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Methods and Related Work
Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of related research and outlines the methods applied in the present study. The study is analysing three real case biomass supply chains with an in-depth assessment of individual variables underlying actual market actions. Because of increasing biomass resources and recent dominance over pellet imports into the European market, the considered origin countries are Western Canada, Western Australia, and Northwest Russia. Studied supply phases include the raw material production and delivery, pellet production, transport to Europe, as well as delivery and conversion in a coal based co-firing power plant in the EU. The specific supply costs from origin country to the EU are derived from current market and country related data. For evaluating the pellets production and end-conversion in power plants, a full cost account is applied. For most vulnerable, market-related cost items the imputed risk is evaluated as effect of underlying price changes in a 3- to 10-year period. Corresponding de-risk strategies are concluded from expert interviews.
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To supply biomass from production areas to energy importing regions, long-distance international transport is necessary, implying additional logistics, costs, energy consumption and material losses compared to local utilisation. A broad variety of bioenergy chains can be envisioned, comprising different biomass feedstock production systems, pre-treatment and conversion operations, and transport of raw and refined solid biomass and liquid bio-derived fuels. A tool was developed to consistently compare the possible bioenergy supply chains and assess the influence of key parameters, such as distance, timing and scale on performance. Chains of European and Latin American bioenergy carriers delivered to Western Europe were analysed using generic data. European biomass residues and crops can be delivered at 90 and 70 €/tonnedry (4.7 and 3.7 €/GJHHV) when shipped as pellets. South American crops are produced against much lower costs. Despite the long shipping distance, the costs in the receiving harbour can be as low as 40 €/tonnedry or 2.1 €/GJHHV; the crop's costs account for 25–40% of the delivered costs. The relatively expensive truck transport from production site to gathering point restricts the size of the production area; therefore, a high biomass yield per hectare is vital to enable large-scale systems. In all, 300 MWHHV Latin American biomass in biomass integrated gasification/combined cycle plants may result in cost of electricity as little as 3.5 €cent/kWh, competitive with fossil electricity. Methanol produced in Latin America and delivered to Europe may cost 8–10 €/GJHHV, when the pellets to methanol conversion is done in Europe the delivered methanol costs are higher. The energy requirement to deliver solid biomass from both crops and residues from the different production countries is 1.2–1.3 MJprimary/MJdelivered (coal ∼1.1 MJ/MJ). International bioenergy trade is possible against low costs and modest energy loss.
The wood pellet market is booming in Europe. The EU 2020 policy targets for renewable energy sources and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction are among the main drivers. The aim of this analysis is to map current European national wood pellet demand and supplies, to provide a comprehensive overview of major market types and prices, and to discuss the future outlook in light of raw material supply. Approximately 650 pellet plants produced more than 10 million tonnes of pellets in 2009 in Europe. Total European consumption was about 9.8 million tonnes, of which some 9.2 million tonnes is within the EU‐27, representing a modest 0.2% of Gross Energy Consumption (75 EJ level in 2008). The prices of most pellet types are increasing. While most markets of non‐industrial pellets are largely self‐sufficient, industrial pellet markets depend on the import of wood pellets from outside the EU‐27. Industrial pellet markets are relatively mature, compared to non‐industrial ones, because of their advanced storage facilities and long‐term price‐setting. However, industrial pellet markets are unstable, depending mainly on the establishment or the abolishment of public support schemes.
Following our scenarios, additional 2020 demand for woody biomass varies from 105 million tonnes, based on market forecasts for pellets in the energy sector and a reference growth of the forest sector, to 305 million tonnes, based on maximum demand in energy and transport sectors and a rapid growth of the forest sector. Additional supply of woody biomass may vary from 45 million tonnes from increased harvest levels to 400 million tonnes after the recovery of slash via altered forest management, the recovery of waste wood via recycling, and the establishment of woody energy plantations in the future. Any short‐term shortages within the EU‐27 may be bridged via imports from nearby regions such as north west Russia or overseas. © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
The European wood pellet market is booming: concerns about climate change and renewable energy targets are predominant drivers. The aim of this analysis is to compare typical wood pellet chains from the purchase of the feedstock from sawmills to the conversion into heat or electricity. Cost structures, primary energy inputs and avoided greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are reviewed. Three cases are defined: pellets for district heating (DH) in Sweden (replacing heavy fuel oil); bagged pellets for residential heating in Italy (natural gas); and Canadian pellets for electricity production in the Netherlands (coal). Supply may cost €110–€170 per tonne of delivered pellets, with the main cost factors being feedstock collection, drying and long-distance ocean transportation (for Canadian pellets only). Largest avoided emissions are for power production (1937 kg CO2eq/tonne of pellets), followed by district heating (1483 kg). In relative terms, the GHG reduction varies from 81% for residential heating (with pre-dried feedstock) to 97% for DH. Based on a wood-pellet consumption of 8.2 million tonnes, the EU27 plus Norway and Switzerland avoided about 12.6 million tonnes of CO2 emissions in 2008. Concluding, wood pellets can achieve substantial GHG savings, especially when substituting coal for power production. However, wood pellets are relatively expensive, especially compared to coal. Only in the case of high oil prices, can the substitution of heating oil for DH be commercially viable. In most other cases, substitution is only possible with financial support from national governments, for example, feed-in tariffs or carbon taxes. The commercial markets for CO2 emission rights may cover some costs, but their impact is still limited.
Dieses Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch bietet eine umfassende Darstellung der Kostenrechnung von Industrie- und Handelsunternehmen. In systematischer Reihenfolge wird der Leser durch die Bereiche des internen Rechnungswesens geführt: Kostenrechnung auf Vollkostenbasis, gegliedert in die Kostenartenrechnung, Kostenstellenrechnung und Kostenträgerrechnung, Kostenrechnung auf Teilkostenbasis und Plankostenrechnung.
Die didaktisch geschickt aufbereiteten Inhalte werden von einer Vielzahl von Beispielen begleitet. Dadurch ist das Buch nicht nur für Studierende an Fachhochschulen, Universitäten, Wirtschafts- bzw. Berufsakademien und Institutionen der Erwachsenenbildung, sondern auch zum Selbststudium geeignet.
Am Ende eines jeden Kapitels stehende Übungsaufgaben mit Lösungshinweisen, die den gesamten Stoff abdecken, helfen dem Leser, das erworbene Wissen anzuwenden und zu vertiefen.
The EUBIONET III project has boosted (i) sustainable, transparent international biomass fuel trade, (ii) investments in best practice technologies and (iii) new services on biomass heat sector. Furthermore, it identified cost-efficient and value-adding use of biomass for energy and industry. The aims of this article are to provide a synthesis of the key results of this project. Estimated annual solid biomass potential in the EU-27 is almost 6600 PJ (157 Mtoe), of which 48% is currently utilised. The greatest potential for increased use lies in forest residues and herbaceous biomass. Trade barriers have been evaluated and some solutions suggested such as CN codes for wood pellets and price indexes for industrial wood pellets and wood chips. The analysis of wood pellet and wood chip prices revealed large difference amongst EU countries, but also that on the short term prices of woody and fossil fuels are barely correlated. Sustainable production and use of solid biomass are also deemed important by most European stakeholders, and many support the introduction of harmonised sustainability criteria, albeit under a number of preconditions. The study identified also that a number of woody and agro-industrial residue streams remain un- or underutilised. The estimated European total potential of agro-industrial sources is more than 250 PJ (7.2 Mtoe), the amount of unutilised woody biomass (the annual increment of growing stock) even amounts to 3150 PJ (75 Mtoe). Finally 35 case studies of biomass heating substituting fossil fuels were carried out, showing that the potential to reduce GHG emissions ranges between 90 and 98%, while costs are very similar to fossil fuel heating systems. Overall, we conclude that solid biomass is growing strongly, and is likely to heavily contribute to the EU renewable energy targets in the coming decade.
A decision support system for forest biomass exploitation for energy production purposes is presented. In the proposed approach, geographic information system based techniques are integrated with mathematical programming methods to yield a comprehensive system that allows the formalisation of the problem, decision taking, and evaluation of effects. The aim of this work is to assess the possibility of biomass exploitation for both thermal and electric energy production in a given area, while relating this use to an efficient and sustainable management of the forests within the same territory. The decision support system allows for the locating of plants and the computing of their optimal sizing (defining which kind of energy is convenient to produce for the specific area), taking into account several aspects (economic, technical, regulatory, and social) and deciding how to plan biomass collection and harvesting. A case study applied to a small Italian mountain area is presented.
There is a continuous growth of the global energy consumption and the use of fossil fuels counts for numerous environmental problems, such greenhouse gases emissions (GHG). The development of cleaner and renewable energy sources from biomass feedstock could be seen as a solution. In the European Union, 22.1 % of electricity consumption should be originated from renewable sources in 2010. The biomass amounts in approaching the indicative target is expected to be considerable and will put pressure on the biomass resources in the EU. As a result, some countries may become net suppliers of biomass for energy production to other countries that are net importers. The main forest region of Argentina is situated in the northeast of the country and represents 70% of the total forest plantations. The study was carried out in the province of Corrientes, where large quantities of residues from mechanical wood processing industries are still unused and burnt under open sky or deposited on landfills. For long distance transport, biomass fuels with a higher energy density are highly preferable, as it makes long distance transport more efficient. Wood pellets are a clean renewable fuel, mostly produced from highly compressed sawdust or planer shavings. Argentina may become a major exporter of wood pellets. However, an economical and sustainability analysis of possible wood pellets supply chain should be assessed. Therefore, the general aim of this study was to assess simultaneously the economic feasibility and environmental sustainability of producing wood pellets in northeast Argentina aiming to be exported to Europe. This study has three main components: an economic assessment; an environmental impact assessment; and energy input and greenhouse gases emissions of different energy systems. The economic assessment determined the total costs and financial analysis of the international wood pellets supply chain, using an ExcelTM spreadsheet model. The province of Corrientes, showed a significant surplus of sawmill residues available for wood pellets production. Total specific costs (92.7 /MTpellets) and logistics and raw material represented the main cost factors (59 and 13% of the total costs, respectively). The financial analysis performed for the entire wood pellets supply chain showed positive results with a NPV of 11,172,941 and an IRR of 66%. At a first glance, it could be interpreted that the supply of wood pellets from northeast Argentina to the Netherlands is economic viable. The environmental impact of the entire wood pellet supply chain was conducted using the streamlined life cycle assessment (SLCA). The results showed that the production of wood pellets in northeast Argentina and further shipping to the Netherlands have a positive energy balance as only 35% of the embodied energy content of wood pellets is used in the entire supply chain. The analysis showed high energy inputs and GHG emissions associated with the production and transportation of wood pellets. The energy input and GHG emissions of wood fuel based energy systems in comparison to replaced fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas, considered the local use in comparison to international trade, of wood pellets. The results showed that international in comparison to local utilization of biomass may have higher reduction potential of GHG emissions. In a holistic scope, taking into account avoided fossil fuels emissions, the utilization of wood pellets as fuel in Argentina is less promising than transporting the biomass to the Netherlands for co-firing, despite of energy use and emissions caused by sea transport over a large distance. Die produktivsten Standorte der argentinischen Plantagenwälder befinden sich im Nordosten des Landes, sie repräsentierten 70 % der gesamten Plantagenfläche. Die Studie wurde in der Provinz Corrientes durchgeführt, wo große Mengen an Sägenebenprodukten wie z.B. Sägemehl aus der Sägeindustrie noch nicht genutzt und unter offenem Himmel verbrannt oder auf Deponien gelagert werden. Für den Langstreckentransport werden Biokraftstoffe mit einer höheren Energiedichte bevorzugt, da sie den Transport effizienter machen. Holzpellets sind ein sauberer erneuerbarer Brennstoff, der überwiegend aus hoch komprimiertem Sägemehl oder Spänen hergestellt wird. Argentinien kann zu einem bedeutenden Exporteur von Holzpellets werden. Jedoch sollte eine ökonomische Nachhaltigkeitsanalyse der möglichen Holzpellets Wertschöpfungskette durchgeführt werden. Aus diesem Grund war das allgemeine Ziel dieser Studie die Bewertung der wirtschaftlichen Durchführbarkeit als auch der Umweltverträglichkeit der Produktion von Holzpellets im Nordosten Argentiniens für den europäischen Markt. Diese Studie hat drei Hauptkomponenten: eine wirtschaftliche Bewertung; eine Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung; sowie ein Vergleich des Energieverbrauchs und der Emissionen von Treibhausgasen von alternativen Energiesystemen. Die wirtschaftliche Beurteilung der Herstellung von Holzpellets im Nordosten Argentiniens und der Lieferung zur Co-Feuerung in den Niederlanden wurde durch eine Modellierung einer virtuellen Holzpellets Wertschöpfungskette in einem Excel Tabellenkalkulations-Modell durchgeführt. Erste vorläufige Berechnungen zur Rohstoffverfügbarkeit für die Holzpelletproduktion wurden auf Grundlage von Umrechnungsfaktoren von Rundholz in Forstprodukte und Nebenprodukte geschätzt, die aus einer Literaturrecherche stammen. Die Provinz Corrientes verfügt über einen erheblichen Überschuss an Sägenebenprodukten für die Holzpelletproduktion. Die spezifischen Gesamtkosten waren 92,7 /MT Pellets frei Kraftwerk in den Niederlanden. Dabei sind die Kosten für Logistik und Rohstoffe die wichtigsten Kostenfaktoren (59 % bzw. 13 % der Gesamtkosten). Die finanzielle Analyse der gesamten Holzpellets Wertschöpfungskette zeigte positive Ergebnisse mit einem Kapitalwert von c.a. 11.172.000 und einem internen Zinsfuß von 66%. Unter den getroffenen Annahmen der Studie scheint eine Lieferung von Holzpellets aus dem Nordosten Argentiniens in die Niederlande wirtschaftlich zu sein. Neben einer detaillierten Analyse zur Bewertung des Potentials einer Region zur Produktion von Holzpellets für den internationalen Handel sollte auch eine Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung der gesamten Holzpellets Wertschöpfungskette durchgeführt werden. Die ökologischen Auswirkungen der gesamten Holzpellets Wertschöpfungskette erfolgten unter Verwendung der Streamline Life Cycle Assessment beispielhaft für die Indikatoren Energiebilanz und THG. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Produktion von Holzpellets in Nordosten Argentiniens und die Lieferung in die Niederlande eine positive Energiebilanz aufweisen, da nur 35% der Energiegehalts von Holzpellets in der gesamten Wertschöpfungskette verbraucht wird. Neben der Pelletherstellung machte die Analyse einen hohen Energieverbrauch und Emissionen von THG deutlich, die mit dem Transport von Holzpellets verbunden sind. Nach aktuellem Stand der Erkenntnisse sollte Biomasse vorzugsweise lokal verwendet werden, um zusätzlichen Energieeinsatz durch Transport zu vermeiden, der zu negativen Energie- und THG- Bilanzen führen kann. Voraussetzung für den internationalen Handel von Biomasse ist, dass die Energie- und THG- Bilanzen positiv sind. Energiebilanzen und Treibhausgasemissionen verschiedener Bioenergiesysteme wurden bewertet. Die alternativen Bioenergiesysteme beziehen sich die lokale, sowie die internationale Verwendung von Holzpellets mit ein. Diese Bioenergiesysteme wurden in Hinblick auf Energiebilanz und THG- Emissionen mit fossilen Energiesystemen verglichen. Für Argentinien war der gesamte Energieverbrauch von Holzpelletkesseln höher als der von Gaskesseln. (1.7 bzw. 1.2 MWh/fu). Ein ähnliches Verhältnis wurde beobachtet für die Stromerzeugung in den Niederlanden bei der Benutzung von Holzpellets als Brennstoff zur Co-Feuerung im Vergleich zu einem 100% Einsatz von Kohle. Andererseits waren die Treibhausgasemissionen der Bioenergiesysteme deutlich geringer im Vergleich zu den fossilen Brennstoffen. Die niedrigsten vermiedenen Emissionen zeigten sich, wenn Holzpellets lokal verwendet wurden (220 kgCO2eq/fu). Eine noch größere Vermeidung von Treibhausgasemissionen konnte bei der Erzeugung von Strom in den Niederlanden mit einer Reduktion von 914 kgCO2eq/fu beobachtet werden, was eine Reduktion von 91% impliziert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass eine internationale Verwendung von Biomasse gegenüber einer lokaler Verwendung ein höheres Potential zur Verringerung von Treibhausgasemissionen haben können.
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