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Individual Learner Differences and Young Learners’ Performance on L2 Speaking Tests
Abstract
This chapter focuses on motivation and self-concept and their role in oral production in early learning of English as a foreign language. A review of major research findings considering the relationship of these individual learner differences and oral performance by young foreign language learners is followed by presentation and discussion of the study the author carried our with Croatian learners of English as a foreign language. The participants, aged 11 at the start and 14 at the end of the study, were followed for 4 years. Each year their motivation and self-concept were measured by means of smiley questionnaires and oral interviews, while their oral production was elicited each year through picture description tasks and personal oral interviews. The study offers interesting evidence of the dynamics of young learners’ motivation and self-concept and their relationship with their developing oral performance. Implications of the findings are considered as well.
... Although the use of integrated tasks has garnered significant research interest in the field of language testing, to the best of our knowledge, no publicly available study has examined children's responses to integrated speaking tasks. Existing literature that explores the development of children's speaking proficiency predominantly uses picture narrations (e.g., Djigunović, 2016;Heilman, Miller, & Nockerts, 2010;Wolf, Lopez, Oh, & Tsutagawa, 2017) or oral interviews (Djigunović, 2016). We aim to fill this gap by including two task types, a picture narration and an integrated listen/speak task from the TOEFL Junior Comprehensive test, to shed light on the impact of task design on YLS oral performances. ...
... Although the use of integrated tasks has garnered significant research interest in the field of language testing, to the best of our knowledge, no publicly available study has examined children's responses to integrated speaking tasks. Existing literature that explores the development of children's speaking proficiency predominantly uses picture narrations (e.g., Djigunović, 2016;Heilman, Miller, & Nockerts, 2010;Wolf, Lopez, Oh, & Tsutagawa, 2017) or oral interviews (Djigunović, 2016). We aim to fill this gap by including two task types, a picture narration and an integrated listen/speak task from the TOEFL Junior Comprehensive test, to shed light on the impact of task design on YLS oral performances. ...
... Relatively few empirical studies have attempted to measure the development of fluency among young EFL learners. In a recent longitudinal study, Djigunović (2016) examined the development of oral production among 24 young Croatian EFL learners and traced the participants' performances over four years, from the age of 11 to 14 years. Compared to their task achievement, vocabulary, and accuracy, the participants' global fluency showed the most consistent and steady developmental pattern over time. ...
This study investigated a range of fluency, grammar, vocabulary, and content features of young language students’ speaking performances, using a discourse-analytic approach. In total, 179 test takers’ responses to the speaking section of the TOEFL Junior® Comprehensive test were selected for analysis. Mixed-design ANOVAs were used to compare 21 spoken discourse features across four proficiency levels and two task types (i.e., a picture narration task and an integrated listen/speak task). The discourse features largely differentiated test takers across proficiency levels. Task types showed some impact on measures of grammar, vocabulary, and content, but had no influence on features of fluency. Findings of the study have implications for the language development of young second and foreign language students and provide insights into language assessment task design for this population.
... 10) Proprio in questa prospettiva occorrerebbe valorizzare la valutazione basata su quanto si fa in classe, ovvero il classroom based assessment (CBA) (Hill, 2010) e privilegiare una valutazione formativa nella scuola primaria dove molto più chiaramente che in altri tipi di scuola emerge quanto i maestri ben conoscano i processi di apprendimento degli studenti e quali siano le forme appropriate di valutazione per le diverse fasce di età. Purtroppo, anche in questo campo poche sono state le ricerche svolte (Butler, 2009(Butler, , 2016Davison, 2013;Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016;Papp, Chambers, Galaczi, & Howden, 2011), e "the manner in which classroom--based assessment of Young Learners English is carried out is seen as a crucial factor for children's success in learning. It is a field in which there has not been a great deal of research" (Rixon, 2013, p. 35). ...
... Negli ultimi due decenni diversi sono stati gli studi svolti sugli apprendimenti dei giovani allievi, in alcuni casi si è trattato di ricognizioni internazionali, spesso comparative, su vasta scala che hanno indagato sull'introduzione dello studio precoce di una LS nei sistemi scolastici, in altri casi tali studi hanno indagato gli apprendimenti in una delle fasce di transizione all'interno dell'istruzione primaria o in uscita, e hanno avuto come oggetto sia i risultati degli allievi nelle singole abilità sia lo sviluppo della motivazione ad apprendere (Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016;Mihaljević Djigunović & Lopriore, 2011;Pižorn, 2009). ...
L’apprendimento precoce delle lingue straniere – in particolare nella scuola primaria – è un processo affascinante ma complesso, fortemente condizionato dall’età degli allievi, dal contesto, dagli obiettivi specifici del ciclo scolastico e dalla didattica proposta. La fascia d’età è di fatto una delle variabili che più incide sullo sviluppo e sul sostegno delle competenze linguistiche, e richiede da parte dei docenti l’adattamento degli approcci adottati, delle attività proposte e dei materiali utilizzati per rispondere allo sviluppo cognitivo e emotivo degli allievi. Valutare i risultati dell’apprendimento in uno scenario di questo tipo è un processo delicato che deve essere monitorato con strumenti idonei che consentano di utilizzare la valutazione sia per comprenderne il valore aggiunto sia per sostenere l’apprendimento nel tempo. Questo contributo introduce le implicazioni dei risultati di alcuni studi longitudinali che hanno monitorato e valutato lo sviluppo delle competenze degli allievi e offerto spunti di riflessione sui processi di apprendimento.
... In what follows, several empirical studies on listening and reading in early language learning of EFL will be outlined with a particular focus on studies situated in Germany. In order to limit the scope of the overview, studies relating to other aspects of early foreign language education are not considered (however see in this volume Szpotowicz & Campfi eld, 2016 ;Papp & Walczak, 2016 ;Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016 ). ...
... The following studies explored the receptive foreign language competences of mono-and multilingual children in primary education (also see in this volume Bacsa & Csíkos, 2016 ;Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016 ): In the German EVENING study (see Sects. 3.1 and 3.2 ), the authors conducted a differentiated analysis by comparing the listening and reading achievements of children with different linguistic backgrounds (Paulick & Groot-Wilken, 2009 , p. 190-194). ...
Do primary school children achieve better listening and reading skills when they start learning EFL in year 1 instead of year 3? Addressing this question this chapter sums up an empirical study investigating the EFL achievements of more than 6,500 primary school children in Germany. Data was collected in 2010 and 2012 as part of the interdisciplinary longitudinal research study Ganz In allowing for the comparison of two cohorts who differ in the length and quantity of early EFL instruction due to curricular changes: Whereas the 2010 cohort learned EFL for 2 lessons per week over 2 years (beginning at the age of ~8) the 2012 cohort learned EFL for two hours per week over 3.5 years (beginning at the age of ~6). In summary the findings show that children with three and a half years of early EFL education demonstrated higher receptive achievements than children with 2 years of early EFL education. Independent of their mono- or multilingual backgrounds all learners seemed to benefit from extending EFL education. The results of a multilevel regression analysis indicate that the language background of young learners cannot explain any variance in their receptive EFL achievements. Instead, their reading skills in German (the language of schooling) in addition to their socio-economic status and gender were identified as factors.
... The book titled "Early Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: Evidence Versus Wishful Thinking", edited by Marianne Nikolov and Stela Letica Krevelj, proves to be an interesting read which addresses many urgent topics concerning young foreign language learners and their environments. This edited volume is dedicated to professor Jelena Mihaljević Djigunović, affiliated with Zagreb University in Croatia, whose contribution to the field of teaching modern languages to young learners and the role of affective factors in language learning has been substantial (Mihaljević Djigunović, , 2010Djigunović, , 2016Nikolov, Mihaljević Djigunović, 2006). She has coordinated and participated in a great number of national and international projects, and has been a mentor for many scholars interested in early language education. ...
This volume showcases these trends in early language learning. It contains a selection of papers presented at the Inaugural Conference of the Early Language Learning Research Association (www.ellra.org), held on 25-27 April 2024 in Kraków, Poland. They report on studies conducted in diverse settings, Poland, Croatia, Germany, Slovenia, Spain, and Japan, thus showing the complexity of early language learning and teaching processes.
... This edited volume is dedicated to professor Jelena Mihaljević Djigunović, affiliated with Zagreb University in Croatia, whose contribution to the field of teaching modern languages to young learners and the role of affective factors in language learning has been substantial , 2010, 2016Nikolov, Mihaljević Djigunović, 2006). She has coordinated and participated in a great number of national and international projects, and has been a mentor for many scholars interested in early language education. ...
... As stated, a number of studies have indicated the important role of motivation for successful learning of a second or foreign language (e.g., Cho, 2013;Dörnyei & Schmitt, 2001). The role of L2 motivation for oral communication or speaking skills has also been studied (Djigunović, 2016;Hashimoto, 2002;Hernández, 2008Hernández, , 2010. Hernández (2008) investigated the relationship between L2 motivation (including integrative and instrumental motivation) and L2 speaking skills, focusing on 130 learners of Spanish in a formal classroom setting; the results showed that integrative motivation was a significant predictor of participants' Spanish speaking skills. ...
This study investigated whether working memory capacity and L2 motivation have significant relationships with Japanese English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ speaking skills, and to what degree working memory capacity and L2 motivation respectively contribute to L2 speaking skills and their subcomponents (vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and pronunciation). Participants were 113 Japanese EFL students. They completed three assessments: The Versant English Speaking Test; a Japanese (L1)-based listening span test; and an L2 learning motivation survey. To investigate the relationships between variables (English speaking skills, phonological working memory capacity, and L2 learning motivation), a correlation analysis was conducted. L2 speaking test scores were found to be significantly related to both working memory capacity and language learning motivation. Furthermore, regression analyses showed that phonological working memory capacity and motivation significantly explained variance in L2 speaking skills, and indicated significant influences of predictors on four components of L2 speaking skills (vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and pronunciation); L2 motivation displayed stronger influence on speaking subcomponents, except speaking grammar. These results contribute to existing literature on the generalization of effects of individual differences, such as working memory and motivation, on L2 learning.
... Complexity was not significant. The largest contribution of fluency to communicative adequacy in oral tasks is consistent with previous studies, both concerning adults (Koizumi and In'nami 2024;Ogawa 2022;Révész et al. 2016) and children (Hsieh and Wang 2019;Mihaljević Djigunović 2016). This consistent results with previous studies are interesting in that, while previous studies use general oral proficiency judged by raters for communicative adequacy, our study used story grammar, which is presumably a multidimensional construct, not only relies on linguistic abilities but also memory, attention and other cognitive and socio-cognitive abilities (Duinmeijer et al. 2012). ...
This study investigated the development of discourse features in young learners of a foreign language (YLLs), focusing on their complexity, accuracy, fluency (CAF), and vocabulary. The study also examined the relationship between CAF and communicative adequacy, and the influence of YLLs’ socio-economic status (SES) on discourse development. The participants were Grades 5, 8, and 10 learners of English in China (32 students in each grade level) who were selected through a stratified random sampling from a larger project and 15 advanced adult learners of English as a comparative group. They engaged in a story-telling task using a wordless picture book. The participants’ communicative adequacy was operationalized as the narrative structure based on story grammar, and 17 discourse features representing CAF were examined across grade levels and SES groups. A series of ANOVA and correlational analyses found that CAF measures generally showed significant differences by grade with some varied patterns reflecting the multidimensional natures of CAF constructs. SES effects appeared in secondary school levels. CAF measures were not interrelated significantly in Grade 5 but showed greater interrelatedness within and across dimensions among students in higher grades. Fluency contributed most to the communicative adequacy measured by story grammar, followed by vocabulary.
... The home literacy environment has been identified as a major determinant of young children's future development in language and literacy skills (Goodrich et al. 2021). Language and literacy learning at the pre-primary level differs fundamentally from learning it at formal education stages (Djigunović 2016;Nikolov 2016). The quality and quantity of young children's exposure to language and literacy can vary for many reasons, including the amount of time spent on language and literacy at home and the diverse teaching approaches in pre-primary institutions (Nikolov 2016). ...
Previous studies have identified the home literacy environment (HLE) as a crucial factor influencing preschool children's learning and developmental outcomes. Conceptualizing the HLE as comprising three constructs-parent expectations, parent practices, and home resources-this study investigated how the HLE affects preschool children's learning dispositions within the context of language and literacy learning. The participants were 242 parents of 4-to 6-year-old children attending kindergarten in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Data were collected through a parent survey. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that: (1) parent expectations positively affected children's learning dispositions, with parent practices mediating this effect, and (2) parent practices positively affected children's learning dispositions, with home resources mediating this effect. Treating learning dispositions as an outcome variable, our study suggests that children's learning dispositions are influenced by all components of the HLE in different ways.
... Studies show instead that young learners are in fact capable of providing reliable evidence if approached in ways that engage and empower them, and of developing their awareness of self and language learning, as well as their ability to reflect and elaborate on these issues (Mihaljević Djigunović & Lopriore, 2011;Scott, 2000). Several researchers have highlighted the need for more studies on learner perspectives including Mihaljević Djigunović (2016), who calls for more studies on young learners' perspectives and perceptions of how classroom practices affect their learning process and willingness to interact. However, some exceptions can be reported, e.g., in Greene & Hogan, 2005;Pinter & Zandian, 2015;Sairanen & Kumpulainen, 2014, where young learners are observed as valuable and capable subjects and active social actors whose voices and views should be heard and considered, rather than being objects of research studies. ...
Over the last twenty-five years, English has been introduced into the primary school curriculum around the world at an ever-earlier age. Several research studies on those directly involved in this policy implementation, i.e., young learners, have been carried out, particularly in Europe. The ENRICH Project—aimed at promoting teacher competences necessary for responding to the challenges raised in today’s multilingual classrooms across Europe—has explored contexts of teaching/learning in five countries where English language teachers teach learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The project investigated the needs of today’s young and adolescent learners, their awareness and understanding of new forms of communication, and their learning through English. The focus of the present article is data collected by means of focus groups in which over 100 participants, aged 11-13, were asked to think back to their role as learners and users of English, thus triggering personal responses and enhancing reflections on their learning experiences. The analysis of young learners’ statements revealed their positioning in terms of awareness of English language teaching and of the current role of English in multilingual contexts.
... Despite some tiny improvements, it is possible to say that almost no standards have been clearly stated outlining the required level of language skills at this level and suitable assessment tools accordingly in the early language learning assessment (Nikolov, 2016). Very Young Learners (VYLs) is a well-used term referring to pre-primary level EFL language learners who are below the age of formal entry into compulsory education, usually under 6 years (Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016;Nikolov, 2016). The other terms we have opted to employ throughout the study are L1 which refers to mother tongue or first language and L2 that refers to foreign language where children learn English as a subject in the school in limited hours. ...
Research Findings: The aim of this study was to construct and validate “English Picture Vocabulary Test (EPVT)” that aimed to assess the very young learners’ (VYLs) receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge for specific content areas in English as a foreign language (EFL). In this context, EPVT was created in several stages. One of them was initial construct identification with the literature review on various aspects of assessment in early year’s FL learning and development aspects of very young EFL learners. The other stages were “pre-piloting” with 4 experts and 20 VYLs to obtain their perspectives on the test construction and administration and “final piloting” implementation with 5–6 years old private pre-primary school children (251) to ensure reliability, validity, and test quality. After designing the process of the EPVT was clarified considering the ethical and effectiveness issues, the item analysis with Kuder-Richardson 20 and Point-Biserial Correlation was conducted. Besides, the distribution of the items among the ranges of difficulty and the discrimination index values were specified. Practice and Policy: The findings support that EPVT is child-friendly and effective in assessing preschoolers’ English vocabulary receptively and expressively. Furthermore, it could also serve to provide feedback for teaching and supporting for learning L2.
... Since the fundamentals of all the transactions are oral communications of the work instructions, individual workers relay their ideas and feelings during the work hours for targets and products. Djigunović (2016) disclosed that between "two speaking tasks, a picture description, and an oral interview, it was suggested that oral fluency was a relatively stable feature of the participants' speech, regardless of task types." Compared to their task achievement, vocabulary, and accuracy, the participants' global fluency showed the most consistent and steady developmental pattern over time. ...
Language acquisition takes a long process as it requires initiatives upon having set good attitudes and positive learning behavior. It is said that learning the language particularly English would not be automatic or innate, even born native speakers should have to learn the basic rules through varied skills and strategies to be communicative competent. This descriptive research aimed to improve a language instructional portfolio which includes a Purposive Communication course syllabus with specifications and module outline/course outline for higher education curricula. A self-constructed survey questionnaire was used to gather the data from 223 respondents considering the conflict of interests and ethical considerations. Results show that the graduates have moderately acquired communicative skills primarily in speaking and writing; they highly acquired reading, listening, and presentation/multimedia skills. It implies that graduates are more likely to perform their work in the company when they have learned the communicative skills based on the given tasks or work, but they are more likely to apply good attitudes and positive working behavior to integrate new things for productive, innovative, and transformative, and sustainable outcomes and output which are beneficial to the company's targets and accomplishments. Based on the results, an action plan and strategies to create a language instructional portfolio have been proposed. Since this study concentrated on acquired communicative skills of BSBA and BSHRM graduates, future studies may consider other degree graduates of internal and external higher educational institutions in the Philippines.
... Evidently, Dutch and Spanish YLs embark on the process of English language study from very different starting points. Consequently, comparisons of findings of early FL programmes from different local learning environments are problematic (e.g., De Bot, 2014;Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016). If local learning contexts contribute to the variability of conditions, they also contribute to the variability in outcomes. ...
A context-sensitive approach to SLA research acknowledges the interrelatedness of linguistic development and situational/cultural context. Over the years, many studies looked into the formal context of early English language learning (EELL) but the informal realms of learner experience are still largely unknown. Hence, context matters related to out-of-school availability of English and its relevance for EFL classrooms are in focus of this contribution. Sources of informal contact and linguistic gains arising from young learners’ informal experiences with English are believed to contribute to heterogeneity found in English language learning outcomes, and to point at important interactions between local learning context, age and early formal instruction. Sources of out-of-school contact with English and a corpus of self-reported informally acquired English vocabulary by learners aged 8.5–10.5 are presented. Additionally, the influence of gender as a background variable was explored. Findings are discussed against a growing awareness of heterogeneity embedded in sociocultural contexts of early EFL instruction. Finally, challenges faced by teachers of young learners and researchers of early English language development are addressed along with pedagogical implications of the study outcomes.
... Mihaljević Djigunović (2016) found that the interactions of L2 self-concept and speaking skills of young learners of English as L2 is quite complex and dynamic: her findings show that the associations of young learners' self-concept with the quality of their oral performance can be stronger during the earlier years of learning than later. As the duration of learning increased, accuracy was found to be the first dimension of oral performance that displayed a non-significant relationship of L2 self-concept and oral performance. ...
... This line of research has thus far primarily focused on the spoken performance of adult second language (L2) learners. Systematic investigation of spoken features of young L2 learner speech and how these features develop with increasing proficiency remains an underexplored area (e.g., Djigunović, 2016;Hsieh & Wang, 2019;Wolf, Lopez, Oh, & Tsutagawa, 2017). The purpose of this study was to help bridge this gap by examining the distinguishing features that characterize the spoken performance of young English language learners as their proficiency develops. ...
Examining spoken features across proficiency levels allows researchers to explore the nature of speaking proficiency as it develops. This line of research has thus far primarily focused on adult second language (L2) learners. Using cross-sectional data based on a large-scale language assessment intended for young L2 learners, in this study, we examined the distinguishing features that categorize the spoken performance of young English language learners (ages 9 to 12) across levels, and especially, between adjacent levels. The study constitutes an initial step in exploring the construct of speaking proficiency of young English language learners as it progresses. The results indicated that 16 spoken features, found to differentiate adult English learners, were associated with young learners’ English proficiency. We also found that spoken performance of young L2 English learners was characterized by different features at different levels. Findings of the study provide some preliminary observations regarding linguistic features that show differentiating power at different proficiency levels, offering insights into young learners’ English development. The findings can serve as preliminary suggestions for utilizing different rating criteria for constructing rubrics for assessing young learners at different levels of English proficiency.
... http://www.multilingual-matters.com/display.asp?k=9781783098095 children's interest is easy. Maintaining their motivation over years, however, often poses a challenge, as their initial enthusiasm tends to decline in the long run (Mihaljević Djigunović, 2016). This loss of motivation is often caused by test results. ...
Nikolov, M. (2017). Students' and teachers' feedback on diagnostic tests for young EFL learners: Implications for classrooms. In M. P. García Mayo (Ed.), Learning foreign languages in primary school: Research insights (pp. 249-266). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Knjiga pruža sveobuhvatan pregled suvremenih znanstvenih spoznaja o vrednovanju jezične kompetencije učenika rane školske dobi (od šest do jedanaest godina). Polazeći od razvojnih obilježja djece srednjega djetinjstva, sustavno se analiziraju temeljna načela poučavanja stranoga jezika u ranoj školskoj dobi te različite vrste vrednovanja s posebnim naglaskom na razvojno primjeren pristup. Središnji dio knjige posvećen je vrednovanju četiriju temeljnih jezičnih vještina – slušanja, govorenja, čitanja i pisanja – pri čemu se svako poglavlje temelji na relevantnome teorijskom okviru te nudi konkretne tehnike i primjere zadataka prilagođene mlađim učenicima. Posebna se pažnja posvećuje emocionalnoj sigurnosti učenika, važnosti formativnoga vrednovanja, uporabi digitalnih alata i poticanju samovrednovanja i vršnjačkoga vrednovanja. Knjiga također obrađuje teme povratne informacije i ispravljanja pogrešaka. Namijenjena znanstvenicima i nastavnicima visokih učilišta koji obrazuju buduće učitelje koji će predavati strani jezik od prvoga do četvrtoga razreda osnovne škole, studentima koji se obrazuju za učitelje i konačno samim učiteljima, knjiga služi kao teorijska podloga za oblikovanje pravednoga, poticajnoga i učinkovitoga sustava vrednovanja u nastavi stranoga jezika u nižim razredima osnovne škole.
Linguistic and Extra Linguistic features by using Praise – question – polish strategy (a
classroom action research for the eleventh grade students of Vocational Secondary School Nasional Padang).
The research method that’s utilized in this research is classroom action research. The subjects of the research
were 35 students in eleventh grade at Vocational Secondary School Nasional Padang. The researcher uses two
cycles; each cycle consists of planning, action, observation and reflection. The result of the cycle 1, for draft
55.40% , for Praise 78.25 % , question 45.80% and Polish 50.55%. And The result of the cycle 2, for draft
68.80 % , for praise 82.60%, for question 78.65% and polish 88.80%. It is prove by the result of score in cycle
2 And also the increasing percentage of the oral test from cycle 1 to cycle 2 with the standardized score (the
minimum of passing criteria) is 75. The result of this research shows that there is an improvement of students‘
Language skill by using Praise question polish strategy.
Keywords: Linguistic and Extra Linguistic features skill, praise question polish strategy
nguistic and Extra Linguistic features by using Praise – question – polish strategy (a
classroom action research for the eleventh grade students of Vocational Secondary School Nasional Padang).
The research method that’s utilized in this research is classroom action research. The subjects of the research
were 35 students in eleventh grade at Vocational Secondary School Nasional Padang. The researcher uses two
cycles; each cycle consists of planning, action, observation and reflection. The result of the cycle 1, for draft
55.40% , for Praise 78.25 % , question 45.80% and Polish 50.55%. And The result of the cycle 2, for draft
68.80 % , for praise 82.60%, for question 78.65% and polish 88.80%. It is prove by the result of score in cycle
2 And also the increasing percentage of the oral test from cycle 1 to cycle 2 with the standardized score (the
minimum of passing criteria) is 75. The result of this research shows that there is an improvement of students‘
Language skill by using Praise question polish strategy.
Keywords: Linguistic and Extra Linguistic features skill, praise question polish strategy
Given the exponential growth in the popularity of early foreign language programs, coupled with an emphasis of evidence-based instruction, assessing young learners’ (YLs) foreign language abilities has moved to center stage. This article canvasses how the field of assessing young learners of foreign languages has evolved over the past two decades. The review offers insights into how and why the field has developed, how constructs have been defined and operationalized, what language proficiency frameworks have been used, why children were assessed, what aspects of their foreign language proficiency have been assessed, who was involved in the assessment, and how the results have been used. By surveying trends in foreign language (FL) and content-based language learning programs involving children between the ages of 3 and 14, the article highlights research into assessment of and for learning, and critically discusses areas such as large-scale assessments and proficiency examinations, comparative and experimental studies, the impact of assessment, teachers’ beliefs and assessment practices, young learners’ test-taking strategies, age-appropriate tasks, alternative and technology-mediated assessment, as well as game-based assessments. The final section of the article highlights where more research is needed, thus outlining potential future directions for the field.
Previous studies examined the association between motivational characteristics and language learning achievement, but considerably less is known about young language learners’ task-specific motivation in assessment contexts. Our study investigated the task motivation of young learners of English when completing computer-administered integrated test tasks, and the relationship between task performance and test task motivation. Hundred and four learners aged between 11 and 15 years completed three computer-administered assessment tasks: a Listen-Write task, which required a summary of a listening text, and two Listen-Speak tasks, in which learners had to retell a listening text with academic and non-academic content, respectively. Participants also filled in a task-motivation questionnaire, containing items on appraisals of task difficulty, task-related emotions and anxiety, effort and subjective competence. The results indicated that the young learners held positive views on the integrated assessment tasks. Nevertheless, they found the Listen-Speak tasks significantly more difficult, more anxiety-provoking and less enjoyable than the Listen-Write task and they judged their competence to be lower than in the Listen-Write task. Task-motivational factors accounted for a low level of variation in task performance. These findings have important implications for the design and use of computer-administered integrated tasks in assessing young L2 learners.
This chapter discusses the results of a longitudinal project examining the development of listening comprehension and the role of individual differences in this process in an early language learning context. We aimed at exploring how language learning aptitude, motivation, attitudes, the use of listening strategies, beliefs about language learning and listening anxiety as decisive variables of individual differences (Dörnyei, AILA Rev 19:42–68, 2006; Lang Learn 59(1):230–248, 2009; Mihaljević Djigunović, Role of affective factors in the development of productive skills. In: Nikolov M, Horváth J (eds) UPRT 2006: empirical studies in English applied linguistics. Lingua Franca Csoport, Pécs, pp 9–23, 2006; Individual differences in early language programmes. In: Nikolov M (ed) The age factor and early language learning. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, pp 198–223, 2009) relate to each other and to the learners’ performances on listening measures. The main objective of the present study is to explore and identify the internal structure, roles and relationships of individual variables in the development of early language learners’ listening comprehension based on a multi-factor dynamic model of language learning (Gardner & MacIntyre, Lang Teach 26:1–11, 1993) and its reinterpretation (Dörnyei, The relationship between language aptitude and language learning motivation: Individual differences from a dynamic systems perspective. In: Macaro E (ed) Continuum companion to second language acquisition. Continuum, London, pp 247–267, 2010).
Despite the recent focus on self-assessment (SA) as a tool for enhancing learning, some researchers and practitioners have expressed concerns about its subjectivity and lack of accuracy. Such concerns, however, originated from the traditional, measurement-based notion of assessment (assessment of learning) rather than the learning-based notion of assessment (assessment for learning). In addition, existing research on SA in second/foreign language education has been concentrated on adult learners, leaving us with limited information on SA among young learners. In this chapter, I address both sets of issues: the confusion between the two orientations for assessment and age-related concerns regarding SA. First, I clarify the two orientations of assessment—assessment of learning and assessment for learning—and demonstrate that most of the concerns about subjectivity and accuracy apply primarily to the former orientation. Second, I detail the current findings on SA among young learners and identify the most urgent topics for future research in this area. Finally, to help teachers and researchers examine and develop SA items that are most appropriate for their purposes, I propose five dimensions that characterize existing major SAs for young learners: (a) domain setting; (b) scale setting; (c) goal setting; (d) focus of assessment; and (e) method of assessment.
This introductory chapter aims to achieve multiple goals. The first part outlines the most important recent trends in early language learning, teaching and assessment and frames what the main issues are. The second part discusses the most frequent challenges policy makers, materials designers, test developers, researchers and teachers face. Part III introduces the chapters in the volume and explains how they are embedded in the trends. The last part suggests ideas for further research and points out some implications for educational and assessment practice.
This chapter presents an ongoing project to create the “Global Scale of English Learning Objectives for Young Learners” – CEFR-based functional descriptors ranging from below A1 to high B1 which are tailored to the linguistic and communicative needs of young learners aged 6–14. Building on the CEFR principles, a first set of 120 learning objectives was developed by drawing on a number of ELT sources such as ministry curricula and textbooks. The learning objectives were then assigned a level of difficulty in relation to the CEFR and the Global Scale of English and calibrated by a team of psychometricians using the Rasch model. The objectives were created and validated with the help of thousands of teachers, ELT authors, and language experts worldwide – with the aim to provide a framework to guide learning, teaching, and assessment practice at primary and lower-secondary levels.
Modern languages are offered to young learners at an increasingly early age in many countries; yet few publications have focused on what is available to children in different contexts. This volume fills this gap by documenting the state-of-the-art in researching young language learners using a variety of research methods. It demonstrates how young children progress and benefit from an early exposure to modern languages in different educational contexts, and how affective, cognitive, social, linguistic and classroom-related factors interact in the processes. A special strength is the range of languages: although English is the most widely learnt language, chapters focus on various target languages: Croatian, French, English, German, Italian, Spanish and Ukrainian and the contexts include China, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland, the Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. © 2009 Marianne Nikolov and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved.
The aim of this chapter is to present a framework for assessing young learners of foreign languages for diagnostic purposes. The first section outlines the most important trends in language assessment and describes the educational context where the project was implemented. Then, the chapter discusses how children between the ages of 6 and 12 develop in a foreign language and outlines the most important principles of assessing young language learners. The actual framework was designed for the four skills; it aimed to cover the first 6 years of primary education in Hungarian public schools. The document used the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001) as a point of departure and includes agespecific 'can do statements' and task types corresponding to them. Readers are encouraged to critically reflect on how the findings could be adopted in their own contexts.
This introductory chapter aims to achieve multiple goals. The first part outlines the most important recent trends in early language learning, teaching and assessment and frames what the main issues are. The second part discusses the most frequent challenges policy makers, materials designers, test developers, researchers and teachers face. Part III introduces the chapters in the volume and explains how they are embedded in the trends. The last part suggests ideas for further research and points out some implications for educational and assessment practice.
This paper focuses on young foreign language learners' attitudes and motivations. An overview is given of the main issues in this research area, based on key European studies. Approaches to studying these affective learner characteristics are described. Some attention is devoted to data elicitation techniques and the importance of triangulation. Research findings are presented through overviews of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies carried out in different European settings. The latter are presented in more detail, because their findings seem to be more revealing of the early foreign language learning process. The overall conclusion of this review paper is that young foreign language learners' attitudes and motivations are not stable learner characteristics but change over time, creating layers of complexity that warrant further research. Suggestions about possible future directions in researching young foreign language learner attitudes and motivations, and the application of its findings are also made.
This volume presents the results of the largest ever language attitude/motivation survey in second language studies. The research team gathered data from over 13,000 Hungarian language learners on three successive occasions: in 1993, 1999 and 2004. The examined period covers a particularly prominent time in Hungary’s history, the transition from a closed, Communist society to a western-style democracy that became a member of the European Union in 2004. Thus, the book provides an ‘attitudinal/motivational flow-chart’ describing how significant sociopolitical changes affect the language disposition of a nation. The investigation focused on the appraisal of five target languages - English, German, French, Italian and Russian - and this multi-language design made it also possible to observe the changing status of the different languages in relation to each other over the examined 12-year period. Thus, the authors were in an ideal position to investigate the ongoing impact of language globalisation in a context where for various political/historical reasons certain transformation processes took place with unusual intensity and speed. The result is a unique blueprint of how and why language globalisation takes place in an actual language learning environment. © 2006 Zoltán Dörnyei, Kata Csizér and Nãra Németh. All rights reserved.
This article looks at the attitudes and motivation of Hungarian children between the ages of 6 and 14: why they think they study a foreign language, how they relate to school subjects and what classroom activities they like and dislike. The long-term study was conducted in the ethnographic tradition where the teacher, syllabus designer and researcher was the author, and the inquiry was prompted by classroom needs. Three groups of children were involved for eight years each during the years of 1977-85, 1985-93 and 1987-95 in Pécs, Hungary.
The first part of the article considers the literature on motivation from the perspective of child foreign language learning, whereas the second part looks into how the findings of the Pécs study may contribute towards a better understanding of the effects of specific pedagogic procedures on motivation.
Language learners bring different ideas and preconceptions of the learning process to the classroom. These are referred to as language learning beliefs. This paper explores primary children's language learning beliefs, a field which has rarely been researched so far. It draws on a qualitative study on the learners' perspective in two primary EFL classes in Germany. Special tasks were designed to make children reflect on their language learning experiences. The data include classroom recordings, learner interviews and learner texts. The findings of the study suggest that primary school children are considerably aware of their learning process and hold elaborated beliefs which influence both their behaviour in class and their choice of learning strategies. Following the presentation of five different language learning beliefs identified in the data, results are discussed in terms of the need to include reflection of students' learning experiences and to account for different learning approaches in primary foreign language classes.
This study aimed to develop, pilot, and validate an aptitude test for Hungarian learners of English. A lit-erature review on the construct and tests of aptitude is followed by two parts: a pilot phase on the development of a new aptitude test and a main study involving 419 12-year-old children in 10 schools. Data were collected on the aptitude test, English proficiency tests, and a measure of learners' motivation. The article explores how aptitude scores relate to learners' performances on the proficiency measure, motivation, gender, school achievements, and grades in English. The results of a multiple-regression analysis indicate that the variable of language aptitude explained over 20% of the variation in English language performance, thus proving to be the best predictor of outcomes.
This book provides an overview of current research on the age factor in foreign language learning, addressing issues, which are critical for language planning. It presents new research on foreign language learning within bilingual communities in formal instruction settings focussing on syntax, phonology, writing, oral skills and learning strategies. © 2003 María del Pilar García Mayo, María Luisa García Lecumberri and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved.
List of Appendices .- List of Figures .- Glossary .- Chapter 1 Introduction .- Chapter 2 What is self-concept? .- Chapter 3 Understanding self-concept in the FLL context .- Chapter 4 How do learners form their self-concepts? .- Chapter 5 Internal frames of reference in FL self-concept formation .- Chapter 6 External frames of reference in FL self-concept formation .- Chapter 7 Implications for educators and researchers .- References .- Appendices .
As the traditional grammar translation approach is being gradually replaced by communicative approaches, paper-and-pencil tests do not meet the course goals. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate how two forms of alternative assessment, peer and self-assessment, can be implemented to evaluate young EFL learners’ oral presentations and how the students perceive this experience. The study was conducted with 69 sixth graders (age 12) in Taiwan. The students formed groups of six to discuss and give grades after each individual student’s oral report. Three types of data sources included evaluation rubrics, student survey, and a teacher interview. The results show that peer and teacher assessment had strong positive correlation, whereas self- and teacher assessment were moderately correlated. Though learners responded positively to the assessing experiences, they expressed concern that some grades assigned by peers were not fair and a few group members dominated the grading process. The findings shed light on benefits of combining peer and self-assessment and suggest training should emphasize self-assessment, evaluation criteria related to content of the presentation, and students’ social skills to work in groups.
This book examines the various ways in which age affects the process and the product of foreign language learning in a school setting. It presents studies that cover a wide range of topics, from phonetics to learning strategies. It will be of interest to students and researchers working in SLA research, language planning and language teaching. © 2006, Carmen Muñoz and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
This book provides a detailed exploration of L2 language learning in the early years, examining past and present research evidence on bilingualism, second language, and foreign language learning in childhood, and providing a broad overview of research findings across a range of different contexts. The discussion focuses on learning contexts that intersect with educational provision in the early school years and a comparison of L2 outcomes across those contexts.
http://www.springer.com/education+%26+language/book/978-90-481-9568-8
This book provides an overview of current resarch on the age factor in foreign language learning addressing issues which are critical for language planning. It presents new research on foreign language learning within bilingual communities in formal instruction settings, focusing on syntax, phonology, writing, oral skills and learning strategies. The volume sets itself apart from other books focusing on the age factor because (i) it deals with the acquisition of a foreing, rather than a second, language and (ii) it discusses issues surrounding the learning of English as a third language in two bilingual communities: the Basque Country and Catalonia. The book is addressed to both professionals and graduate students interested in foreign language acquistiion. It will also be of use to language planners in general and specifically to those in multilingual communities where a foregn language is introduced at school
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
A goal in the study of spatial development is to answer, with regard to this domain, some of the classic questions in the history of psychology, biology, and philosophy: the extent to which adaptation rests on innately available representations or represents emergent knowledge based on interaction with the world, the uniqueness of our species and the course of comparative evolution, the interplay of symbolic and more basic spatial processes, and the nature of individual differences. In addition, spatial development is an important research area because understanding how it occurs is likely to have considerable practical relevance for devizing educational curricula that support optimal acquisition of skills that underlie many essential real-world activities. This chapter covers current views of the nature of mature spatial competence, what we know about the spatial capabilities that exist in infancy, whether early spatial skills are modular or not, development of mental transformation of spatial information and the capacity for symbolic representation of spatial information, development and causes of individual differences, including gender differences, and cases in which children have abnormal bases for learning based on genetic differences (Williams Syndrome) or abnormal environmental contexts based on sensory limitations (impaired vision).
Keywords:
map use;
mental rotation;
navigation;
spatial cognition;
spatial development;
spatial language
This article reports on the findings of an investigation into the attitudes of English students aged 16 to 19 years towards French and how they view the reasons behind their level of achievement. Those students who attributed success to effort, high ability, and effective learning strategies had higher levels of achievement, and students intending to continue French after age 16 were more likely than noncontinuers to attribute success to these factors. Low ability and task difficulty were the main reasons cited for lack of achievement in French, whereas the possible role of learning strategies tended to be overlooked by students. It is argued that learners' self-concept and motivation might be enhanced through approaches that encourage learners to explore the causal links between the strategies they employ and their academic performance, thereby changing the attributions they make for success or failure.
This meta–analysis investigates the relationship of second language achievement to five attitude/motivation variables from Gardner's socioeducational model: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, integrative orientation, and instrumental orientation. These relationships were examined in studies conducted by Gardner and associates using the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery and various measures of second language achievement including self–ratings, objective tests, and grades. In total, the meta–analysis examined 75 independent samples involving 10,489 individuals. Two additional variables, availability of the language in the community and age level of the students, were examined to assess their moderating effects on the relationships. The results clearly demonstrate that the correlations between achievement and motivation are uniformly higher than those between achievement and integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, integrative orientation, or instrumental orientation, and that the best estimates of the population correlations are greater than 0. Neither availability nor age had clear moderating effects.
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