since they provide distinct benefits associated with the spatial interaction among tourist destinations (Gooroochurn & Hanley, 2005;Marrocu & Paci, 2013;Yang, Fik, & Zhang, 2017). ...
... The current literature relating to tourist mobility is particularly extensive, and a complete review of this topic is beyond the scope of this work. McKercher and Zoltan (2014) have grouped the studies relating to tourist mobility into three broad categories. An initial field of study, which was dominant in the 1990s, was based on the analysis of travel routes (Lew & McKercher, 2006;McKercher & Lau, 2008;Oppermann, 1995). ...
... New approaches in this research are also based on the use of mobile instruments (Asakura & Iryo, 2007) or geo-tagged photos (Vu, Li, Law, & Ye, 2015;Zheng, Zha, & Chua, 2012). Issues related to data collection and a lack of a theoretical framework of the tourist's decision-making process (in turn related to visiting a particular destination), comprise two main aspects which complicate the study of intra-destination movements (McKercher & Zoltan, 2014;Nicolau & Más, 2005). The third area of investigation, which is consistent with the aims of the study outlined in this paper, is related to factors affecting the multi-destination decision-making process. ...
This paper proposes a two-step approach for analysing the main determinants of multi-destination trip behaviour. It is based on a combination of graphical models and of a multinomial logistic regression model; the aim is to analyse direct and indirect effects of a wide set of tourist- and trip-related characteristics on multi-destination trip behaviour. Empirical data have been derived from a frontier survey of approximately 4000 incoming tourists in Sicily (Italy) at the end of their trip. Results suggest that multi-destination trips depend directly on the length of stay, the number of previous visits and motivation for the trip, and only indirectly on the interview month, travel party, organization of the trip, and country of origin. The role of other socio-demographic characteristics, such as age or gender is confirmed to be marginal or even irrelevant.
... The general topic of tourist mobility has been approached from a variety of perspectives, and related studies can be classified according to several criteria, such as type of mobility analysed (inter-destination, intra-destination, and intra-attraction mobility) and geographical scale undertaken (McKercher, Shoval, Park, & Kahani, 2015); theoretical models of reference (McKercher & Zoltan, 2014); and an analysis of main determinants of tourist mobility (Shoval & Isaacson, 2010). Understanding tourist movements and the factors influencing the relationship between destinations, and tourist space-time activities and behaviour can provide a better picture of the impact of tourism on different levels (policy, infrastructure, transport, and product development) for attraction and destination management and for implementing destination marketing strategies (Edwards & Griffin, 2013). ...
... Moreover, in terms of analytical methods, there is still great potential derived from GPS tracking data. Beyond various analytical applications (such as the sequence alignment method (Shoval & Isaacson, 2007a) for comparing itineraries), the majority of GPS studies are based on visual analysis (McKercher & Zoltan, 2014), such as mapping, point densities (D'Antonio et al., 2010) or overlays (Beeco et al., 2013; Beeco, Hallo, & Brownlee, 2014). In the field of cruise tourism, GPS technologies allow for the collection and the analysis of accurate information related to the experiences of cruise passengers, in terms of attractions visited, time spent on each attraction, the most well-beaten path, use and type of transportation mode, and so on. ...
... Traditional travel diaries are also a complex and labour-intensive tool with which to collect information relating to mobility, and they require a degree of effort by the respondent in terms of time and attention (Stopher, 2012). An analysis of tourist mobility from diaries or self-reported routes can entail several pitfalls (McKercher & Zoltan, 2014): tourists may find the effort required taxing and, therefore, leave the diary incomplete or skip certain parts. Moreover, tourists are not always able to easily locate the site to be marked in the diary/on the map (Puczkó, Bárd, & Füzi, 2010). ...
Cruise passengers’ behaviour at the destination is a rather poorly investigated phenomenon. The single exit/entry point and the relatively brief visiting time, which characterize cruise passengers’ experience at their destinations, make the use of GPS technology particularly suitable for the analysis of such a relevant phenomenon. The aim of this research is to propose a general framework for collecting and analysing GPS tracking data relating to cruise passengers’ behaviour at their destination. The main prerequisites and research stages for the implementation of surveys on cruise passengers will be described and a set of tools and measures for the analysis of GPS tracking data will be proposed, together with their potential applications. As examples of case studies, two surveys performed in the ports of Palermo and Dubrovnik will be described and the main results of the collated information will be presented. Improving our understanding of the behaviour of cruise passengers at their destination is particularly relevant for the management of tourism destinations, given the challenges that this growing phenomenon is posing for many port destinations in the Mediterranean.
... Tourists also seem more willing to purchase cultural and environmentally responsible products, as they are more likely to be interested in visiting the destination because of its culture, environment, landscapes, and rural activity. In fact, Lau et al. (2017) (Masiero & Zoltan, 2013;McKercher & Zoltan, 2014). However, living in foreign countries or purchasing all-inclusive packages seems to reduce the probabilities of tourists of visiting attractions not only in Lanzarote but also in other destinations (Flognfeldt, 1999;Lew & McKercher, 2006 (Swett, Sidman, Fik, & Sargent, 2004) or the risk of creating certain types of businesses (Pelot & Wu, 2007), analyzing destination and attractions' accessibility models (Bruce & Eliot, 2006), and generating statistical data that can be used in certain areas such as demography or migration (Dattilo, Radini, & Sabato, 2016). ...
... Therefore, as expected, the longer the stay, the more likely tourists are to visit at least one of the places studied. Past studies have reached similar conclusions, pointing out that longer stays at the destination are connected with doing more activities and visiting a larger number of places(McKercher & Zoltan, 2014;Opperman, 1997;Shoval & Raveh, 2004).The model estimated also shows that living in some countries make tourists not very likely to visit attractions in the destination. In this case, the tourists that show this reduction in their probabilities of visiting attractions are those coming from Ireland, Norway, United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands. ...
In this paper, more than 35,000 survey responses given by tourists from 2010 and 2016 are used to explain visits to tourism attractions in Lanzarote. In the survey, tourists are asked about a wide set of variables. Among these, there is a question regarding the attractions visited during their trip. With these data, it has been possible to carry out a discrete choice model analysis to establish the variables that explain why certain tourists are more prone to visit attractions than others. This study is relevant to understand tourists' mobility patterns and behavior. It also has implications for marketing managers and tourism product developers.
... However, collecting information on mobility through traditional travel diaries can be a complex and labour-intensive process that demands considerable time and attention from the respondent (Stopher 2012). Moreover, relying on diaries or self-reported routes for the analysis of tourist mobility may result in several pitfalls (McKercher and Zoltan 2014). These may include instances in which tourists find the effort required to complete the diary to be arduous and therefore leave it incomplete or omit certain parts. ...
This paper proposes a spatial point process model on a linear network to analyse cruise passengers' stop activities. It identifies and models tourists' stop intensity at the destination as a function of their main determinants. For this purpose, we consider data collected on cruise passengers through the integration of traditional questionnaire-based survey methods and GPS tracking data in two cities, namely Palermo (Italy) and Dubrovnik (Croatia). Firstly, the density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise algorithm is applied to identify stop locations from GPS tracking data. The influence of individual-related variables and itinerary-related characteristics are considered within a framework of a Gibbs point process model. The proposed model describes spatial stop intensity at the destination, accounting for the geometry of the underlying road network, individual-related variables , contextual-level information, and the spatial interaction among stop points. The analysis succeeds in quantifying the influence of both individual-related variables and trip-related characteristics on stop intensity. An interaction parameter allows for measuring the degree of dependence among cruise passengers in stop location decisions.
... With the exception of few studies, models of tourist transport mode choice at the destination based on real reported choices are almost non-existent in the scholar literature. According to McKercher and Zoltan (2014) the reasons for that are threefold and relate to the low precision of geolocation data, insufficiently detailed travel-activity records of tourists, and lack of a theoretical framework. Especially the data limitations and the resulting aggregation of tourist behavior on individual trips to the entire stay are clearly visible in previous research. ...
Tourist travel contributes greatly to transport problems in highly attractive tourist areas. Despite that, local travel behavior of visitors at the destination has hardly been investigated so far. To fill this gap, we used data from a bespoke travel-activity survey conducted in the Austrian Alps to develop models of transport mode choice of tourists during their vacation stays at the resorts. The outcomes reveal significant effects of, inter alia, travel time, travel cost, travel party composition, trip purpose, respondent's level of fitness, their knowledge about long-distance travel to the destination and mobility options at the destination, and selected weather elements. Tourists are found to be very inelastic to changes in travel cost, whilst more responsive to changes in travel time. The paper delivers unique evidence that can advance transport policy design and thus contribute to more sustainable travel at tourist destinations.
... Moreover, studies suggest that spatial intra-destination behavior of tourists affects their expenditure which is an important factor in tourism management (Dom enech et al., 2020). Despite the importance of intradestination movements, these have not been studied extensively in the literature mainly due to lack of accurate and reliable data and lack of adequate theoretical framework (McKercher & Zoltan, 2014). ...
Tourism transport may lead to significant air emissions and congestion problems on road networks. This is particularly troublesome for nature-based tourism destinations, as they often are in rural areas with low transportation capacities and vulnerable nature. Tourism transport systems are poorly understood, especially multi-modal systems with land and sea dynamics. In this article, we propose a multi-modal transport model that integrates traffic both at land and sea generated by tourism. The model was built on data from an in-situ questionnaire and validated with traffic counts and video recordings for the Geiranger fjord UNESCO world heritage site in Norway. Following a parliament decision to eliminate emissions from sea traffic, four emission reduction scenarios were explored. Results show that cruise-generated tourist buses may significantly contribute to air emissions and the formation of road congestion and emphasize the necessity of having a holistic approach in analyzing consequences of emission reduction policies for tourism transport. The model may be used in transportation planning and policymaking to assess alternative pathways to sustainable tourism transport.
... At the same time, the research on the intra-destination movements, i.e. travel within the destination, is relatively limited. As McKercher and Zoltan (2014) argue, the reasons for that are threefold and pertain to the low accuracy of the geolocation data, insufficient resolution of travel-activity data collected from tourists, and lack of a theoretical framework. Only recently, there has been more attention paid to local travel behavior thanks to the use of GPS (Global Positioning System) traces from mobile devices Thimm and Seepold 2016) and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) techniques (Lau and McKercher 2006). ...
In the face of a continuous increase in the number of tourists in the Alps, the associated traffic volumes, and the resulting negative externalities, there is an urgent need to design policies capable of managing tourist traffic efficiently and to invest in transport systems and infrastructure wisely, given the limited financial, spatial and environmental resources. Unfortunately, while there is a considerable research interest in long-distance travel and arrival/departure patterns of tourists, research on tourist mobility during the stay at the destination is almost non-existent. This prevents policy-makers from making informed decisions backed by scientific evidence. The paper presents a data collection study that contributes to filing this gap. This ‘data paper’ reports on the motivation, design and administration of a bespoke travel-activity survey of tourists at vacation destinations. It informs other researchers about the encountered difficulties and helps them optimize data collection effort in their future studies. Besides the contribution to survey methodology, the paper reports on a rare and policy-relevant dataset, provides descriptive results, and thereby contributes to evidence-based design of transport policies in tourist regions. With this paper, we also want to inspire and invite researchers to conduct further quantitative and modeling work in this under-studied field.
... − Inter-destination mobility -travelling from home to a destination − Intra-destination mobility -meaning trips made in order to perform activities within the destination area − Leisure mobility at home -induced by sport or cultural activities at home While the inter-destination travel patterns have been widely investigated in theoretical works (Rugg, 1973;Sirakaya et al., 1996;Woodside and Lysonski, 1989) and numerous case studies (Armstrong and Mok, 1995;Eymann and Ronning, 1997;La-Mondia et al., 2010;van Nostrand et al., 2013), the research on the intra-destination movements, i.e. travel within the destination, is relatively limited. As McKercher and Zoltan (2014) argue, the reasons for that are threefold and pertain to the low accuracy of the geolocation data, insufficient resolution of travel-activity data collected from tourists, and lack of a theoretical framework. Only recently, there has been more attention paid to local travel behavior thanks to the use of GPS (Global Positioning System) traces from mobile devices Thimm and Seepold, 2016) and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) techniques (Lau and McKercher, 2006). ...
In the face of a continuous increase in tourism demand in the Alpine countries, the associated traffic volumes, and the resulting negative externalities as well as social and environmental costs, there is an urgent need to design policies capable of managing tourist traffic efficiently and to invest in transport systems and infrastructure wisely, given the limited financial, spatial and environmental resources. Unfortunately, while there is a considerable research interest in long-distance travel and arrival/departure patterns of tourists, research on tourist mobility during the stay at the destination is almost non-existent. This prevents policy-makers from making informed decisions backed by scientific evidence. The dissertation attempts to fill this research gap and shed an “analytical” light on travel patterns of tourists at the destinations.
In the first instance, the transportation and tourism literature is researched and synthesized in order to identify factors that might be potentially influential on tourist decisions. The overview of the state of research on the three elementary choice components in travel behavior, destination, mode and route choice, the theory of joint decisions and the impact of weather serves as a basis for the design of a multipart bespoke travel-activity survey. A field report from the survey conducted in 2018 and 2019 in three tourist regions in the Austrian province of Tyrol is provided.
Following the descriptive analysis of the survey data highlighting differences between the summer and winter seasons, the thesis employs econometric models of choice for the analysis of tourist transport mode decisions. Based on the trips and activities of the respondents, and supplemented by data from external sources, Multinomial and Nested Logit specifications are used to find the impactful factors and measure their effect size within the collected sample.
Next, the proposed choice models are used to calculate values of the indicators for policy measures. Elasticities with respect to changes in travel time and travel cost are estimated for all alternatives. Furthermore, the Value of Travel Time Savings (VTTS) of tourist visitors are calculated for travel by car and on transit. Both the elasticities and VTTS of tourists are compared to values of local residents reported in Austrian and international studies.
Finally, the thesis recapitulates the findings and discusses their implications for science, economy and policy. It summarizes the performance of the models developed and provides clear recommendations for their application, taking into account the limitations at all stages of the research. In addition, new gaps in science are identified and further tasks are formulated that could advance the research on tourist mobility beyond the scope of this thesis.
... − Inter-destination mobility -travelling from home to a destination − Intra-destination mobility -meaning trips made in order to perform activities within the destination area − Leisure mobility at home -induced by sport or cultural activities at home While the inter-destination travel patterns have been widely investigated in theoretical works (Rugg, 1973;Sirakaya et al., 1996;Woodside and Lysonski, 1989) and numerous case studies (Armstrong and Mok, 1995;Eymann and Ronning, 1997;La-Mondia et al., 2010;van Nostrand et al., 2013), the research on the intra-destination movements, i.e. travel within the destination, is relatively limited. As McKercher and Zoltan (2014) argue, the reasons for that are threefold and pertain to the low accuracy of the geolocation data, insufficient resolution of travel-activity data collected from tourists, and lack of a theoretical framework. Only recently, there has been more attention paid to local travel behavior thanks to the use of GPS (Global Positioning System) traces from mobile devices Thimm and Seepold, 2016) and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) techniques (Lau and McKercher, 2006). ...
In the face of a continuous increase in tourism demand in the Alpine countries, the associated traffic volumes, and the resulting negative externalities as well as social and environmental costs, there is an urgent need to design policies capable of managing tourist traffic efficiently and to invest in transport systems and infrastructure wisely, given the limited financial, spatial and environmental resources. Unfortunately, while there is a considerable research interest in long-distance travel and arrival/departure patterns of tourists, research on tourist mobility during the stay at the destination is almost non-existent. This prevents policy-makers from making informed decisions backed by scientific evidence. The dissertation attempts to fill this research gap and shed an “analytical” light on travel patterns of tourists at the destinations.
In the first instance, the transportation and tourism literature are researched and synthesized in order to identify factors that might be potentially influential on tourist decisions. The overview of the state of research on the three elementary choice components in travel behavior, destination, mode and route choice, the theory of joint decisions and the impact of weather serves as a basis for the design of a multipart bespoke travel-activity survey. A field report from the survey conducted in 2018 and 2019 in three tourist regions in the Austrian province of Tyrol is provided.
Following the descriptive analysis of the survey data highlighting differences between the summer and winter seasons, the thesis employs econometric models of choice for the analysis of tourist transport mode decisions. Based on the trips and activities of the respondents, and supplemented by data from external sources, Multinomial and Nested Logit specifications are used to find the impactful factors and measure their effect size within the collected sample.
Next, the proposed choice models are used to calculate values of the indicators for policy measures. Elasticities with respect to changes in travel time and travel cost are estimated for all alternatives. Furthermore, the Value of Travel Time Savings (VTTS) of tourist visitors are calculated for travel by car and on transit. Both the elasticities and VTTS of tourists are compared to values of local residents reported in Austrian and international studies.
Finally, the thesis recapitulates the findings and discusses their implications for science, economy and policy. It summarizes the performance of the models developed and provides clear recommendations for their application, taking into account the limitations at all stages of the research. In addition, new gaps in science are identified and further tasks are formulated that could advance the research on tourist mobility beyond the scope of this thesis.
... Although these intra-destination flows can be of great importance for tourism activities and destination planning and management, they have not been analyzed extensively. McKercher and Zoltan (2014) attributed the scarcity of research on intra-destination movements to three main reasons: the need for increased accuracy in the data, the reliability of the information provided by tourists, and the lack of an adequate theoretical framework. Indeed, collecting spatiotemporal data through traditional methods (i.e., surveys or travel diaries) is a complex task (Shoval & Isaacson, 2010). ...
Cruise tourism is an important and growing source of visitors to destinations. To expand our knowledge of this phenomenon, this study incorporates three new drivers into the analysis of the expenditure patterns of cruise passengers at destinations, namely, spatial intra-destination behavior (single node, multiple node, or hinterland), onshore visit choice (independent or guided), and cruise category (standard, premium, luxury, or exclusive). The study uses quantile regression to unearth the intricacies of the proposed relationships and a dataset that combines GPS tracking technologies and traditional surveys. Results suggest that the mobility pattern, onshore visit choice, and time spent at a destination of cruise visitors have significant effects on their expenditures. However, these effects vary along with the level of expenditure, whereas cruise category does not exert a clear effect on expenditure. The implications for destination management organizations are also discussed.
Free access: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1bgzoxTbMqYx6
... A series of intervening factors can affect tourist movements: distance decay and market access, time and financial budgets, trip and personal characteristics (McKercher and Zoltan, 2014). In regard to multidestination travel, Tideswell and Faulkner (1999) summarised factors affecting the incidence of multidestination travel patterns. ...
This paper focuses on the multidestination travel of the Slovenian population. It presents the results of a questionnaire survey that aimed to gain insight into some relevant characteristics of the travel behaviour of the Slovenian population and its links to factors that were found in previous research to be related to the incidence of multidestination travel. A destination was defined within this research as any location where an overnight stop is made. Single-destination trips prevailed. Still, a considerable percentage of respondents’ most recent trips had been multidestination trips. The greater part of them was directed to just one country within which they visited several overnight destinations. The results indicate that duration of trip, distance of destination from tourists’ residential location, familiarity of destination, travel-group size and tourists’ activities are associated with the likelihood of multidestination travel.
... While previous studies illuminate the theoretical underpinnings and different methodologies for analysing tourist movement, many studies also shed light on the potential reasons for differences in travel patterns and the wish to travel further (to take a multi-destination trip) (McKercher and Lew, 2004;McKercher and Zoltan, 2014). The act of moving further from a single destination depends on various factors: transportation mode, motivation (personal, business, leisure), the size and nature of the travel group, length of stay, destination familiarity, past visit history, age, country of origin and geographic patterns of regional destinations and attractions (Koo et al., 2012;Masiero and Zoltan, 2013;Tideswell and Faulkner, 1999;Yang et al., 2017). ...
Purpose
Understanding the essence of tourism flows is one of the fundamental undertakings of tourism geography research and a key issue behind effective destination management and development. However, thus far, few studies have analysed tourist movement on a national scale. This is due to the deficiency of spatially accurate data that can be used for recording tourists’ intra-national movements. This paper aims to illustrate the impact of major gateways on national tourism flows by using tracking data; and demonstrate and compare the use and applicability of tracking data on a national scale.
Design/methodology/approach
In this study, the authors analyse foreign tourists’ movements using two spatially and temporally precise tracking data sets – call detail records from passive mobile positioning data and GPS data from smartphones – in two countries, Estonia and Israel. The movements of international tourists entering the countries via main gateways are studied, with a focus on the impact of gateways on intra-national tourism flows.
Findings
The results clearly show the impact of gateways on the concentration of tourists. In the two respective countries, the critical mass of time was spent in close proximity to the gateway and, due to distance decay, a dramatic decrease was seen in visitation to areas that were distanced from both countries’ core areas.
Originality/value
To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first time when tourism flows attained from tracking data are compared on a national scale for two countries.
... Moreover, while studying how tourists move, researchers could be interested in knowing how they have visited the places visited. Among others, some interesting topics to be analysed would be: knowing how tourists connect to the places visited; the order in which they have made these connections; the time they have spent at them; the time at which a certain place receives the greatest influx of visitors, etc. (McKercher & Lau, 2008;McKercher & Zoltan, 2014;Shoval et al., 2018). In addition, certain techniques can even ascertain how the number of days spent at the destination are linked to the number of places visited during the trip and with the itineraries made. ...
In this study, an identification of tourist tracking techniques, their evolution, advantages and disadvantages is made to help researchers decide which techniques to use. First, a literature review is carried out to explain how current tracking techniques work and what information can be obtained through their use. A total of 31 different tracking techniques were found. Afterwards, a bibliometric analysis was conducted to gather data regarding studies published on tourist tracking, the evolution of these studies and the most used techniques. To do so, all empirical contributions using tourist tracking techniques found in Scopus were considered for the analysis. Results point that geolocation-based techniques currently are the most frequently used ones to track tourists. Techniques such as the direct observation of tourists were the first techniques used in tourism research but are currently in disuse. Finally, based on a further literature review, the main advantages and disadvantages of the techniques found are highlighted. The study has implications for researchers interested in tracking tourists to study their behaviour and mobility patterns. It can be also used by destination managers willing to gather data of tourists to better understand tourism activity and industry.
... The relations between authors means the most frequent co-citation presented. These authors with their main publications are Mckercher [21,43,167,252,277], Shoval [5,6,154,278] Following the network co-citation analysis, another relevant element is the citation of journal inside the selected references. Figure 5 shows the Journal co-citation network. ...
The tracking of tourist movements is an essential aspect in the management of sustainable tourist destinations. The current information and communication technologies provide innovative ways of collecting data on tourist movements, but it is still necessary to evaluate tools and methods of study for this challenge. At this point, mobile technologies are the best candidate for this task. Given the relevance of the topic, this paper proposes a mapping science analysis of publications on “movement of tourists” and “traceability.” It has been carried out in the two main sources WOS and SCOPUS. The term “traceability” is brought from industry and technology areas to be applied to the tourist movement/mobility tracking and management. The methodological scheme is based on a selection of search criteria with combinations of terms. The sources of specialized information in applied social sciences and technology were then selected. From there, the searches have been executed for their subsequent analysis in three stages—(I) relevance analysis filtering the results to obtain the most pertinent; (II) analysis of articles with similarity thematic, authors, journals or citations; (III) analysis of selected papers as input for the mapping analysis using Citespace. The automatic naming of clusters under the selected processing confirms that the analysis of movements is a valid scientific trend but research-oriented from the perspective of traceability is non-existent, so this approach is novel and complementary to existing ones and a potential contribution to knowledge about tourist movements. Finally, a set of methodological considerations and a classification of information capture tools are proposed. In this classification, mobile technology is the best option to enable tourist movement analysis.
... The range of expectations can be as diverse as the number of visitors or destinations. Simultaneously, each actor is subject to particular circumstances such as time, budget, demographic characteristics, laws and policies, cultural and social practices, and physical and cultural distance (McKercher, 2008;McKercher & Zoltan, 2014). This mix of motivations and circumstance generates an immense diversity of visitors' and destinations' profiles and needs (United Nations & UNWTO, 2010). ...
Tourism is widely recognized as a complex phenomenon. Some academics, however, have studied tourism from their own specialization, contributing from the perspective of their specific fields. Others have argued that the complexities of tourism should be tackled more systemically and so have used diverse concepts from systems thinking theory. Nevertheless, nobody has yet presented an integrated framework connecting existing diverse systems thinking concepts, which serves as a more structured point of departure from which to study tourism. This article (1) starts by identifying seven complexities of tourism, (2) discusses eight systems thinking's key notions in the context of those complexities, (3) structures an integrated tourism systems thinking conceptual framework, and (4) provides an application example. Thus, this work contributes with a more structured theoretical foundation for the study of tourism as a system and with an integrated approach to understand its complexities.
... Traditional approaches for analyzing large-scale human mobility in travel surveys, including travel diaries, are not easily applicable to the field of cruise tourism [18]. An analysis of the mobility of cruise passengers from diaries or self-reported routes may entail several pitfalls [23]: cruise passengers may find the effort required taxing and, therefore, leave the diary incomplete or skip certain parts. Given the limited amount of time for visiting the destination, it is unlikely that cruise passengers would be willing to participate in this type of survey. ...
The aim of this research is to propose an analysis of the trajectories of cruise passengers at their destination using Dynamic Time Warping algorithm. Data collected by means of GPS devices relating to the behavior of cruise passengers in the port of Palermo have been analyzed in order to show similarities and differences among their spatial trajectories at destination. A cluster analysis has been performed in order to identify segments of cruise passengers, based on the similarity of their trajectories. The results have been compared in terms of several metrics derived from GPS tracking data in order to validate the proposed approach. Our findings are of interest from a methodological perspective concerning the analysis of GPS data and the management of cruise tourism destinations.
... This is mainly because the time for vacation is usually fixed and there is only a small chance of extending holidays. Nevertheless, McKercher and Zoltan (2014) argue that how tourists actually spend their time at a destination is highly dependent on how they value their time budget either as limited or extensive. This determines whether or not their time can be spent in many places. ...
The burgeoning popularity of World Heritage Sites (WHSs) has negatively impacted the sustainability of the historic environment of the sites due to the increasing number of tourist arrivals. Too many pressures from human activity, especially tourists could potentially damage the physical condition of the site and compromise its Outstanding Universal Value. Understanding tourist behaviour is one of the important aspects in managing a WHS through their consumption at the destination. The study aims to measure international tourist behaviour by integrating their non-spatial and spatial characteristics. A total of 384 Free Independent Tourists participated in the survey in Melaka WHS. Questionnaires, trip diaries, and tracking devices were the main instruments for capturing data. The evaluation of tourist behaviour shows that international tourists consume more spaces and time at primary elements such as historical attractions. However, they consume more money at secondary elements such as food and shopping. The finding is important for responsible authorities as it provides a different point of view in managing tourist behaviour. The results can be used to establish effective tools to develop a better visitor management plan for Melaka WHS.
... Mobility constitutes an essential aspect of tourist activity, which has been examined from multiple perspectives (Duncan [1], Hall [2], Sheller and Urry [3]). Analyses of origin-destination and interdestination movements are more frequent than the study of intradestination movements owing to three reasons proffered by McKercher and Zoltan [4]: the need for greater precision in the data, the level of reliability of the information provided by the tourists and the lack of an adequate theoretical framework. However, the same authors point out that the first two limitations can be overcome via the use of electronic tracking devices, the appropriate use of which " could be revolutionary, pushing the boundaries of tourism studies and improving policy making, planning, and tourism management " (Shoval and Isaacson [5], p. 179). ...
The aim of this paper is to analyse the spatial behaviour of mass tourism demand in coastal destinations and its implications from the point of view of sustainable tourism development. The paper is based on primary research carried out in one of the main Mediterranean tourist destinations, Benidorm (Spain). This research involved the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) devices for the tracking of a sample of 257 tourists (from Spain and United Kingdom). Although the research has an experimental basis, these advanced technologies allow new approaches to spatial analysis in order to achieve a better understanding of tourist mobility at coastal destinations. Until now, most studies of intradestination movements have been applied to urban and cultural destinations, where the points of interest and tourist routes are easily identifiable. However, spatial behaviour of mass tourism in coastal destinations has rarely been studied in detail using new tracking technologies. While tourist movements may seem, a priori, predictable, the identification of mobility patterns offers interesting results about the main characteristics of the tourist experience, the relationship with the urban model, the use of public and private spaces, the perception of the destination, and the differences between segments of demand. The conclusions of the study are relevant from the methodological and theoretical point of view, and include some recommendations for planning and destination management in the context of sustainability.
Digitales Besuchermanagement beschreibt die Beeinflussung von Reise- und Ausflugsentscheidungen durch digitale Verfahren zur Vermeidung von Überlastungen in Destinationen. Es umfasst die Bereitstellung von Daten, die Datenhaltung, das Erarbeiten von Empfehlungen und das Ausspielen der Ergebnisse über digitale Touchpoints. Dieser Beitrag beschreibt die Ziele und Bestandteile eines digitalen Besuchermanagementsystems im Tourismus und bewertet Möglichkeiten und Grenzen. Abschließend werden offene Forschungsfelder definiert.
Urban destinations worldwide face the challenge of spreading tourists from central urban areas to less visited peripheral areas. However, visiting peripheral attractions often implies lengthy journeys and the engagement of multiple means of transport. This study provides a conceptual and methodological framework to assess utility-based tourist accessibility to peripheral urban attractions. A discrete choice experiment was designed to investigate tourist preferences with respect to different types and ratings of tourist attractions and the key characteristics of collective and individual public transport alternatives. The estimation of a hybrid choice model provides empirical evidence for the relevance of repeat visitation, length of stay and public transport system perceptions in the assessment of tourist accessibility to peripheral urban attractions.
Non-motorized, water-based recreation (e.g., paddlesports) represents one of the most sought after outdoor activities in U.S. Parks and Protected Areas (PPA). Among paddling options, stand-up paddleboarding represents the activity with the highest levels of growth. However, stand-up paddleboarding has yet to be spatially examined in a PPA setting. This research paired GPS-tracking data of paddlesport users with corresponding social and environmental information to build a robust understanding of paddlesport behavior and experience in PPA. Statistical classification procedures revealed distinctions in movement across paddling activity types, highlighting implications for resource protection and visitor flow management. Integrating spatial and non-spatial data identified numerous drivers and impacts of paddlesport use: the motivation to escape corresponded to traveling further distances, while higher group sizes and prolonged shoreline exposure aligned with concentrated use levels near parking lots and facilities. Results broaden our knowledge of recreationist movement and experience, and add to a growing body of PPA research that incorporates mixed method spatial approaches to research designs. Furthermore, these findings contribute novel information on paddlesport spatial behavior in PPAs, especially given the emergent introduction of stand-up paddleboarding.
Unlike previous texts that have focussed on migratory patterns of tourists and new mobilities in tourism, Tracking Tourists: Movement and mobility is the first text to address tourist movement in from a methodological angle in the post-digital era. It assesses how movement and migration has been recorded in the past, how it may be recorded and assessed now and the possibilities for exploring movement in the future. Using international case studies that are both current and historical, it explores the range of options that exist for assessing tourists’ movement, along with the relative merits of each method. It will give a special focus to new technologies that facilitate our understanding of movement, such as the use of big data, hashtag scraping, Wi-Fi tracking, farming data from mobile phone towers and cutting-edge GPS tracking. It discusses the positive and negative consequences of the use of these new technologies and tackles issues such as ethical dilemmas and future trends and technology needs.
Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models: Explains why we think about tourism the way we do; Explores key theories, concepts and models that explain how tourism works; Is a comprehensive and cohesive text that develops a series of key ideas that deepens understanding and encourages critical thinking. This important text provides a critical overview of the core theories, concepts and ideas that have shaped the way we think about tourism. Divided into six parts, it takes the reader through the following areas to ensure thorough and coherent knowledge, looking at the important key theories, models and concepts, ensuring clear understanding and the ability for critical thinking: Setting the stage: looking at the interdisciplinary nature of tourism and its’ structure (5 core aspects of generation region, industry, destination region, transit route and tourist) How tourism works: explores the three core dimensions of tourism factors, attractions, access and government policy The evolution of tourism: examines the main models that have depicted the evolution of tourism destinations, economies and geographies. The tourist: motivations and influences of the tourist as an individual, covering typology, social demographic factors and constraints. Planning models: destination planning, scenarios and forecasting, including responses to current challenges Current issues: examines the theoretical and conceptual foundations for a range of contemporary issues that will affect tourism well into the future, including climate change, overtourism, crisis management and political change. Additional resources consist of web links, online videos and teaching reference materials. These can be found at www.goodfellowpublishers.com/TTCM from Academy fellows and other academic links explaining the ideas in the book. A must-have text for post graduate tourism and hospitality studies, as well as a key resource text for those teaching and studying tourism subjects at the later stages of undergraduate level.
This study examines the movement patterns of different market segments in an historic town. It combines traditional visitor surveys with a bespoke tourist tracking application. Two analytical stages were undertaken. The first involved analyzing the movements of tourist segments and revealed that “heritage” tourists tended to visit for the shortest lengths of time. The second phase revealed that a visit of between one and two hours seemed to provide the best opportunity to explore the village fully, while shorter and longer stays did not. The insights challenge traditional notions that heritage-oriented tourists should form the target market for historic communities.
When dealing with categorical data, generally the notion of heterogeneity may be used instead of that of variability. There are many fields where data may be only represented by nominal categorical variables or by ordinal variables, e.g. opinion polls, performance qualitative assessments, psycho aptitude tests and so on. In this paper we provide a review of some nonparametric methods concerning testing for heterogeneity, based on permutation procedures. Examples of real applications in different frameworks are also shown.
This article contributes to the conceptual and methodological strengthening of the study of tourism as a complex phenomenon using systems thinking. It is aimed at supporting decision-making for tourist destinations’ planning and management. Few authors provide a schematic model of how tourism works, and among them, even fewer expressly use a systemic approach. However, nobody presents a methodology for their models’ analytical application to bridge theory and practice. The integrative model (iModel) fills this gap. It is developed through a review of previous models, research in Belgian, German and Ecuadorian cases, discussion in experts’ panels and supported by a long experience in destination development in Ecuador. Main contributions are 1) the introduction of a model of tourism as a dynamic complex system based on the functions performed by the actors involved in the tourism experience; and 2) the presentation of a methodology to apply the model-as-a-tool for decision-making support in tourism practice.
Good management of tourist destinations can be enhanced by understanding the movement patterns of visitors. Different itinerary types and the concept of distance decay have been explored but there has been little application to within-destination movements or, more broadly, to protected areas. Coastal marine parks offer a challenging location for such research given the connectivity between the water and adjacent land components. The aim of the study was to describe, and quantify, within-destination movement patterns of visitors travelling for recreation throughout Ningaloo Marine Park, in north-western Australia, using various modes of travel. Data were collected using 1208 site-based interviews over a 12-month period. Results revealed visitors were highly dependent on the road network and, once at their accommodation, more than a third did not travel any further to participate in recreation. Conversely, some sites had such a strong attraction that respondents, especially first time and international visitors, travelled long distances for recreation at these sites. These findings contribute to a small, but growing, body of research on within-destination patterns. Such information is essential for protected area planning and to help managers efficiently allocate their often-limited resources.
This article examines the impact of distance on global tourist flows through an analysis of departing visitor share from 41 major source markets to 146 destinations. The study concludes that 80% of all international travel occurs to countries within 1,000 kilometers of the source market and that, with few exceptions, distant destinations have great difficulty attracting more than a 1% or 2% share of departures. However, high volatility in share within each distance cohort was also noted. Regression analysis of variation in share by distance suggests that market access and the level of tourism development within a destination distort movement patterns regardless of distance. Relationship variables played an important role in short-haul travel; a mix of source, destination, and relationship characteristics influence travel to medium haul destinations; and destination attributes influence share at long-haul destinations.
Dual-purpose destinations serve both tourists choosing an area as their main destination and those using it as a stopover or secondary destination. While the dual role of most destinations is widely recognized, the importance of the through-traveler segment is often unappreciated, unrecognized, or misunderstood. Indeed, to date, little work has been conducted examining main-destination and through travelers. This article reports on a study conducted in Albury, New South Wales, Australia, the largest city located between Melbourne and Sydney. It discovered that main-destination and through travelers were so significantly different that they could be considered discrete markets. Indeed, the study suggests that some dual-purpose destinations ought to consider a multiple positioning strategy to appeal to these different segments. Main-destination and through travelers come from different geographic areas, have different demographic profiles, and exhibit different behavior at the destination.
While vacation travel to Yellowstone National Park may be considered the epitome of American travel traditions, measurement and analysis of this important national phe nomenon is surprisingly limited. This survey of 600 Yellowstone visitors focuses upon the spatial pattern of their travel movements to and from Yellowstone. Four types of trip configurations are discovered: Direct Route, Partial Orbit, Full Orbit, and Fly/Drive.
Destination image was conceptualized as evolvingfrom an organic image, through an induced image, to a complex image. These image phases were linked to the informative, persuasive, and reminding functions of promotion. Data were analyzed from a sample of 568 prospective, first-time, and repeat long-stay winter visitors to the lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas. These three subsamples were considered likely to be reasonably reflective of the three stages of image evolution. Significant differences on all five of the image factors which were derived were found between nonvisitors and the other two subsamples. Length of stay was found to significantly affect image on two of the five factors. Differences in image based on respondents' proximity to the Valley were revealed on only one of the five factors.
Market access refers to the competitive advantage or dis advantage that competing destinations may have in relation to target markets. The theory suggests that those destinations that enjoy greater market access, as measured in terms of lower travel time, effort, or financial costs, should be more attractive to consumers. This study examined the effect of market access on the visitor mix at a series of destinations along the Princes Highway in southeast Australia. The re sults of the study contradict the theory and suggest that desti nations with ostensibly poorer market access do not neces sarily have an inherent competitive disadvantage when compared to destinations with stronger market access. Im portantly, market access affects the visitor mix at each desti nation. Furthermore, as market access from key markets de clines, substitute markets become relatively more important.
The use of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology enables the study of tourists' activities and movement patterns in real time. But what does this information tell us about tourists' subjective experiences? The present paper accounts for the results from four case studies: two event studies and two destination studies. Two of these took place in the wintertime, and two in the summertime. Visitors carried a GPS device for one day, after which they answered a brief questionnaire. A total of 241 visitors participated in the study. Based on cluster analyses of distance measures calculated from the GPS data, several movement patterns were revealed. Three of these, labelled Main attraction visitors, Wanderers, and Specialists, emerged in all four cases. The reported experiences differed between the clusters, especially concerning negative experiences. In the destination studies, the clusters differed with regard to what was considered a negative experience, while in the event studies, the clusters differed with regard to how the tourists responded emotionally to their experiences. The authors conclude that GPS technology is a promising tool for tourism research but that, if one is to gain a full understanding of tourists' experiences and mobility, it ought to be combined with other methods.
The purpose of this article is to develop and apply a statistical procedure to estimate a demand function for the recreation activity of pleasure driving or sightseeing by car on scenic river highways in the Rocky Mountains. The consumptive value of travel time is related to several variables which can be influenced bypromotional and service programs to improve quality of the driving experience. The article presents new information on demand and benefit to assist the travel industry in the evaluation of programs to expand and enhance America's scenic road system.
Improving the understanding of temporal and spatial behaviour of tourists is important for enhancing sustainable management of tourism. In recent years, with the emergence of photo-sharing Internet communities, many photographers have posted their photographs on the Internet and made them freely accessible. Generally attached to these shared photos is information about where and when the photos were taken, providing clues to establish the temporal and spatial distribution of the photographers. In this paper, we described a photography-based approach to analyse Chinese tourists' temporal–spatial behaviour identified from 1308 photos taken in the Old Town of Lijiang. We estimated tourists' temporal variation, length of stay, daily average number of tourists, individual movement traces and tourist hotspots. The results suggest that the photo-based methods have obvious advantages. We believe that this wealth of publicly available data sources with spatio-temporal information will provide a new perspective in analysing tourist flow distribution and tourist hotspots and will be helpful to plan tourism resources.
This study uses global positioning systems (GPS) technology to compare and contrast the behaviour patterns of first-time and repeat visitors to Hong Kong. The use of GPS recorders, coupled with an analysis using Geographical Information System (GIS) software produces highly accurate, fine-grained information concerning the spatial and time–space patterns of the visitors. The study findings build on existing knowledge that first-timers tend to travel more widely throughout the destination while repeat visitors tend to confine their actions to a smaller number of locations. However, the data also revealed that first-timers and repeaters spend different amounts of time at the same attractions and visit during different times of the day. First-time visitors also tend to make one long, extended day trip from the hotel, while repeaters tend to make a number of shorter forays, returning to the hotel intermittently during the day.
This paper addresses the need to better understand tourist pressure in selected regions of the Shetland Islands, United Kingdom, using measures of space, time, perception, region, and core-periphery. Normally an economic theory, core-periphery was applied in the context of this study as a locational and mental construct in examining tourism group movement (behavior). Respondents were placed into two groups on the basis of their activitybased motivations for visiting Shetland and asked to complete a daily space-time budget regarding their use of attractions, facilities, accommodation, and transportation. It was discovered that both groups differed marginally in their space-time use of the aforementioned variables within the various regions of Shetland.RésuméUn budget touristique espace temps aux îles Shetland. Cet article aborde la question de la pression touristique aux îles Shetland, en Ecosse, en utilisant des mesures d'espace, temps, perception, région et centre-périphérie. Le concept du centre-périphérie, qui vient du domaine de l'économique, est appliqué comme construction mentale de localisation pour examiner le mouvement (comportement) de groupes de touristes. Les personnes interrogées ont été distribuées dans deux groupes selon leurs activités et leurs motivations pour visiter les îles Shetland. Ils ont rempli chaque jour un formulaire de budget espace-temps au sujet de leur utilisation des éléments suivants: attractions, aménagements, logement et transports. Les deux groupes ont différé très légèrement sur leur utilisation espace-temps de ces éléments dans le différents endroits des îles Shetland.
The allocation of individual time can have a ‘commodity value’ if the use of time is enjoyable. This paper investigates the commodity value of travel time in recreational activities. The study focuses on recreational boating in East Texas. After specifying a model of multisite recreational demand for boating, the commodity value of travel time to each site is estimated. Implications of the results for the analysis of outdoor recreation are discussed
A collection of papers based on recent empirical research into aspects of recreational land use in Ontario. After the editor's introductory paper - and overview of the demand, supply and impact characteristics of outdoor recreation - the readings are arranged into six sections. The first concerns aspects of tourist and recreational supply: the Ontario Recreation Supply Inventory and the Ontario Provincial Park Classification are described; while other papers examine the recreational implications of climate, resource typologies, and accessibility to urban open space. The next section on recreation and tourist demand comprises an overview of the demand for outdoor recreation in Ontario and an examination of clusters of outdoor recreational activities. This is followed by four chapters linked by a common concern with the perception and attitudes of recreationalists. Subjects covered include children's use of urban play space, the preferences of visitors to Point Pelee National Park, and the influence of weather on park visitation. Patterns of recreational land use is the concern of section four. One contribution traces the historical development of Muskoka as a tourist area in the late 19th century, while others form case studies of Algonquin Park, downhill skiing, leisure plots, the Ontario Place entertainment complex, and the Oktoberfest beer festival. The two remaining chapters in this section analyse recreational trip generator and the phenomena of the recreational business district. Section five consists of four chapters on the impact of outdoor recreation: the first focuses on the ecological effects of snowmobiles, the second on the income and employment effects of tourism in Muskoka, the third on recreational crime in Ontario's Provincial Parks, and the fourth on social antagonisms created by tourism in Old Niagara. The final section is devoted to various planning and management issues ranging from waterside second homes to the limits of cost benefit analysis as an aid to decision making. -John Heeley
The spatial behaviour of tourists within cities is not well understood, partly because of the complexities of cities as spaces and partly because few studies have addressed this phenomenon. This paper reports on collaborative research studies, conducted in conjunction with destination-management agencies in the Australian cities of Sydney and Melbourne. The studies used Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking devices to find out how various kinds of tourists moved around each city, supplemented by semi-structured interviews with the tourists to help explain their movement patterns. A total of 154 participant groups took part. Each study sought to provide information to destination-management agencies to help them improve aspects of the visitor's experience by improving wayfinding systems. Findings were analysed visually using a space syntax approach. Tourists walked between 10 and 35 km per day. Lack of knowledge of public transport systems and ticketing was a major constraint on public transport use. Melbourne's street pattern and its free city circle tram were found more user-friendly than Sydney's street pattern and public transport. The resulting visual maps provided destination managers with a valuable diagnostic tool; a range of new initiatives have been developed, including better conference visitor information, and training for information centre staff.
A growing body of research is focusing on tourism in urban destinations. However, there has been no research examining the impact of hotel location on subsequent tourist behaviour. This article fills this gap both theoretically and empirically, through an analysis of the time-space activity of tourists staying at four hotels in different areas of Hong Kong. The movements of 557 tourists’ day-trips were tracked using GPS loggers. The study concluded that hotel location has a profound impact on tourist movements, with a large share of the total tourist time budget spent in the immediate vicinity of the hotel. Further, the study illustrated the impact of geomorphic barriers on tourist movements. The findings have important implications at both a destination and enterprise level.
This article examines the decaying effect of distance decay in outbound air travel from Hong Kong. Distance decay theory predicts that demand will peak at some distance relatively close to a source market and then decline exponentially as distance increases. The standard distance decay relationship is predicated on the assumption of a uniform distribution of tourism products over space. However, as discussed in the article, supply is not distributed evenly, with large areas representing Effective Tourism Exclusion Zones (ETEZ). The effect of these tourism exclusion zones is to distort the standard distance decay curve, accelerating decay rates between the source markets and the inner boundary of the ETEZ and producing a concentration of higher demand at points beyond its outer boundary. In addition, for the Hong Kong market, the ETEZ formed a behavioral barrier between short haul and long travel behavior patterns.
A model of travel itineraries is proposed with two single- and five multidestination itineraries. The validity of these itineraries is tested by analyzing travel patterns of 1,000 international tourists to Malaysia. The study indicates that the advanced travel itineraries are relevant and comprehensive. Further, it suggests that international travel patterns are much more complex than is usually assumed.
Tourism is often studied as if it was static. Yet, mobility constitutes an important part of the tourism system. The paper argues that tourists are travelling according to an individual travel rhythm, which can be defined as a travel pattern that tourists relate to, independent from the tourist sites that are visited. It was found out that there are long travel distances on the first and last day of the holiday, that mobility and stationariness are concentrated in time and that tourists along a round tour often spend the longest time in the region with the longest distance to the home region. The paper concludes that a travel rhythm exists, and that it is only partly influenced by the time the tourist spends at the destination, and the previous number of visits. Time geography was applied as underlying theory, and its use can be encouraged in forthcoming tourism studies.
Most market segmentation studies focus on the nationalities of visitors as one of the basic elements of segmentation. For some destinations, nationality will be a sufficient segmentation tool, but for destinations with a variety of visitor groups, other descriptors have to be added. This paper will both focus on the limitations of the use of nationality for segmentation, and will compare it to the use of other segment descriptors, mainly mode of travel. The empirical basis is work conducted in the Jotunheimen mountains of Southern Norway, a region visited by foreign tourists for more than 150 years. In addition to the focus on visits in general, this paper will extend the marketing focus to the use of different types of attractions and activities in this region.
This paper reports on a study analysing the movements of tourists within an urban destination. A total of 78 discrete movement patterns was identified, which can be categorized into 11 movement styles. Data were analysed using GIS software. The large number of movement patterns is a reflection of the interaction of six factors: territoriality, the number of journeys made per day, the number of stops made per journey, participation in a commercial day tour, participation in extra-destination travel and observed patterns of multi-stop journeys. The 11 movement styles were influenced by territoriality and intensity of consumption.
The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games had a great impact on the tourism industry in Beijing, especially on tourism flows and movements. This study used content analysis and social network analysis methods to examine 500 online trip diaries and analyze overseas tourist movement patterns in Beijing during the Olympics. The result revealed that overseas tourists were most interested in famous traditional attractions, and their movements were focused in the central city area of Beijing. The study identified the diversity of tourist attractions and the expansion of main visiting areas as the two main changes during the Olympics. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The opportunity cost of time is usually a significant part of the price variable in the travel cost demand model. Thus, its accurate measurement is important to the estimation of demand and benefit valuation for nonmarket resources. This paper empirically tests models which assume that income is the basis for opportunity time cost with an alternative "pooled" model based on a disequilibrium labor market for some recreationists. Acceptance of the hypothesis that disequilibrium models may be necessary for some individuals implies increased survey information requirements so that the appropriate model can be applied to each individual.
Trip itinerary data present analytical problems because of the great diversity of routes that travelers follow and the varying significance of destinations along those routes. Most of the models that have been proposed to deal with this complexity have focused either on the total number of travelers from one country to another, or on the overall pattern of entire trips. An alternative and complementary approach is to examine the relative location of a destination within the larger itinerary pattern. Depending on their location within the overall trip itinerary, places can exhibit characteristics of one or more destination types: Single Destination, Gateway Destination, Egress Destination, Touring Destination, or Hub Destination. Data collected on international air travelers to Hong Kong exhibited the first four of these five patterns. Taiwan and Singapore residents primarily used Hong Kong as a Single Destination for short break shopping holidays and for business. US and Australian residents were the most likely to use Hong Kong as a trip Gateway and as a Touring Destination, especially as the Gateway for a trip to China, but Hong Kong also served as a Gateway for trips to destinations in East and Southeast Asia and, for US residents, to Australia. Residents of China were more likely to use Hong Kong as a trip Egress Destination than were others. Hong Kong has traditionally considered itself primarily as a ‘gateway to China’ and an ‘Asian travel hub’. Hong Kong, and other destinations, could benefit from being more aware of their role as an Egress Destination and of their relationships with destinations that travelers visit before and after their arrival.
Tourist movement is a complex process. It can be modelled from a number of different perspectives; for example, Tourism, Geography, Economics, Mathematics, Computer Sciences and Psychology. This paper aims to establish a sound methodology, using Semi-Markov processes to model the spatial and temporal movement of tourists. The objective is to understand, predict, control for, and optimise the decisions made by tourists in their choice of attractions. Semi-Markov processes have a Markov chain and a renewal process embedded within their structure, and as such, can be used to provide a wide variety of practical models. One of the outcomes of this approach is the introduction of a measure to assess the attractiveness of particular tourist attractions based on spatial and temporal interactions between the attractions. A case study conducted at Phillip Island Nature Park, Victoria, Australia is used to validate the model. The study’s results support the proposed model’s efficiency. The results are also practical and useful for assisting park managers and tourist operators with park planning and marketing decisions: for example, knowing which attractions are the most popular, how long tourists will spend at any one site; and what the likely routes are that they will follow.
This paper examines the influence children have on the behaviour of tourist parties while on holiday. It argues that the role of children has been under-researched and under-valued. A diary based space-time budget survey was used to collect information on the activities of 143 tourist parties staying in Cornwall, England, for a period of at least one week. The paper stresses the role of group decisions in purchasing tourism products while on holiday and the contrasting needs of two or more generations. Children were found to influence the behaviour of tourist parties either through their physical needs (e.g. arrangement of meal times, need for sleep) or through their ability to negotiate with parents. The results suggest the need for theories sensitive to the influence of group decision-making and the ability of children to influence group behaviour.
This paper examines the relation between the trip characteristics of tourists and the attractions that they visit. This analysis was made possible by means of a new method of multivariate analysis—co-plot—that enables the simultaneous analysis of observations and variables and the graphic presentation of the interrelations among them. Jerusalem was seen as an “ideal” city for the demonstration of the co-plot method of data analysis due to the heterogeneity of its tourism. The research was conducted between September 1998 and March 1999. The results of the statistical analysis show that Jerusalem's tourist attractions can be categorized into four distinct groups and that there is a tendency of spatial concentration among sights belonging to the same group. Based on these results, a spatial model of tourism consumption in large cities was developed.
This study tests the proposition that market segments transform unevenly as distance from the source increases. It builds on distance decay theory by extending the concept to a sub-market or segment-specific level. To date, no research has examined the transformation of market segments with distance. The study examines outbound travel by Hong Kong residents to urban destinations in 11 countries/territories. The study reveals that the aggregate market profile changes with distance, becoming generally older, more affluent and better educated. However, analysis of share differential of six segments identified through Cluster analysis reveals substantial differences between them. Two segments show evidence of segment decay, two show evidence of segment emergence, one shows a polarized segment transformation structure and another shows no relationship between share and distance.
Models depicting the spatial movement patterns of tourists within a destination are proposed in this paper. They are developed using an inductive approach based on urban transportation modeling and tourist behavior, to identify explanatory factors that could influence movements. Factors identified included a set of destination characteristics and a set of tourist characteristics that influence decisionmaking and behavior. These factors influence movement patterns in two ways, resulting in four types of territorial and three linear path models. Understanding the movement of tourists within a destination has practical applications for destination management, product development, and attraction marketing.RésuméModelage des mouvements touristiques: analyse des destinations locales. Des modèles qui représentent les caractéristiques des mouvements spatiaux des touristes à l’intérieur d’une destination sont proposés dans cet article. On développe les modèles en utilisant une approche inductive basée sur le modelage des transports urbains et le comportement des touristes pour identifier des facteurs explicatifs qui pourraient influencer les mouvements. Ces facteurs comprennent un ensemble de caractéristiques touristiques qui influencent le comportement et la prise de décisions. Ces facteurs influencent les schémas de mouvements de deux façons, ce qui résulte en quatre types de modèles territoriaux et trois types de chemins linéaires. La compréhension du mouvement des touristes à une destination a des applications pratiques pour la gestion des destinations, le développement des produits et le marketing des attractions.
A four-cell typology of pleasure trips is developed based on number of destinations visited and the trip purpose or benefits sought. Five distinctive spatial patterns evolving from this typology are identified that may be adopted by pleasure travelers: single destination, en route, base camp, regional tour, and trip chaining. Four of these involve visiting multiple destinations. Multi-destination visits are a rational behavior pattern and reasons that account for this behavior are discussed. It is suggested that the concept of cumulative attraction offers a conceptual underpinning for explaining such trips. Benefits accruing from a better understanding of multi-destination trip behavior are discussed.RésuméLa conceptualisation des voyages d'agrément à plusieurs destinations. L'article présente une typologie à quatre cellules pour discuter les voyages d'agrément, selon le nombre de destinations et le propos du voyage ou le genre de bénéfices que l'on cherche. A partir de cette typologie, on identifie cinq modèles d'organisation spatiale: destination simple, escale en route, camp de base, voyage régional et enchaînement de voyages. Pour quatre de ces modèles, il s'agit de destinations multiples. On discute les raisons pour lesquelles on entreprendrait un voyage à plusieurs destinations. On suggère que le concept de l'attraction cumulative pourtrait être utile pour expliquer ces voyages. On discute les bénéfices que l'on peut tirer d'une meilleure compréhension du comportement du voyage à destinations multiples.
The phenomenal advances of photo-sharing services, such as Flickr
TM
, have led to voluminous community-contributed photos with socially generated textual, temporal and geographical metadata
on the Internet. The photos, together with their time- and geo-references, implicitly document the photographers’ spatiotemporal
movement paths. This study aims to leverage the wealth of these enriched online photos to analyze the people’s travel pattern
at the local level of a tour destination. First, from a noisy pool of GPS-tagged photos downloaded from Internet, we build
a statistically reliable database of travel paths, and mine a list of regions of attraction (RoA). We then investigate the
tourist traffic flow among different RoAs, by exploiting Markov chain model. Testings on four major cities demonstrate promising
results of the proposed system.
Distinguishes between the DeSerpa and Becker theories. The first leads to the concept of a shadow price, or opportunity cost, of travel time which is uniform in all activities and under all circumstances. The second allows the marginal utility (value) of travel time to diverge from this uniform shadow price, giving rise to an excess (or shortfall) of value in a specific circumstance.-from Authors
Tourism Research: Building a Better Industry
- M. Oppermann
The implicit effect of distance on tourist behaviour
- McKercher B.