Content uploaded by Hiroki Takakura
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Hiroki Takakura on Dec 27, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate
change among the Sakha people in the middle basin of Lena River
Hiroki Takakura
Tohoku University, Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Sendai, Aobaku, Kawauchi 41, 980-8576, Japan
article info
Article history:
Received 21 October 2015
Received in revised form
29 January 2016
Accepted 7 April 2016
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Limit of adaptation
Permafrost
Lena river
Sakha
Ice-jam flood
abstract
This article focuses on the pastoral practices of the Sakha people in eastern Siberia to explore the impact
of climate change on human livelihood in permafrost regions. Sakha use grassland resources in river
terraces and the alaas thermokarst landscape for cattle-horse husbandry. Although they practice a
different form of subsistence than other indigenous arctic peoples, such as hunter egatherers or rein-
deer herders, the adaptation of Sakha has been relatively resilient in the past 600e800 years. Recent
climate change, however, could change this situation. According to hydrologists, increased precipitation
is now observed in eastern Siberia, which has resulted in the increase of permafrost thawing, causing
forests to die. Moreover, local meteorologists report an increase of flooding in local rivers. How do these
changes affect the local pastoral adaptation? While describing recent uses of grassland resource by local
people, and their perception of climate change through anthropological field research, I investigated the
subtle characteristics of human-environment interactions in pastoral adaptation, in order to identify the
limits of adaptation in the face of climate change.
©2016 Elsevier B.V. and NIPR. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of climate
change on human livelihood in the permafrost region. Arctic an-
thropologists heretofore have used their accumulated knowledge
in discussing culture and climate change by focusing on indigenous
peoples as the main stakeholder, and indeed, rights-holders, of
arctic societies and on the socio-cultural settings of these peoples.
Their primary interests have been the sea-mammal hunters and
their social conditions related to the decrease of sea ice (e.g.,
Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; Laidler and Ikummaq, 2008; Wenzel,
2009) and reindeer herders and their social conditions related to
the change of the tundra environment (e.g., Forbes et al., 2010;
Forbes and Stammler, 2009; Nakada, 2015; Stammler-Gossmann,
2010). The condition of sea-ice has been a notable focus of Arctic
climate observers, both natural scientists and policy makers. While
research trends have reflected anthropological knowledge and
theories regarding arctic adaptation of marine hunters and reindeer
herders in tundra, taiga and (sea) coastal ecologies (Krupnik, 1993),
cultural adaptations to the permafrost ecology has not been the
mainstream of arctic anthropological research: indeed such
research has only appeared quite recently (Crate and Fedorov,
2013). Permafrost and climate change is rather mostly examined
in terms of the oil and gas development due to the thaw affecting
the pipelines and other infrastructure (e,g, Zum Brunnen, 2009).
For the natural sciences, permafrost is a paleothermometer that
can be used to identify fluctuations of air temperature in order to
estimate the extent of climate change. Geographically permafrost
contributes to the formation of unique topography and flora,
because it contains water.
1
This is critical to the cultural issue, since
water is a key substance in interactions of humans with the envi-
ronment. What is the relationship between human cultures and
societies and permafrost?
The word permafrost might symbolize cold and barren land-
scapes, with negative connotation to human existence. However,
anthropologically, permafrost contributes to cultural diversity and
expands human adaptability. One Eurasian arctic people, the Sakha,
historically developed a unique cultural adaptation of cattle-horse
production in the permafrost region of eastern Siberia. The pasto-
ralist Sakha originally migrated from Baikal region with a subsis-
tence culture similar to that of Mongolian and Central Asian
E-mail address: hrk@m.tohoku.ac.jp.
1
See the website of International Permafrost Association. http://ipa.arcticportal.
org/resources/what-is-permafrost (2015/10/15).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Polar Science
journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/polar/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
1873-9652/©2016 Elsevier B.V. and NIPR. All rights reserved.
Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e9
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
nomads. There another indigenous adaptation, that hunting-fishing
and reindeer herding, predominated. The exceptional character of
traditional subsistence provides the unique ethnic identity of the
people and the source of historical development of the political
economy. Today Sakha are geographically distributed across most
parts of eastern Siberia. They number 470,000, which is 10e15
times larger than other indigenous
2
peoples of Siberia. Their ethnic
autonomy within the political system of the Russian Federation is
guaranteed at least nominally through the Sakha Republic (Yaku-
tia). As I will explain, the background to their success lies their
specific adaptation to the hydrological effects of permafrost. The
permafrost contributes to constitution of the local culture and
identity (Crate, 2006; Takakura, 2015). Climate change is now
challenging this historical development. Through the process of
describing this change, I also discuss the possibilities and vulner-
abilities of cultures that have developed in permafrost regions.
First, I briefly introduce the natural history of the local envi-
ronment and culture, and describe the recent effect of climate
change in this region, which is causing an increase of precipitation.
Then, I explore the human-environmental interactions from the
perspective of local knowledge, in order to identify the limits of
pastoral adaptation by the local population.
2. Permafrost and pastoral culture: alaas and Lena River
terraces
The region on which this paper focuses is in the middle basin of
Lena River, a sub-arctic region covered by taiga. Globally, the boreal
forest ecology covers regions of the same latitude. However, the
precipitation of this region is very low compared to that of western
Siberia and the American sub-arctic. To take an example, in
Yakutsk, the capital city of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia), the pre-
cipitation is 236.9 mm per year, which is nearly identical to that of
Ulaanbaatar, and typical of the dry-steppe biome. Generally, the
formation of forest requires precipitation of more than 300 mm per
year, rates experienced in western Siberia and Northern America.
Theoretically, given the low precipitation rate, the middle basin of
Lena River should be covered by grassland. Why does the boreal
forest grow under such conditions? The key is that permafrost
stores water, which makes it possible for a forest to grown on the
land (Fukuda, 1996, 1999; Sakai and Saito, 1974).
Permafrost enables the growth not only of forest, but also of
grasslands around lakes known as alaas, in thermokarst de-
pressions.
3
The countless patchy grasslands with lakes and flood
plains in the forest are a special feature of the middle basin of the
Lena River in central Yakutia (Saito, 1985; Jordan and Jordan-
Bychkov, 2001). Alaas are the product of long-term climate
change, the origin of which could go back to early Holocene. The
larch and the pine tree, the key trees of these ecosystems, has been
dominant since the late glacial period. The alaas formation process
was triggered by global climate amelioration after the late glacial
period. Conditions of high humidity combined with poor drainage
facilitated the development of the bodies of water that cause
thermokarst subsidence (Katamura et al., 2006, 2009; Nelson et al.,
2002; Sakai and Kinoshita, 1974).
The forests, grasslands, lakes and rivers form the cultural land-
scape of Sakha people. In particular, the grasslands are critical for
the formation of horse-cattle pastoralism. Two types of grasslands
are recognized in Central Sakha society. One is the alaas grassland.
Such grasslands are found in seven to eight terrace elevations
varying from 10 to 30 m in height and ranging from 30 to 40 km in
surface width (Saito, 1985:71). Another type of grassland is formed
on the extensive riverbank terraces of the Lena River. Alaas are also
found on riverbanks in relatively higher-moist elevations in the
east (right) side of Lena River, which expands into the inner forest
areas. However, there are few alaas on the drier, lower elevation
riverbank on the west (left) side of the Lena (Saito, 1985:73).
The local people perceive the alaas and terraced riverbanks as
different cultural landscapes. The terraced grassland is associated
with the ethnic origin of Sakha people. The legendary hero-founder
of the people, Ellei, migrated from the south and started his live-
lihood in the river terrace grassland called Tyimaada. The type of
grassland provides the local people with their identity: people
today refer to being of terrace origin (khocho oggoto) or alaas origin
(alaas oggoto). Oggo (to) means child in the Sakha language, and
therefore khocho oggoto literally means “child of the terrace”.
The forest and grassland sustained by permafrost are key ele-
ments in the evolution of Sakha cattle-horse pastoralism in this
region. Historical sources suggest that before moving northward
their pastoral ways were the ways of inner Asian nomads, with five
species of livestock dsheep, goat, cattle, horse and camel (Tokarev
and Gurvich, 1964). After migrating, due to the harsh climate only
horses and cattle could be sustained. Hunting in forests and fishing
in rivers and lakes are also important sources of subsidiary food
procurement for the Sakha people. It is noteworthy that a vast
volume of hay made from grass is used as fodder for livestock
during winter (Takakura, 2015). Sakha people have developed a
semi-sedentary form of pastoralism as their traditional way of life,
living in fixed wooden houses at summer and winter pastures and
moving between the two sites.
It is hypothesized that the northern migration of the Sakha
people occurred either in the 10the13th centuries (Okladnikov,
1970), or in 13the15th centuries along the Lena River (Pakendorf
et al., 2006). They must have first used the grassland in river ter-
races and then moved to the alaas region. Since then, during the
past 600e800 years, the Sakha people have been relatively resilient
in their adaptations to changes in the middle basin of Lena River. It
is certain that colonization by imperial Russia had increased the
pressure for fur-bearer hunting in the forests. The economic sig-
nificance of livestock changed from horses to cattle, and agriculture
was introduced into the region during 18the19th centuries. The
socialist modernization in the 20th century stopped the semi-
nomadic ways of life through forced sedentarization. Neverthe-
less, horse and cattle breeding, which is sustained by the local
environmental conditions, has always occupied most Sakha people
as their main subsistence activity. The recent climate change could
change this situation.
3. Recent floods in the Sakha Republic (Yakutia)
What impact has climate change had on the middle basin of
Lena River? The Lena River's middle basin lies within the Sakha
Republic (Yakutia) of the Russian Federation. Recently damage due
to flooding has increased in the republic. If catastrophic flood
events have occurred seven times during 1900e1997 serious
floods, which brought about the economic loss of more than 1% of
republican expenditures, occurred four times since 1998 (Filippova,
2010; Takakura, 2015b). Several anthropologists have reported an
increase of flood related disasters on the Tatta Viliui and Anabar
Rivers (Stammler-Gossmann, 2012; Fujiwara, 2013) and on the
alaas lands in Viliui region (Crate, 2012). Causes for flooding appear
to be either due to the earlier thawing of ice and snow in the spring,
2
The Sakha are not considered an indigenous people in the Russian legal
conceptualization. The term implies rather “aboriginal,”or “local,”in a historical
sense in this paper. By using the term “indigenous,”I highlight traditional features
of adaptation by Sakha, comparable to those of other indigenous peoples.
3
The term “alas”is often used in most scientific literature , but here I adopt the
term “alaas”designating thermokarst depression with cultural implication which is
originated from a local word of Sakha language.
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e92
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
related to climate change, both in the river and alaas lands
(Sukhoborov, 2006) or due to anthropogenic activities such as lack
of river-dredging (Kusatov et al., 2012), which was practiced in the
socialist era.
Here I have examined the issue of culture and permafrost in a
period of climate change by focusing on the river terrace grasslands
(as opposed to the alaas). My findings draw on anthropological
fieldwork in Sakha villages situated mainly on the west bank of
Lena River and specifically in communities on river terraces.
There are countless rivers and streams, both in the Arctic and
subarctic regions. Everywhere, it can be observed that the water
freezes in the autumn and then thaws in the spring. Climate change
affects this process, because air temperature is one of the main
factors controlling both periods of freezing and the thickness of the
ice (Prowse, 2007). Ice jam flooding can be observed in early spring
in a wide ranging area from the Arctic to certain middle latitude
regions, such as Hokkaido in Japan (Yoshikawa et al., 2012). These
floods happen because of the gradual and uneven process of
thawing of river ice, and because the ice gets jammed at some point
of the river. Ice-jam floods contribute to the revitalization of the
water environment and the regional flora and fauna (Beltaos, 1995).
A case study of the Peace Athabasca delta in Canada reported that
recent warming has decreased regional ice-jam floods, which has
resulted in the decrease of biodiversity of the region (Beltaos et al.,
2006), while having a positive impact on the societal infrastructure
(Prowse and Beltaos, 2002).
Ice jam floods are a complex phenomenon, and climate change
does not impact different water systems equally. Concerning the
traditional subsistence of Sakha people, snow and ice also play an
important role in its renewal. In particular, the ice-related spring
flooding of the Lena River system has been a blessing for subsis-
tence activities in the region of river terrace grasslands. The
flooding contributes to the revitalization of the ecosystem and
grass resources, which is the basis of the development of Sakha
cattle-horse breeding. As previously noted, an increase of floods has
been observed in Lena River system, including by satellite (Sakai
et al., 2011). Moreover, hydrologists have reported an increase of
precipitation in the form of snow and rain, which has resulted in an
inflow of water into the rivers. The increase of precipitation has also
affected the deepening of permafrost thaw, causing the death of
inland forests (Iijima et al., 2014). In addition, the growth of lakes in
thermokarst depressions has triggered changes in the environment
of ice-rich permafrost terrain (Fedorov et al., 2014).
4. Concepts and methods
Heretofore, I have described human-nature relations in
permafrost by discussing the case of Sakha people in Eastern
Siberia, and noted recent events in the local permafrost region
related to climate change. Scientists have certainly observed
changes such as an increase of water in the local environment
resulting from precipitation; however; the cause and effect rela-
tionship still remains unclear.
As a social scientist, my position (rather than to explore causal
relationships) is to inquire if the impact of recent changes in climate
events could be identified in local pastoral adaptation. How does
the increase of water affect long-term interactions between
permafrost and humans as a form of cattle-horse breeding through
grassland resource subsistence? How do the remarkable climatic
events change individual behaviors and society of local pasto-
ralism? I have attempted to explore these questions by using local
knowledge accumulated through my anthropological fieldwork.
Anthropologists conventionally regard a given subsistence cul-
ture as being the result of selection in an environment through
historical processes and insist that it is cultural adaptation (Smit
and Wandel, 2006: 283). This concept is heuristic with an inclu-
sive and a long-term perspective; therefore, it does not rely on
assumptions regarding the failure of cultural adaptation. The failure
or breakoff could certainly happen under special circumstances,
such as disasters or colonialism. However, such events are regarded
as exceptional events in understanding subsistence cultures,
whereas the natural environment has been regarded as stable and
resilient. Anthropologists rather focus on changes in socio-cultural
process. On the other hand, the anthropologists in climate change
studies have began to consider the limit of cultural adaptation
under the current conditions of climate change (Adger et al., 2007).
This is partially because of the declaration by the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change, an interdisciplinary
climate science organization, which states that the natural envi-
ronment is very likely changing, triggered by anthropogenic
warming of the climate system (IPCC, 2013). The natural environ-
ment is no longer stable, a fact anthropologists have recognized.
Understanding the limits of adaptation entails detailing the
mechanisms of the process of failure in a once manageable sub-
sistence culture, by taking into consideration the changing effects
of nature. This would lead to a deeper comprehension of the deli-
cate balance in human-environment interactions. The goal of this
paper is thus to identify limits of adaptation in the context of
climate change in a river-terrace grasslands environment, by
focusing on local knowledge and corresponding behaviors.
The ethnographical material presented here was collected be-
tween 2010 and 2012, over the course of a total of six weeks. The
material was gathered by using the methodologies of participatory
observation and unstructured interviews, which wereconducted in
both Russian and Sakha languages. In order to investigate the re-
lations of human culture and climate change, I selected three vil-
lages, all of which are located near the west (left) coast of Lena River
(Fig. 1): Khamagatta village (Namskii district), Tulagino village
(Yakutsk city), Nemiug village (Khangalaskii district). I first
compared two villages: Khamagatta, a community that did not
suffer floods very often, and Tulagino, a community that had suf-
fered frequently.
During my field trip in May 2010, there was a disastrous spring
water flooding of the Lena River. According to the local newspaper,
2000 houses were damaged and the flooding affected 6000 people.
Economic loss was reported as reaching 1.2 billion rubles
4
and
included the loss of more than 2300 head of livestock. While both
villages experienced damages to houses, Tulagino experienced no
loss of livestock, because of preparations made by the local
administration. Khamagatta reported the loss of 30 head of live-
stock, a relatively small loss. The local TV broadcasted about the
more serious situation farther to the south. It was reported that the
floods had heavily damaged this village where 209 houses among a
total of 700 had been flooded, and 230 cattle and horses had been
killed.
5
(Figs. 2 and 3).
I started my field interviews in 2010 with people I had known
through my previous research on local knowledge related to ice-
jam floods and pastoral activities. I conducted my interviews by
talking to people who I encountered walking in the village. In 2012,
I revisited some of the people who I had interviewed in 2010, and
also interviewed other people. I also visited the local administrative
offices and asked about the damage caused by the 2010 flooding,
and about policies and countermeasures taken by the
4
Novosti NEWSru.com. 23 May 2010 (http://www.newsru.com/russia/
23may2010/yakut.html) [2015.2.1] and Russiiskaia gazeta, 3 VI, 2010 (http://
www.rg.ru/printable/2010/06/03/pavok.html) [2013/9/17].
5
Russiiskaia gazeta, 3 VI, 2010 (http://www.rg.ru/printable/2010/06/03/pavok.
html) [2013/9/17].
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e93
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
administration. I interviewed 29 individuals in 2010 and 28 in 2012.
The ethnographic documentations of this field research and the
preliminary analysis have been reported in previous papers pub-
lished in Japanese (Takakura, 2013, 2015b). Here, I wish to highlight
the limits of adaptation to climate change by using an interdisci-
plinary approach that draws on both anthropology and hydrology.
5. Local knowledge of floods and the adaptation
5.1. The perception of local farmers
First, allow me to describe local knowledge related to floods. The
local people in all three villages recognize three types of floods: ice-
related floods, known as spring water floods (saasky uu), snow-
thaw -related floods, known as black water floods (khara uu), and
rain-related floods, known as summer water floods (saiun uu). The
first type of flooding to occur in the spring is usually ice-jam floods,
and the second type of flood usually occurs ten days after the first
and consists of black water, so-named because it carries soil.
Here is a narrative of a famer regarding flooding, which is typical
of the descriptions given by the people in the three villages.
Kharyy (ice-jam) is necessary for the river flood plain, and it
gives a supply of water so that grass can grow. But the black water
(second flooding) is not welcome, because it brings a lot of soil to
the ground. But, if it were to stay for only a short period, there
would be no problem (Source 1, Khamagatta village, 17 May 2010).
It is remarkable that the local people rather welcome ice-related
floods, because it is a blessing for the hay stocks used for animal
Fig. 1. Lena River and village map.
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e94
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
husbandry. The local population has developed a unique
geographical knowledge of the region, as can be seen in Fig. 4,
illustrating the sandbank of the river, and geographical names of
places near the Khamagatta village. Although this village has not
often suffered disastrous floods, the people do recognize the pos-
sibilities for such related to the local topography and can identify
hot spots for ice-jam floods. It is noteworthy that the environment
of the floods has been assimilated into the complex of local culture
Fig. 2. Giant ice after the ice-jam flood, May 2010, provided by Khangalaskii District administration of Sakha Republic.
Fig. 3. The loss of livestock caused by ice-jam flood, May 2010, provided by provided by Khangalaskii District administration of Sakha Republic.
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e95
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
and livelihood.
As noted above, the tendency for floods is increasing, which is
disastrous for the local society. According to local administrative
officers, damage caused by the catastrophic ice-jam flood of May
2010 to Tulagino included 24.5% of houses flooded, with no loss of
livestock. The damage to Khamagatta included flooding of 50% of
houses (but not so seriously) with a small loss of livestock. And the
damage to Nemiug included flooding of 29.5% of houses with a loss
of 230 heads of livestock.
The damage from floods depends on the location of a house
within the village. Therefore, if local people were to receive a flood
warning, they could prepare for the flood by taking countermea-
sures, such as moving furniture and electrical equipment to higher
places, or by preparing to evacuate. The biggest concern of the local
people was for the safety of their livestock. At night the cattle are
kept in cowsheds, but during the day they are pastured in the open
grassland, either in alaas or in river terraces. Guiding the livestock
to safer places is a key measure against flood damage taken by the
local people (Takakura, 2015b).
Does local knowledge of Lena River floods contribute to disaster
risk reduction? In the strict sense, the answer to this question is
negative, because the timing of flood events cannot be predicted.
Disaster risk reduction would be possible if appropriate measures
were undertaken by the local administration, rather than
depending on local knowledge. As I have discussed in a previous
paper, the vocabulary and expressions in the Sakha language
related to river ice and floods are extremely well developed
(Takakura, 2013). The local knowledge that is elaborated by this
lexicon provides a conceptual framework for understanding the
series of events related to the thawing of river ice in spring, but it is
not decisive to decisions needed for the implementation of be-
haviours for disaster risk. This leads to the question as to whether
the recent increase of floods related to climate change has exceeded
the limits of local knowledge. Is the utility of local knowledge as a
long-term interface between the environment and culture being
threatened by climate change? During my field research in 2012, I
heard an interesting narrative on this matter, which can further our
understanding of local knowledge.
Spring water flooding is caused by ice jams. This is good water
and it is even necessary. In June, black water floods come to us. This
year, this second flooding has continued longer than usual, and the
water stayed with us for two to three weeks. In addition, the
summer water floods started around 13e15 July, which is the time
for beginning haymaking, and it also continued for two weeks. It
was all very bad. Nothing like this year's floods happened in the
past. I remember that there was a disastrous flood in May 2010, but
it did not stay long, so it had no impact on the haymaking, and
rather, we had a good harvest (Source 2, 17 September 2012,
Nemiug village).
The reader might remember that Nemiug faced a disaster in the
2010 flood. Certainly it resulted in serious damage, because live-
stock was lost, but it did not affect the growth of the grass resource.
On the contrary, the 2012 floods were not large scale, but it stayed
longer, which had a more serious impact on local pastoralism.
Here is a similar narrative by a local farmer from the different
village.
In this year, the spring water flooding happened around 20e30
of May. Its scale was small, but the black water floods were bigger.
Plus, during the summer, the water stayed in the grassland until the
middle of August and it affected the growth of grass. Therefore,
there were almost no haystacks in communities on the left flood
plain of Lena River (Source 3, 8 September 2012, Khamagatta
village).
The local farmers recognize that the disastrous impact of
flooding is not caused by the ice-jam floods, but rather by the
length of time that the snow-thaw floods and summer-rain floods
remain on the ground. The reader might recall the account of hy-
drologists regarding the increasing trend of precipitation and hu-
midity in this region. These trends seem to affect river condition
and seem to deteriorate the grass resources, which are related to
the human livelihood.
According to an interview conducted with the vice chairman of
the Nemiug village administration (18 September 2012), there
would not be enough hay for village livestock that year, because of
the prolonged flood. As a result, 30% of the cattle would have to be
slaughtered, which is 25% more than the usual slaughter. However,
even this increased rate of slaughter would not be adequate to
compensate for the paucity of hay, and additional hay would have
to be bought from other regions.
This is an important statement, because it clearly suggests the
limits of local pastoralism. The Sakha's cattle-horse breeding has
been sustainable in self-sufficient local communities, supported by
the drier climate in the region, and by water supplied from the
active layer of permafrost. Even if the scale of ice-jam floods were to
increase, if the water were to continue to recede soon, such an
increase would not result in a disaster. The local knowledge on river
flooding is a reflection of long-term interaction of Sakha society and
river environments. The culture has developed to accommodate the
disturbance caused by natural ice-jam flooding, which are seem-
ingly disastrous. However, the prolonged flood of snow-thawed
waters and summer water floods, which are a completely new
phenomena, might have a decisive effect on the resilience of the
local pastoral sustainability. These anthropological finding are also
supported by the expertise of hydrologists (Iijima et al., 2014;
Hiyama, 2015).
5.2. The disasters in the local context
We were able to confirm that there were two types of disastrous
effects that corresponded with different types of flooding of Lena
River: the damage to houses and livestock caused by ice-jam floods,
and the damage to hayfields caused by snow-thawed floods and
summer water floods.
As indicated, according to the local knowledge regarding the
flooding of Lena River, ice-jam floods are considered a blessing for
the prosperity of the grass resources. However, the recent increase
in both the frequency and scale of ice-jam floods have caused
damage to local private property, such as houses and livestock, but
has had no effect on the condition of pasture. Given the traditional
livelihood condition of Sakha people involving transhumance be-
tween summer and winter settlements both of relatively small size
(Tokarev and Gurvich, 1964), the recently observed damage to
houses and livestock can only occur in the current, fully sedenta-
rized setting. The implementation of policy measures can somehow
reduce these risks even in this “new”rural community. In con-
ventional anthropological terms, local knowledge of Lena River
floods related to pastoral resource management informs cultural
adaptive measures.
The important finding here is that floods resulting from snow
thawing, and summer water floods caused by rain do serious
damage to the pasture on river terraces, but no harm to human
dwellings or to livestock. The increased precipitation harms the
cycle of pasture growth, which might be detrimental to long-term
interactions between the local environment of the permafrost and
the pastoral adaptation of the Sakha. The climate change affects all
the elements of the environment, but hazards are different for
various aspects of human livelihood. The increase of earlier spring
water leads the local risk of movable property, but the policies to
safeguard property against floods could be implemented through
scientific and technological measures such as precautionary
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e96
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
warning. On the other hand, the increase of water from late spring
to summer merely increases the vulnerability of cultural legacy or
local pastoralism.
The key to long-term cattle-horse pastoral adaptation is in the
local availability of grass resource in a dry condition. The current
climate change with the increase of precipitation is highlighting
to Sakha people the inability of local ways to address the
changing conditions, ways that previously worked well in the
local environmental setting. If the hay can be transported from
other regions by truck, pastoralism might somehow be
manageable, but the quality of pastoralism would be completely
changed.
6. Conclusions
The relationship among permafrost, river and human culture
faced with climate change that is described in this paper can be
illustrated using a chart highlighting the interactions between the
different elements that are involved (Fig. 5). An interdisciplinary
approach that draws on both anthropology and the expertise of
hydrology can better lead to an understanding of the limits of
adaptation that is resulting from the progress of climate change.
What I observed is that the permafrost region could sustain the
sub-arctic forest in eastern Siberia. Among indigenous peoples,
only the Sakha, who originated from inner Asia, recognized the
Fig. 4. The local geography of the sandbanks of Lena River. The red arrow signifies the frequent spot of occurrence of ice jam. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e97
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
grass as a resource for adaptation. The sustainability of the Sakha
grass ecosystem (river terrace and alaas) depends on permafrost.
On the river terraces, the focus of this paper, ice-related floods in
particular are a disturbance that expands the possibilities of human
culture in this environment. This ecological interaction between
human society and river terrace environments has continued for
the past 600e800 years. The environment in this way, has
contributed to the development of culture. It could be considered a
unique example of environmental possibilism in permafrost.
However, the recent climate change definitely enhances the
vulnerability of local pastoralism, because the increase of precipi-
tation and humidity would ruin the grassland and decisively
confront the resilience of pasture management. Local pastoralism
can be sustained with under 200e300 mm of precipitation (a dry
climate) and disturbances caused by ice-related flooding. The low
precipitation in the permafrost region along with the annual
disturbance caused by ice-jam flooding are the keys to maintaining
local resilience.
The cultural adaptation based on the local knowledge related to
these conditions has evolved through a certain range of weather,
ecology, and disturbance like flood. It is adaptive and resilient for
this human population to view the seemingly disastrous flood is an
expected events and even anticipated by the people as a blessing of
nature. The human-nature interaction has crystalized the body of
local knowledge on river flooding. However, it does not lighten the
burden on the people having to make adjustments to the prolon-
gation of spring floodwater and summer rainy floods. The climate
change in progress may change the long-term human-nature
interaction.
6
Other related forms of adaption could be effective with in-
vestments in other activities, such as the transportation of hay or
the provision of feed, which might help sustain local pastoralism.
However, this kind of adaptation would mean that the local sus-
tainability would be lost, because it truncates the long-term
interaction between the permafrost environment and local cul-
ture. The local pastoralism would risk be subsumed into the outer
world, connected to larger markets and their fluctuations. The
pastoral production sustained by local energy flow is being chal-
lenged and changed in the face of climate change, and this is
revealing the limit of pastoralism practiced today in the middle
basin of Lena River.
Acknowledgement
This paper is a part of the result of research project (#22310148)
granted by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (2010e2014).
I also appreciate the support from the project (C-07) organized by
Research Institute of Humanity and Nature (Kyoto, Japan,
2009e2014).
References
Adger, W., Lorenzoni, I., O'Brien, K., 2007. Adaptation now. In: Adger, W., et al. (Eds.),
Adapting to Climate Change: Thresholds, Values, Governance. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, pp. 1e22.
Beltaos, S., 1995. River Ice Jams. Water Resources Publication, Highland Ranch,
Colorado.
Beltaos, S., Prowse, T., Bonsal, B., MacKay, R., Romolo, L., Pietroniro, A., Toth, B., 2006.
Climatic effects on ice-jam flooding of the Peace-Athabasca Delta. Hydrol.
Process. 20, 4031e4050.
Crate, S., 2006. Cows, Kin, and Globalization: an Ethnography of Sustainability.
AltaMira Press, Lanham.
Crate, S., 2012. Water, water everywhere: perceptions of chaotic water regimes in
Northeastern Siberia, Russia. In: Hiyama, T. (Ed.), Proceeding of 1st International
Conference Global Warming and the Human-nature Dimension in Siberia.
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, pp. 103e106.
Crate, S., Fedorov, A., 2013. A methodological model for exchanging local and sci-
entific climate change knowledge in Northeastern Siberia. Arctic 66 (3),
338e350.
Fedorov, A.N., Gavrilie, P.P., Konstantinov, P.Y., Hiyama, T., Iijima, Y., Iwahama, G.,
2014. Estimating the water balance of a thermokarst lake in the middle of the
Lena River basin, eastern Siberia. Ecohydrology 7 (2). http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
eco.1378.
Filippova, V., 2010. On the problem of flood of the Lena River 20th century. In:
Gumanitarnye nauki v Iakutii: issledovaniia molodykh uchenykh: Sbor. statei.
Fig. 5. The charts of interaction of local environment and culture in climate change.
6
The author could not examine the issue of alaas type grassland, however, the
increase of precipitation and the related death of the forest, as well as the
enlargement of lakes in the alaas landscape might similarly preclude the possibility
of local grass resource.
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e98
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
Nauka, Novosibirsk, pp. 263e269 (in Russian).
Forbes, B., Stammler, F., 2009. Arctic climate change discourse: the contrasting
politics of research agendas in the West and Russia. Polar Res. 28, 28e42.
Forbes, B.C., Stammler, F., Kumpula, T., Meschtyb, N., Pajunen, A., Kaarlej€
arvi, E.,
2010. High resilience in the Yamal-Nenets social-ecological system, West Si-
berian Arctic, Russia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106, 22041e22048.
Fujiwara, J., 2013. Isolation of Siberian village in progress: social change and climate
change. In: Okumura, M. (Ed.), Tozetsu suru kotsu, koritsu suru chiiki. Tohoku
University Press, Sendai, pp. 1e30 (in Japanese).
Fukuda, M., 1996. Kyokuhoku shiberia [Far North, Siberia]. Iwanami shoten, Tokyo
(in Japanese).
Fukuda, M., 1999. Siberia and global climate change. In: Yasunari, T., Yonemoto, S.
(Eds.), Chikyu kankyo to Ajia. Iwanami shoten, Tokyo, pp. 175e205 (in
Japanese).
Hiyama, T., 2015. Climate, permafrost and water environment. In: Hiyama, T.,
Fujiwara, J. (Eds.), Shiberia, Ondanka suru kyokuhoku no mizukankyou to
syakai. Kyoto University Press, Kyoto, pp. 3e30 (in Japanese).
Iijima, Y., Ohta, T., Kotani, A., Fedorov, A.N., Kodama, Y., Maximov, T.C., 2014. Sap
flow changes in relation to permafrost degradation under increasing precipi-
tation in an eastern Siberian larch forest. Ecohydrology 7 (2). http://dx.doi.org/
10.0002/eco.1366.
IPCC, 2013. Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policy-
makers. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WGIAR5_SPM_
brochure_en.pdf.
Jordan, B.B., Jordan-Bychkov, T.G., 2001. Siberian Village: Land and Life in the Sakha
Republic. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Katamura, F., Fukuda, M., Bosikov, N.P., Desyatkin, R.V., Nakamura, T., Moriizumi, J.,
2006. Thermokarst formation and vegetation dynamics inferred from a paly-
nological study in central Yakutia, eastern Siberia, Russia. Arctic, Antarct. Alp.
Res. 38, 561e570.
Katamura, F., Fukuda, M., Bosikov, N.P., Desyatkin, R.V., 2009. Charcoal records from
thermokarst deposits in central Yakutia, eastern Siberia: implications for forest
fire history and thermokarst development. Quatenary Res. 71, 36e40.
Krupnik, I., 1993. Arctic Adaptations: Native Whalers and Reindeer Herders of
northern Eurasia. University Press of New England, Hanover.
Krupnik, I., Jolly, D. (Eds.), 2002. The Earth is Faster now: Indigenous Observations
of Arctic Environmental Change. Arctic Research Consortium of the United
States, Fairbanks.
Kusatov, K., Ammosov, A., Kornilova, Z., Shpakova, R., 2012. Anthropogenic factor of
ice jamming and spring breakup flooding on the Lena River. Russ. Meteorol.
Hydrol. 37 (6), 392e396.
Laidler, G., Ikummaq, T., 2008. Human geographies of sea ice: freeze/thaw processes
around Iglooli, Nunavut, Canada. Polar Rec. 44 (229), 127e153 .
Nakada, A., 2015. Reindeer herding and environmental change in the Oymyakon
district, Sakha Republic. Czech Polar Rep. 5 (1), 33e43.
Nelson, F.E., Anisimov, O.A., Shiklomanov, N.I., 2002. Climate change and hazard
zonation in the circum-Arctic Permafrost regions. Nat. Hazards 26, 203e225.
Okladnikov, A.P., 1970. Yakutia: before its Incorporation into the Russian State.
McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal and London.
Pakendorf, B., Novgorodov, I.N., Osakovskij, V.L., Danilova, A.P., Protod'jakonov, A.P.,
Stoneking, M., 2006. Investigation the effects of prehistoric migration in Siberia:
genetic variation and the origins of Yakuts. Hum. Genet. 120 (3), 334e353.
Prowse, T.D., 2007. River and lake ice. In: United Nations Environmental Programe
(Ed.), Global Outlook for Ice and Snow. http://www.unep.org/geo/geo_ice/
(2015/9/30).
Prowse, T., Beltaos, S., 2002. Climatic control of river-ice hydrology: a review.
Hydrol. Process. 16, 805e822.
Saito, S., 1985. Tsundora to taiga no sekai: shiberia no shizen to genshi bunka (The
world of tundra and taiga: Siberian nature and archaic culture). Chijin Shobo,
Tokyo.
Sakai, A., Kinoshita, S., 1974. Ecological characteristics of forests on the permafrost
in Yakutia. Jpn. J. Conserv. Ecol. 24 (2), 116e122 (in Japanese).
Sakai, A., Saito, M., 1974. Dahurian larch trees in Yakutia. J. Jpn. For. Soc. 56 (7),
247e252 (in Japanese).
Sakai, T., Costard, F., Fedorov, A.N., 2011. The impact of ice-jam flood of the Lena
River. In: Proceeding of 32nd Asian Conference of Remote Sensing,
pp. 1503e1504.
Smit, B., Wandel, J., 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Glob.
Environ. Change 16, 282e292.
Stammler-Gossmann, A., 2010. 'Translating' vulnerability at the community level:
case study from the Russian North. In: Hovelsrud, G.K., Smith, B. (Eds.), Com-
munity Adaptation and Vulnarability in Arctic Regions. Springer, New York,
pp. 131e161.
Stammler-Gossmann, A., 2012. The big water of a small river: flood experiences and
a community agenda for change. In: Tennberg, M. (Ed.), Governing the Uncer-
tain: Adaptation and Climate in Russia and Finland. Springer, New York,
pp. 55e82.
Sukhoborov, V., 2006. Problems linked to the prevention of natural disasters in the
Sakha Republic (Yakutia). In: In the Conference of “The 3rd Northern Forum to
the Prevention of Natural Disasters in the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) 2006”.
http://www.yakutiatoday.com/events/inter_FWG_emercom.shtml (2012/8/23).
Takakura, H., 2013. Is an ice-jam flood a disaster? Indigenous knowledge of river ice
and adaptation of the Sakha communities in the middle basin of the Lena River.
Northeast Asian Stud. 17, 109e138 (in Japanese).
Takakura, H., 2015. Arctic Pastoralist Sakha: Ethnography of Evolution and Micro-
adaptation in Siberia. Trans Pacific Press, Merbourne.
Takakura, H., 2015b. When the blessing flood is changed into the disaster. In:
Hiyama, T., Fujiwara, J. (Eds.), Shiberia, Ondanka suru kyokuhoku no miz-
ukankyou to syakai. Kyoto University Press, Kyoto, pp. 173e222 (in Japanese).
Tokarev, S.A., Gurvich, I.S., 1964. The Yakuts. In: Levin, M.G., Potapov, L.P. (Eds.), The
Peoples of Siberia. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 243e304.
Wenzel, G., 2009. Canadian Inuit subsistence and ecological instability: if the
climate change, must the Inuit? Polar Res. 28, 89e99.
Yoshikawa, Y., Watanabe, Y., Hayakawa, H., Hirai, Y., 2012. Field observation of river
ice jam in the Shokotsu River in February 2010. In: Proceedings of the 21th
IAHA International Symposium on Ice, pp. 105e117.
Zum Brunnen, C., 2009. Climate changes in the Russian north: threats real and
potential. In: Rowe, E.W. (Ed.), Russia and the North. University of Ottawa Press,
Ottawa, pp. 53e85.
H. Takakura / Polar Science xxx (2016) 1e99
Please cite this article in press as: Takakura, H., Limits of pastoral adaptation to permafrost regions caused by climate change among the Sakha
people in the middle basin of Lena River, Polar Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2016.04.003
