Chapter

Introduction: What Landmarks Are, and Why They Are Important

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Landmarks, by their pure existence, structure environments. They form cognitive anchors, markers, or reference points for orientation , wayfinding and communication. They appear in our sketches, in descriptions of meeting points or routes, and as the remarkable objects of an environment in tourist brochures. With all their significance for spatial cognition and communication, landmarks pose a major challenge for artificial intelligence and human-computer interaction. So far, research aiming for intelligent interaction design has suffered from a lack of understanding and formal modelling of landmarks. Here we will clarify our words’ meaning and draw some boundaries of our discussion, in preparation for integrating landmarks in artificial intelligence applications.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Mental representations of a space are based on these landmarks. Interacting with the world requires being able to perceive displacement after a visual distraction (Winter, 2014). These landmarks provide spatial cues that help people perceive displacement and create a clear mental representation of earth and beyond earth may impair human spatial perception, leading to not only low work productivity but also compromised safety that may put the entire mission at risk. ...
... A mental representation of an object has the function of locating other objects within the representation (Higgins and Wang 2010). In this function, a connection is established between place and place-mark, which is yet another geographical concept that is used to structure space and is perhaps even more elusive than landmarks in terms of establishing their boundaries (Winter, 2014). An essential skill in interaction with the world is the ability to perceive the displacement of an object following a visual distraction (Higgins & Wang, 2010;Ruddle et al., 2011). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
In this study, we conducted spatial perception tests, including distance perception (DP) and size perception (SP) tests, under various experimental conditions to investigate their effects on response accuracy and response time. Participants were divided into a control group (CG), Experimental group 1 (EG1), and Experimental group 2 (EG2). Significant differences were observed between CG and EG1, as well as between EG1 and EG2, with CG and EG2 showing higher response accuracy compared to EG1. Response time differences were also significant among the three groups. Further analysis revealed no significant difference in DP test accuracy means, indicating that limited or no availability of landmarks did not impact participants' distance perception. However, SP test accuracy showed a significant difference, suggesting that the presence or absence of landmarks influenced participants' ability to perceive size. Pairwise comparisons indicated that SP responses in CG and EG2 were more accurate than in EG1. Response time analysis showed a significant difference in SP test response time between EG1 and EG2, with EG1 having longer response times. Gender analysis in EG1 revealed that males performed more accurately than females in this test condition. Demographic factors such as age and gamer/non-gamer status did not significantly influence participants' response accuracy. Participants' performance on DP and SP tests revealed consistent overestimation of distance in the sagittal plane and underestimation in the frontal plane. SP test results indicated that most participants overestimated the height of the cube and underestimated its depth, with no significant gender or gamer/non-gamer differences. This study contributes valuable insights into the impact of experimental conditions on spatial perception, emphasizing the importance of considering these factors in designing tasks or interventions requiring spatial perception. The findings have implications for fields such as cognitive psychology, human-computer interaction, and virtual reality design.
... They form cognitive anchors, markers, or reference points for orientation, wayfinding and communication. They appear in our sketches, in descriptions of meeting points or routes, and as the remarkable objects of an environment in tourist brochures (Richter and Winter, 2014). ...
... Cognition and embodied experience will play a significant role in our exploration of landmarks. Merriam Webster distinguishes three meanings: "(1) an object or structure on land that is easy to see and recognize, (2) a building or place that was important in history, or (3) a very important event or achievement (Richter and Winter, 2014). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Lynch has divided urban imagery into five elements: roads, borders, regions, focus and triangulation points. Landmarks are external elements that can be physically recognized and perceived all over the urban area. In this study, the importance of the Babadağlılar bazaar as a landmark has been determined for both urban residents and visitors from outside the city. The structure, which was built in the mid-1970s, stands out as the first sample of Denizli shopping culture. The bazaar, for the purpose of establishing, architecture and operation of a textile city, took the role of the showcase of Denizli. As a result, the import ance of a landmark of the city has been discussed with the help of an image chosen as a case.
... In the navigation and wayfinding literature, which focuses on the influence of persistent, 4 environmental landmarks the term "landmark" is also debated (Chan et al., 2012;Yesiltepe et 5 al., 2021). Different definitional aspects of persistent landmarks have been discussed including 6 their need to be visually, structurally, or cognitively distinctive to aid in navigation (Yesiltepe 7 et al., 2021) or that they can serve as anchor points (Richter & Winter, 2014), providing a 8 framework for spatial encoding (Chan et al., 2012). In sum, temporary landmarks include a 9 broader definition and are mostly used in laboratory studies, whereas persistent landmarks are 10 defined more specifically and are mostly used in real-world or virtual reality studies. ...
Article
The influence of landmarks, that is, nearby non-target stimuli, on spatial perception has been shown in multiple ways. These include altered target localization variability near landmarks and systematic spatial distortions of target localizations. Previous studies have mostly been conducted in the visual modality using temporary, artificial landmarks or the tactile modality with persistent landmarks on the body. Thus, it is unclear whether both landmark types produce the same spatial distortions as they were never investigated in the same modality. Addressing this, we used a novel tactile setup to present temporary, artificial landmarks on the forearm and systematically manipulated their location to either be close to a persistent landmark (wrist or elbow) or in between both persistent landmarks at the middle of the forearm. Initial data (Exp. 1 and Exp. 2) suggested systematic differences of temporary landmarks based on their distance from the persistent landmark, possibly indicating different distortions of temporary and persistent landmarks. Subsequent control studies (Exp. 3 and Exp. 4) showed this effect was driven by the relative landmark location within the target distribution. Specifically, landmarks in the middle of the target distribution led to systematic distortions of target localizations toward the landmark, whereas landmarks at the side led to distortions away from the landmark for nearby targets, and toward the landmark with wider distances. Our results indicate that experimental results with temporary landmarks can be generalized to more natural settings with persistent landmarks, and further reveal that the relative landmark location leads to different effects of the pattern of spatial distortions.
... The use of Virtual Reality (VR) in combination with eye tracking technology in spatial ability studies presents several significant advantages. First, VR provides an unparalleled level of realism and immersion, allowing participants to engage with spatial challenges in environments that closely mimic real-world scenarios (Winter, 2014;Zhang et al., 2020). This not only enhances the ecological validity of the study but also ensures that the data collected accurately reflects how individuals interact with and navigate through spatial tasks in practical settings (Salehi et al., 2023a;Slater et al., 2022). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Spatial ability is the ability to generate, store, retrieve, and transform visual information to mentally represent a space and make sense of it. This ability is a critical facet of human cognition that affects knowledge acquisition, productivity, and workplace safety. Although having improved spatial ability is essential for safely navigating and perceiving a space on earth, it is more critical in altered environments of other planets and deep space, which may pose extreme and unfamiliar visuospatial conditions. Such conditions may range from microgravity settings with the misalignment of body and visual axes to a lack of landmark objects that offer spatial cues to perceive size, distance, and speed. These altered visuospatial conditions may pose challenges to human spatial cognitive processing, which assists humans in locating objects in space, perceiving them visually, and comprehending spatial relationships between the objects and surroundings. The main goal of this paper is to examine if eye-tracking data of gaze pattern can indicate whether such altered conditions may demand more mental efforts and attention. The key dimensions of spatial ability (i.e., spatial visualization, spatial relations, and spatial orientation) are examined under the three simulated conditions: (1) aligned body and visual axes (control group); (2) statically misaligned body and visual axes (experiment group I); and dynamically misaligned body and visual axes (experiment group II). The three conditions were simulated in Virtual Reality (VR) using Unity 3D game engine. Participants were recruited from Texas A&M University student population who wore HTC VIVE Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) equipped with eye-tracking technology to work on three spatial tests to measure spatial visualization, orientation, and relations. The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT: R), the Mental Cutting Test (MCT), and the Perspective Taking Ability (PTA) test were used to evaluate the spatial visualization, spatial relations, and spatial orientation of 78 participants, respectively. For each test, gaze data was collected through Tobii eye-tracker integrated in the HTC Vive HMDs. Quick eye movements, known as saccades, were identified by analyzing raw eye-tracking data using the rate of change of gaze position over time as a measure of mental effort. The results showed that the mean number of saccades in MCT and PSVT: R tests was statistically larger in experiment group II than in the control group or experiment group I. However, PTA test data did not meet the required assumptions to compare the mean number of saccades in the three groups. The results suggest that spatial relations and visualization may require more mental effort under dynamically misaligned idiotropic and visual axes than aligned or statically misaligned idiotropic and visual axes. However, the data could not reveal whether spatial orientation requires more/less mental effort under aligned, statically misaligned, and dynamically misaligned idiotropic and visual axes. The results of this study are important to understand how altered visuospatial conditions impact spatial cognition and how simulation- or game-based training tools can be developed to train people in adapting to extreme or altered work environments and working more productively and safely.
... Duckham et al. (2010) argue that people imagine the city by using cognitively salient elements and landmarks are considered one such element. Moreover, Richter and Winter (2014) conclude that landmarks form cognitive anchors, marks or reference points for orientation, wayfinding and communication. In absence of landmarks or when the urban environment is in visual chaos, the harmony between people and the urban environment relationship is destroyed. ...
Article
Full-text available
The concepts of imageability and legibility are important aspects of urban design. Many scholars use the terms “imageability” and “legibility” interchangeably, usually examining one concept and applying the implications to the other. This research explores the relationship between these two concepts by answering the research questions: 1. how do people perceive the saliency of landmarks (imageability) and 2. how does the spatial configuration facilitate the visibility level of landmarks (legibility)? The Galle Heritage City in Sri Lanka is considered as the case study. The first part of the empirical study is to assess the level of imageability of urban space users by completing 100 cognitive maps and producing a composite cognitive map that indicates the structural landmarks’ salience or the level of imageability. The second part is the level of legibility of the landmarks by employing the visibility assessment process and the third part compares the two results with a concurrence matrix. The findings highlight that there is a positive relationship between people’s perception (imageability) and level of visibility (legibility). Further, imageability mostly depends on semantic properties than legibility, but legibility predominantly depends on structural properties and visual properties are almost equally important to both concepts.
... The e-BSS is an extension of the public transportation system that efficiently connects people from the public transit network to their final destination. Landmarks are, therefore, of great importance and need to be defined based on the literature review (Table A1, Urban-related criteria) and urban mobility experts based on a detailed analysis of the urban plan and migration flows classified as geological and meteorological, biological, or human-made [19]. ...
Article
Full-text available
An e-bike sharing system (e-BSS) solves many of the shortcomings of BSS but requires high financial investments compared to BSS. This article proposes a sustainable and targeted extension of the existing BSS with e-bikes and charging piles. The existing BSS in the selected city area is divided into sub-areas using the Voronoi diagram and reference points (landmarks). Then, the integrated approach of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is used to assess the adequacy of the existing bike-sharing stations for updating with e-bikes and charging piles. The joint approach allows decision-makers to look at the whole process and highlight the link between the criteria assessment and user preferences in the context of the chosen reference point. This can encourage future users to use e-BSSs. Based on a thorough literature review, the defined system of criteria takes into account all dimensions of sustainability: the requirements of most stakeholders and the structural features and needs of e-BSS. Finally, the super-efficiency DEA is used to classify the suitable candidates for bike-sharing so that only the most suitable stations are updated. The test of the proposed algorithm in Ljubljana city centre confirms several suitable options for updating the BSS, depending on the reference point.
... In other words, a landmark is a characteristic of a city or region that can be used as the identity of that place. (Richter et al., 2014) (Sudarman, 2010). Landmark is an important element in producing an organized city space, helping to shape the city to be more qualified and identified that will affect the quality of life of its people (Kalin and Yilmaz, 2012) (Böcekli, 2003). ...
Article
Full-text available
The development of a city cannot be separated from how its people view a city. People who understand how the culture of the city will give a strong identity and character to the city. Over time, there are differences in how people perceive elements of the city, one of which is the catuspatha. Catuspatha is no longer interpreted as empty space but began to get additional functions as aesthetic and elemental elements of city landmarks (landmarks). There are several meanings arising from the physical aspects and socio-cultural aspects of a catuspatha as a landmark of the City of Semarapura. This research focuses on Catuspatha Semarapura City in terms of physical and socio-cultural aspects. The data search was carried out by means of litelature studies, field observations and interviews with people who were active in and around Semarapura City. By using a qualitative descriptive method, this research results that the Semarapura catuspatha in terms of physical size has different criteria with its environment so that it is physically prominent, unique, easy to remember, easily recognizable, has historical and aesthetic value. From the socio-cultural aspects of the area around the Semarapura catuspatha also functions as a node, in which at this location a variety of activities are held mainly related to social and cultural activities such as Tawur Kesanga, Ngulapin, Nebusin, Ngelawang, and other activities including Ogoh-ogoh parade activities, various festivals and folk parties and also cultural marches.
Article
Full-text available
This paper presents the findings from a survey conducted in Norway to study the process of recovering from temporary disorientation in outdoor environments. The survey, with 693 respondents, investigated how individuals navigate and regain their bearings after getting disoriented for a short period of time. By collecting data on duration of disorientation and descriptions of participants' recovery experiences, we conducted both qualitative and quantitative analyses to establish a typology of spatial problem-solving [Downs, R. M. and Stea, D. (1977). Maps in Minds: Reflections on Cognitive Mapping. New York: Harper & Row, p. 55] approaches employed in wayfinding after becoming temporarily lost in outdoor settings. The research systematically explores the use of materials and approaches described by respondents when re-establishing their bearings. The existing research literature lacks comprehensive reporting on people's strategies for solving the problem of being disoriented in the outdoors, which motivated us to conduct this study. The resulting typology gives an overview of approaches employed to solve the problem of being lost in the outdoors and contribute additional details and insights to the understanding of individuals' wayfinding behaviours and reorientation processes.
Article
Full-text available
Car drivers can benefit from schematized maps because they require a different level and type of information from different areas of the map. The technical challenge of creating such maps is that a schematic car route map should be optimized for the individual route, and yet simultaneously present the surrounding street network to support orientation. Existing schematization algorithms focus either on routes (without including the surrounding street network) or on the street network (without optimizing the route schematic layout). This paper addresses this lack of methods in schematization research and proposes an algorithm that is able to schematize both the route and the surrounding street network while resolving their conflicting layout criteria. We follow a two-step approach: we optimize the route layout criteria and afterward add the surrounding street network adapting it to the schematic route distortions. Our schematic ‘route + network’ maps aim to satisfy three requirements: (i) better readability of the route with respect to its decision points, (ii) preserving the qualitative characteristics of the surrounding street network while adapting it to route distortions, (iii) better visibility of alternative routes within the street network. A user study with six example maps validates our layout.
Article
Full-text available
Islamic architecture has been characterized by timelessness and eternity, due to the property of flexibility and the possibility of physical formation in different methods, while preserving its sanctity and this is represented by engineering and the orientation towards the kiblah clearly and explicitly. The research proposed the coordinated response process, which is a biological process, that the organism shows when exposed to external influences to maintain a balance that guarantees it to continue life in two ways: The first is that the cell changes its shape while preserving its function, or changes its functional effectiveness by upgrading or weakening in its efficiency, but it maintains Its form, and each of them was discussed in Islamic architecture, by defining the research problem "The lack of knowledge about the patterns of coordinated response adopted by Islamic architecture, which made it a continuous architecture with its characteristics and identity across time and space" and building a conceptual framework about the role of the concept in Islamic architecture, where two groups of architecture products were identified, a group It was represented by the selection of Islamic buildings with a historical dimension that have preserved their shapes over time while updating their functions, and other contemporary buildings in various shapes, but appear with one function, which is the religious function, for the purpose of investigating the patterns of coordinated response in them. The conclusion, Islamic architecture is based on multiple levels of a coordinated response with balance and moderation, which appear at levels of relativity, as it appears strong on one level and medium on another level. This makes it possesses permanence, both formally and intellectually.
Article
Full-text available
Islamic architecture has been characterized by timelessness and eternity, due to the property of flexibility and the possibility of physical formation in different methods, while preserving its sanctity and this is represented by engineering and the orientation towards the kiblah clearly and explicitly. The research proposed the coordinated response process, which is a biological process, that the organism shows when exposed to external influences to maintain a balance that guarantees it to continue life in two ways: The first is that the cell changes its shape while preserving its function, or changes its functional effectiveness by upgrading or weakening in its efficiency, but it maintains Its form, and each of them was discussed in Islamic architecture, by defining the research problem “the lack of knowledge about the patterns of coordinated response that the product of Islamic architecture adopts for the purpose of perpetuating it and maintaining its presence” and building a conceptual framework about the role of the concept in Islamic architecture, where two groups of architecture products were identified, a group It was represented by the selection of Islamic buildings with a historical dimension that have preserved their shapes over time while updating their functions, and other contemporary buildings in various shapes, but appear with one function, which is the religious function, for the purpose of investigating the patterns of coordinated response in them. The conclusion, Islamic architecture is based on multiple levels of a coordinated response with balance and moderation, which appear at levels of relativity, as it appears strong on one level and medium on another level. this makes it possesses permanence, both formally and intellectually
Article
Full-text available
Archaeological landscapes are crucial to understanding the evolution, form and meaning of cultural landscape. This paper presents a complex analysis of the archaeological landscape and its temporal and spatial changes, with particular reference to the last 200 years, using the example of a megalithic landscape with barrows in Wietrzychowice (Poland). The aim of the research was to determine the changes in the structure and function of the landscape and to identify the processes that caused these changes. A complex Model of Archaeological Landscape Analysis (MALA) was proposed which presents the current archaeological landscape and its historical changes both graphically and descriptively. The literature was studied and cartographic research was conducted, and this was supplemented by field visits. The results allowed us to distinguish 6 stages of the life-history of the analysed landscape. The megalithic landscape of Wietrzychowice represents a genetically heterogeneous, homotonous in terms of land cover, reversed (chronologically younger landscape replaced by a chronologically older landscape) stratigraphic type. The most persistent landscape type is the forest. The main processes occurring there were erosion, deforestation, afforestation, barrow construction, excavation and reconstruction. The functions changed from ecological to touristic. The visual role of the barrows as the dominant features of the landscape has varied. This method can be used in landscape protection and planning and in landscape education.
Article
Pedestrian navigation systems often use the relative semantics of pedestrians and their environments to provide navigation guidance. Relative semantics include spatial semantics and visual semantics. However, most navigation data models are based on absolute reference frame and do not support the organization of relative semantics. To address this deficiency, we propose a pedestrian navigation data model based on relative semantic images that organizes the relative semantics of landmarks and environments directly in the image channels. Using geographic data for a university campus, we compared the data file size, data access time, and memory usage to confirm that the proposed approach outperforms the geodatabase approach in storing and accessing the relative semantic data. Two examples, self-localization and route guidance, demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed data model. This model can support fast pedestrian navigation on mobile devices in small- and medium-sized areas.
Article
Full-text available
Investigated the hypothesis that cognitive representations of large-scale space contain elements that may be termed reference points and that these points are used to define the position of adjacent places. The nature and function of reference points was explored in 5 experiments with 248 university students. Exps I and II consisted of tasks during which Ss judged the distance between known locations. The subjective distance between reference points and nonreference points was found to be asymmetrical, with the latter ordered in relation to the former. Exps III and IV employed reaction time tasks in which Ss attempted to verify the distance or direction from an anchor location to target location. The data indicate that the relative referentiality of anchor and target locations influences verification time. The results of Exps I–IV suggest that reference points occur in spatial cognition and that these points provide an organizational structure that facilitates the location of adjacent points in space. Exp V consisted of a multiple regression analysis designed to clarify the semantic attributes of spatial reference points. (22 ref)
Article
Full-text available
Alan Turing would be 100 years old this year. In 1950 he wrote a seminal paper in which he proposed an operational definition of machine intelligence designed to sidestep the philosophical quagmire of what it means to think.19 Turing proposed pitting a computer against a human in an imitation game. The computer and human are placed in separate rooms and connected by teletype to an external interrogator who can ask any imaginable question of either entity. The computer tries to fool the interrogator into believing it is the human; the human tries to convince the interrogator he or she is the human. If the interrogator cannot distinguish the computer from the person, the computer is judged to be intelligent. This simple test has come to be called the Turing Test.
Article
Full-text available
Categorizations which humans make of the concrete world are not arbitrary but highly determined. In taxonomies of concrete objects, there is one level of abstraction at which the most basic category cuts are made. Basic categories are those which carry the most information, possess the highest category cue validity, and are, thus, the most differentiated from one another. The four experiments of Part I define basic objects by demonstrating that in taxonomies of common concrete nouns in English based on class inclusion, basic objects are the most inclusive categories whose members: (a) possess significant numbers of attributes in common, (b) have motor programs which are similar to one another, (c) have similar shapes, and (d) can be identified from averaged shapes of members of the class. The eight experiments of Part II explore implications of the structure of categories. Basic objects are shown to be the most inclusive categories for which a concrete image of the category as a whole can be formed, to be the first categorizations made during perception of the environment, to be the earliest categories sorted and earliest named by children, and to be the categories most codable, most coded, and most necessary in language.
Article
Full-text available
Humans and animals make inferences about the world under limited time and knowledge. In con- trast, many models of rational inference treat the mind as a Laplacean Demon, equipped with un- limited time, knowledge, and computational might. Following H. Simon's notion of satisficing, the authors have proposed a family of algorithms based on a simple psychological mechanism: one- reason decision making. These fast and frugal algorithms violate fundamental tenets of classical rationality: They neither look up nor integrate all information. By computer simulation, the authors held a competition between the satisficing "Take The Best" algorithm and various "rational" infer- ence procedures (e.g., multiple regression). The Take The Best algorithm matched or outperformed all competitors in inferential speed and accuracy. This result is an existence proof that cognitive mechanisms capable of successful performance in the real world do not need to satisfy the classical norms of rational inference.
Article
Full-text available
The formal specification of spatial objects and spatial relations is at the core of geographic data exchange and interoperability for geographic information systems (GIS). It is necessary that the representation of such objects and relations comes close to how people use them in their everyday lives, i.e., that these specifications are built upon elements of human spatial cognition. Image schemata have been suggested as highly abstract and structured mental patterns to capture spatial and similar physical as well as metaphorical relations between objects in the experiential world. We assume that image-schematic details for large-scale (geographic) space are potentially different from image-schematic details for small-scale (table-top) space. This paper reviews methods for the formal description of spatial relations, integrates them in a categorical view, and applies the methods arrived at to formally specify image schemata for large-scale (LOCATION, PATH, REGION, and BOUNDARY) as well as small-scale (CONTAINER, SURFACE, and LINK) space. These specifications should provide a foundation for further research on formalizing elements of human spatial cognition for interoperability in GIS.
Article
Full-text available
This paper addresses a data structure specification for route directions that incorporates essential aspects of cognitive information processing. Specifically, we characterize levels of granularity in route directions as the result of the hierarchical organization of urban spatial knowledge. We discuss changes of granularity in route directions that result from combining elementary route information into higher-order elements (so called spatial chunking). We provide a framework that captures the pertinent aspects of spatial chunking. The framework is based on established principles used—from a cognitive perspective—for changing the granularity in route directions. The data structure we specify based on this framework allows us to bridge the gap between results from behavioral cognitive science studies and requirements of information systems. We discuss the theoretical underpinning of the core elements of the data structure and provide examples for its application.
Article
Full-text available
We investigated how objects come to serve as landmarks in spatial memory, and more specifically how they form part of an allocentric cognitive map. Participants performing a virtual driving task incidentally learned the layout of a virtual town and locations of objects in that town. They were subsequently tested on their spatial and recognition memory for the objects. To assess whether the objects were encoded allocentrically we examined pointing consistency across tested viewpoints. In three experiments, we found that spatial memory for objects at navigationally relevant locations was more consistent across tested viewpoints, particularly when participants had more limited experience of the environment. When participants' attention was focused on the appearance of objects, the navigational relevance effect was eliminated, whereas when their attention was focused on objects' locations, this effect was enhanced, supporting the hypothesis that when objects are processed in the service of navigation, rather than merely being viewed as objects, they engage qualitatively distinct attentional systems and are incorporated into an allocentric spatial representation. The results are consistent with evidence from the neuroimaging literature that when objects are relevant to navigation, they not only engage the ventral "object processing stream", but also the dorsal stream and medial temporal lobe memory system classically associated with allocentric spatial memory.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
We apply the notion of conceptual integration from cognitive science to model the semantics of geographic categories. The paper shows the basic ideas, using the classical integration example of houseboats and boathouses. It extends the notion with image-schematic and affordance-based structure. A formalization in the functional language Haskell tests this approach and demonstrates how it generalizes to a powerful paradigm for building ontologies.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Landmarks are significant in one's formation of a cognitive map of both physical environments and electronic information spaces. Landmarks are defined in physical space as having key characteristics that make them recognizable and memorable in the environment. The challenge of defining measurable features of landmarks that can be used in designing and recognizing landmarks in information spaces is explored. By drawing on diverse areas such as urban planning, architecture, cognitive science and hypertext, a coherent definition of a landmark is proposed, which is relevant to both physical and electronic spaces. It is argued that landmarks can be classified in terms of visual, cognitive and structural dimensions, which has implications for how environments can be designed or built in such a way that landmarks will emerge appropriately for unique situations.
Article
Full-text available
Questions the metric and dimensional assumptions that underlie the geometric representation of similarity on both theoretical and empirical grounds. A new set-theoretical approach to similarity is developed in which objects are represented as collections of features and similarity is described as a feature-matching process. Specifically, a set of qualitative assumptions is shown to imply the contrast model, which expresses the similarity between objects as a linear combination of the measures of their common and distinctive features. Several predictions of the contrast model are tested in studies of similarity with both semantic and perceptual stimuli. The model is used to uncover, analyze, and explain a variety of empirical phenomena such as the role of common and distinctive features, the relations between judgments of similarity and difference, the presence of asymmetric similarities, and the effects of context on judgments of similarity. The contrast model generalizes standard representations of similarity data in terms of clusters and trees. It is also used to analyze the relations of prototypicality and family resemblance. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Book
An argument against the role of visual imagination in reasoning that proposes a spatial theory of human thought, supported by empirical and computational evidence. Many scholars believe that visual mental imagery plays a key role in reasoning. In Space to Reason, Markus Knauff argues against this view, proposing that visual images are not relevant for reasoning and can even impede the process. He also argues against the claim that human thinking is solely based on abstract symbols and is completely embedded in language. Knauff proposes a third way to think about human reasoning that relies on supramodal spatial layout models, which are more abstract than pictorial images and more concrete than linguistic representations. He argues that these spatial layout models are at the heart of human thought, even thought about nonspatial relations in the world. For Knauff the visual images that we so often associate with reasoning are only in the foreground of conscious experience. Behind the images, the actual logical work is carried out by reasoning-specific operations on these spatial layout models. Knauff also offers a solution to the problem of indeterminacy in human reasoning, introducing the notion of a preferred layout model, which is one layout model among others that has the best chance of being mentally constructed and thus guides the further process of thought. Knauff's "space to reason" theory covers the functional, the algorithmic, and the implementational level of analysis and is corroborated by psychological experiments, functional brain imaging, and computational modeling.
Book
The now-classic Metaphors We Live By changed our understanding of metaphor and its role in language and the mind. Metaphor, the authors explain, is a fundamental mechanism of mind, one that allows us to use what we know about our physical and social experience to provide understanding of countless other subjects. Because such metaphors structure our most basic understandings of our experience, they are "metaphors we live by"--metaphors that can shape our perceptions and actions without our ever noticing them. In this updated edition of Lakoff and Johnson's influential book, the authors supply an afterword surveying how their theory of metaphor has developed within the cognitive sciences to become central to the contemporary understanding of how we think and how we express our thoughts in language.
Article
Place is an elusive notion in geographic information science. This paper presents an approach to capture the notion of place by contrast. This approach is developed from cognitive concepts and the language that is used to describe places. It is complementary to those of coordinate-based systems that dominate contemporary geographic information systems. Accordingly, the approach is aimed at explaining structures in verbal place descriptions and at localizing objects without committing to geometrically specified positions in space. We will demonstrate how locations can be identified by place names that are not crisply defined in terms of geometric regions. Capturing the human cognitive notion of place is considered crucial for smooth communication between human users and computer-based geographic assistance systems.
Article
Article
Place is an elusive notion in geographic information science. This paper presents an approach to capture the notion of place by contrast. This approach is developed from cognitive concepts and the language that is used to describe places. It is complementary to those of coordinate-based systems that dominate contemporary geographic information systems. Accordingly, the approach is aimed at explaining structures in verbal place descriptions and at localizing objects without committing to geometrically specified positions in space. We will demonstrate how locations can be identified by place names that are not crisply defined in terms of geometric regions. Capturing the human cognitive notion of place is considered crucial for smooth communication between human users and computer-based geographic assistance systems.
Book
Within cognitive science, two approaches currently dominate the problem of modeling representations. The symbolic approach views cognition as computation involving symbolic manipulation. Connectionism, a special case of associationism, models associations using artificial neuron networks. Peter Gärdenfors offers his theory of conceptual representations as a bridge between the symbolic and connectionist approaches. Symbolic representation is particularly weak at modeling concept learning, which is paramount for understanding many cognitive phenomena. Concept learning is closely tied to the notion of similarity, which is also poorly served by the symbolic approach. Gärdenfors's theory of conceptual spaces presents a framework for representing information on the conceptual level. A conceptual space is built up from geometrical structures based on a number of quality dimensions. The main applications of the theory are on the constructive side of cognitive science: as a constructive model the theory can be applied to the development of artificial systems capable of solving cognitive tasks. Gärdenfors also shows how conceptual spaces can serve as an explanatory framework for a number of empirical theories, in particular those concerning concept formation, induction, and semantics. His aim is to present a coherent research program that can be used as a basis for more detailed investigations. Bradford Books imprint
Article
Route directions to reach a target point on a campus were collected from undergraduates. A "good" description and a "poor" one were selected, based on ratings provided by judges in terms of their value for navigational assistance. People unfamiliar with the campus were then required to navigate to the target after studying one of these descriptions. In addition, a "skeletal" description, which contained the essentials needed for navigating, was constructed and used in the experiment. During navigation, we measured the frequencies of stops and of directional errors (whether these errors were self-corrected or corrected by the experimenter). Overall, the good and the skeletal descriptions resulted in better performance than the poor one. Their value as navigational aids was confirmed by measuring the navigation times. Analyzing the structure and content of the descriptions confirmed that the effectiveness of route directions depends on their ability to connect actions to landmarks, that is, to closely link the prescriptive and the descriptive parts of this specific type of spatial discourse.
Article
Discusses the role of landmarks as points of reference in the psychological development of spatial orientation (finding a way, updating, and route following) and the representation of spatial knowledge. Different definitions of the construct of landmark are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The well-known distinction between field-based and object-based ap-proaches to spatial information is generalised to arbitrary locational frame-works, including in particular space, time and space-time. We systematically explore the different ways in which these approaches can be combined, and address the relative merits of a fully four-dimensional approach as against a more conventional 'three-plus-one'-dimensional approach. We single out as especially interesting in this respect a class of phenomena, here called multi-aspect phenomena, which seem to present different aspects when considered from different points of view. Such phenomena (e.g., floods, wildfires, pro-cessions) are proposed as the most natural candidates for treatment as fully four-dimensional entities ('hyperobjects'), but it remains problematic how to model them so as to do justice to their multi-aspectual nature. The paper ends with a range of important researchable questions aimed at clearing up some of the difficulties raised.
Chapter
The past four decades have witnessed a rapid and accelerating growth in the use of computers to handle geographic information. As machines, computers require that inputs be formalized, following well-defined rules and using shared definitions of terms. This requirement has created a fundamental tension with the informal world of human discourse, and nowhere is this more apparent than over the vague concept of place. The chapter explores this tension from various perspectives: current methods of geographic representation in digital form, inherent ambiguities, the case of the gazetteer, the role of volunteered geographic information, and place as an expression of context. Examples are used to illustrate the basic principles.
Article
We consider a graph with n vertices, all pairs of which are connected by an edge; each edge is of given positive length. The following two basic problems are solved. Problem 1: construct the tree of minimal total length between the n vertices. (A tree is a graph with one and only one path between any two vertices.) Problem 2: find the path of minimal total length between two given vertices.
Chapter
I propose to consider the question, “Can machines think?”♣ This should begin with definitions of the meaning of the terms “machine” and “think”. The definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words, but this attitude is dangerous. If the meaning of the words “machine” and “think” are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to the question, “Can machines think?” is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup poll.
Article
The anchor-point hypothesis of spatial cognition, according to which primary nodes or reference points anchor distinct regions in cognitive space, brings together certain frequently reported apparent properties of mental maps: the regionalization and hierarchical organization of cognitive space, and the active role of salient cues in structuring spatial cognition. After a brief overview of the state of the art in cognitive mapping research, the anchor-point hypothesis is first explored conceptually, and then one particular version of it, the ‘tectonic plates’ hypothesis, is made operational. For that second part of the study, cognitive configurations derived from five subjects selected from a larger sample taken in Goleta, California are analyzed using three different methods, and features transcending any method-specific biases are identified. Although not entirely unambiguous, these first results seem encouraging and warrant further research in this direction.
Article
The hypothesis of the study was that the domains of color and form are structured into nonarbitrary, semantic categories which develop around perceptually salient “natural prototypes.” Categories which reflected such an organization (where the presumed natural prototypes were central tendencies of the categories) and categories which violated the organization (natural prototypes peripheral) were taught to a total of 162 members of a Stone Age culture which did not initially have hue or geometric-form concepts. In both domains, the presumed “natural” categories were consistently easier to learn than the “distorted” categories. Even when not central, natural prototype stimuli tended to be more rapidly learned and more often chosen as the most typical example of the category than were other stimuli. Implications for general differences between natural categories and the artificial categories of concept formation research were discussed.
Conference Paper
The importance of scale to the psychology of space (perception, thinking, memory, behavior) is discussed. It is maintained that scale has an important influence on how humans treat spatial information and that several qualitatively distinct scale classes of space exist. Past systems of classification are reviewed and some novel terms and distinctions are introduced. Empirical evidence for the need to distinguish between spatial scales is presented. Some implications of these scale distinctions are briefly considered and research needs identified.
Article
Context is a poorly used source of information in our computing environments. As a result, we have an impoverished understanding of what context is and how it can be used. In this paper, we provide an operational definition of context and discuss the different ways in which context can be used by context-aware applications. We also present the Context Toolkit, an architecture that supports the building of these context-aware applications. We discuss the features and abstractions in the toolkit that make the task of building applications easier. Finally, we introduce a new abstraction, a situation which we believe will provide additional support to application designers.
Chapter
In an effort to further investigation into critical development facets of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), this book explores the reasoning processes that apply to geographic space and time. As a result of an iniative sponsored by the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA), it treats the computational, cognitive and social science applications aspects of spatial and temporal reasoning in GIS. Essays were contributed by scholars from a broad spectrum of disciplines including: geography, cartography, surveying and engineering, computer science, mathematics and environmental and cognitive psychology.
Article
Because meaningful sentences are composed of meaningful words, any system that hopes to process natural languages as people do must have information about words and their meanings. This information is traditionally provided through dictionaries, and machine-readable dictionaries are now widely available. But dictionary entries evolved for the convenience of human readers, not for machines. WordNet ¹ provides a more effective combination of traditional lexicographic information and modern computing. WordNet is an online lexical database designed for use under program control. English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are organized into sets of synonyms, each representing a lexicalized concept. Semantic relations link the synonym sets [4].
Article
Physical space has unique properties which form the basis of fundamental capabilities of cognitive systems. This paper explores some cognitive aspects of perception and knowledge representation and explains why spatial knowledge is of particular interest for cognitive science. It is suggested that Ôspatial inference enginesÕ provide the basis for rather general cognitive capabilities inside and outside the spatial domain. The role of abstraction in spatial reasoning and the advantages of qualitative spatial knowledge over quantitative knowledge are discussed. The usefulness of spatial representations with a low degree of abstraction is shown. An example from vision (the aquarium domain) is used to illustrate in which ways knowledge about space may be uncertain or incomplete. Parallels are drawn between the spatial and the temporal domains. A concrete approach for the representation of qualitative spatial knowledge on the basis of Ôconceptual neighborhoodÕ is suggested and some potential application areas are mentioned.