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Informal greenspace as green infrastructure? Potential, challenges and future directions

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Christoph D D Rupprecht at Ehime University
Christoph D D Rupprecht
Jason Antony Byrne at University of Tasmania
Jason Antony Byrne
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Abstract and Figures

Green infrastructure can provide a wide range of urban ecosystem services, from recreation and health benefits (Tzoulas et al. 2007) to pollution reduction, biodiversity habitat and high temperature reduction (Norton et al. 2015). However, using exclusively formal greenspaces such as city parks and street trees poses two problems. First, implementing and maintaining green infrastructure in cities carries substantial costs (Naumann et al. 2010). Land acquisition may be prohibitive for rapidly growing cities with high land prices (e.g., Sydney, Singapore, Hong Kong), while implementation and maintenance costs may limit feasibility for shrinking cities (e.g., Detroit, Leipzig, Kyoto). Second, projects are often tied to expectations for economic returns on investment, which may not benefit local residents but can cause eco-gentrification (Wolch, Byrne, and Newell 2014). In this paper we draw upon recent research (Rupprecht and Byrne 2014; Rupprecht and Byrne 2015; Rupprecht, Byrne, Garden, et al. 2015; Rupprecht, Byrne, Ueda, et al. 2015) to argue that ‘informal urban greenspace’ (e.g. vacant lots, street and railway verges, brownfields and power lines etc.) could be used as green infrastructure, and that it indeed already performs this function to some degree. We discuss how informal greenspaces may complement traditional elements of green infrastructure, how both growing and shrinking cities may be able to integrate it into green planning strategies, and what challenges its use may pose. We conclude by presenting a multi-layered provisional roadmap of directions for future research on geographical, planning-related and ecological aspects of informal greenspaces relevant for its use as green infrastructure.
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Informal greenspace as
green infrastructure?
Potential, challenges
and future directions
Christoph Rupprecht (@focx)
Jason Byrne (@citybyrne)
Environmental Futures Research Institute
Griffith University
AAG Annual Meeting 2016
Formal green space vs. green infrastructure
Green space
• Parks, gardens,
conservation areas
• ‘Nice to have’ (Benedict
& McMahon 2006)
• Focus on recreation
• Planned & designed
Green infrastructure
• Conflicting definitions on what
counts as green infrastructure
• ‘Must have’ (Benedict &
McMahon 2006)
• ‘human-modified’ ‘intentional
landscapes’ (Matthews et al.
2015/Byrne et al. 2015)
Functions & problems of parks and green infrastructure
Potential functions, e.g.
• Air quality regulation
• Tem per at ur e r egulat ion
• CO
2
absorption
• Water management
• Noise filtration
• Conservation, habitat
• Recreation, human health
• Aesthetic improvement
• Food/fuel production
• Economic development
(e.g. real estate value)
(Luque & Duff)
New York High Line,
David Berkowitz, Flickr
Potential problems, e.g.
• Implementation & maintenance
costs (Naumann et al. 2010)
• Expectations of economic returns
• Eco-gentrification (Wolch et al. 2014)
• Failure to meet diverse needs of
local residents (Campo 2013)
What about spontaneous, informal green spaces?
Street verges Gap spaces
Railway verges
Brownfields
River/canal banks
Vacant lots
Overgrown structures Powerlines
Informal greenspace: A shift in perception
Nuisance Nice to have Must have?
Ecology
Planning
Decay
Temporary use
Abandonment
‘Just green enough’ tool
Crime
Recreation
Dead space
Novel ecosystems
Urban ecology
‘de facto natives’
Invasives
Diverse habitats
Beyond parks: Research on informal green spaces
Recreation studies (>65)
(e.g., Jorgensen & Keenan 2012; Campo 2013;
Barron & Mariani 2013; Franck & Stevens 2007;
Foster 2014; Rupprecht et al. 2015a/b)
ü Lack of official recognition leads
to freedom from purpose
ü Can be used flexibly as needed
✗ Aesthetic value contested (wild
vs. orderly & bucolic)
✗ Vulnerable to development
Biodiversity studies (>170)
(e.g., Bonthoux et al. 2014; Brandes 1983, 1992;
Cilliers & Bredenkamp 1998, 1999a/b; Kowarik
2011; Rupprecht & Byrne 2014; R. et al. 2015c)
ü Important role for conservation
ü ‘De facto native vegetation’
ü ~14% of urban green space
✗ Maintenance common and
negative impact on diversity
✗ Can harbor invasive species
Informal greenspace as green infrastructure: Functions
Function
Studies
(examples)
Recreation
(human health)
Rupprecht & Byrne 2014
Conservation, habitat
Bonthoux et al. 2014, Rupprecht et al.
2015
Food/fuel production
Diaz-Betancourt et al. 1999, McLain
et al. 2014
‘Just
green enough’ devel.
Foster 2014, Rupprecht & Byrne 2015
Air quality regulation
Weber et al. 2014, McPhearson et al.
2013
Tem per atu re reg ula tio n
McPhearson et al. 2013
CO
2
absorption
McPhearson et al. 2013
Water management
McPhearson et al. 2013
Aesthetic improvement
Rink and Emmerich 2005, Qviström
2012, Rupprecht et al. 2015
Noise filtration
studied?
Economic development
negat. effect?
IGS as green infrastructure in shrinking cities
• Expansion of vacant land, but:
• Lack of resources to convert it
easily into formal green infra
• ‘Depopulation dividend’ (Matanle):
chance for sustainability,
reconfigure urban space
• Shift to needs-based
community management?
• Coming to terms with loss of
control over urban nature?
• Intentional ‘rewilding’ vs. non-
intervention approach (Hard 2001)
• Potential to satisfy growing
demand for urban agriculture &
gardening, shrink cities’ food
shed
Lot
42%
Gap
19%
Street
verge
16%
Brownfield
10%
Waterside
10%
IGS as green infrastructure in growing cities
• High land cost for green infra
• Strong development pressure
• Sinking per capita private &
public green space provision
• Temporary benefits from
spontaneous vegetation in
transitional sites
• Source of ‘unclaimed territory’
(Cloke & Jones 2005),
that ‘disciplines neither people
in their actions nor nature in its
development’ (Nohl 1990)?
• Opportunity to maximize
benefits via policies (e.g.,
interim use, street verge
gardening)
Lot
8%
Street verge
80%
Brownfield
5%
Railway
5%
Informal greenspace as green infrastructure: Problems
Liminal
space
Access
Liability
PollutionPlanability
Cultural
norms
IGS as green infrastructure: Roadmap for future research
“Basic” research
• IGS quantity
• IGS types
• Spatiality
• Tem por alit y
• Current usage
• Past usage
• Ecology
• Biodiversity
• Lifecycle / generation
• Towards theory of IGS?
• Implications for theory
(e.g. more-than-human)?
• …
“Applied” research
• Ecosystem (dis-)services
• Potential future usage
• Management approaches
• Anti-gentrification potential
• Legal dimensions
• Planning & policy…
IGS as green infra: Interdisciplinary research endeavor!
IGS
Ecology
Conservation
Political
ecology
Environmental
justice
Geography
Planning
Landscape
architecture
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... The length of forest bound− aries near open areas being reduced in favour of urban development areas is 18.56 km.Single− family houses are usually scattered in the vicinity of urban forests; this is a very unfavourable phenomenon because it will cause the rapid degradation of open spaces despite the low density of building developments. Such degradation is understood as a loss of ecological connections, habitats, cultural landscape heritage, and pollution (Christiawan, 2019), and, last but not least, loss of open space potential as an area for the city's future green infrastructure(Rupprecht and Byrne, 2016). ...
Outside the forest stand: Analysis of urban forest buffer zones to implement nature−based solutions – A case study of Poznań (Poland)
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Urban forests are important and highly valuable natural elements of urban green infrastructure (GI). The tightening of developed areas in the vicinity of urban forests results in negative changes in water relations, the disruption of the continuity of wildlife corridors, and the growing number of users, which has an impact on the degradation of urban forest ecosystems. This study, conducted in Poznań, Poland, provides an analysis of urban forest buffer zones regarding land use type, the high greenery ratio, and the planning decisions that could serve as a nature−based solution (NbS). The study shows a significant change in developed land area in the urban forest buffer zones with the width of 500 m and 100 m. That change occurred between 1997 and 2019 and should be a matter of concern. Coverage of the buffer zones with high greenery, which turned out to be very diverse, could be treated as a forest extension and an element mitigating the negative transition between the forest and the city. Different land use types were taken into consideration, especially in developed areas. The buffer zones of urban forests should be devel− oped with spatial planning tools like data management and decision−making to mitigate the negative impact of the developed areas on the forests. The development of the concept of sup− porting green infrastructure in urban forest buffer zones, regardless of land use type was also part of the study.
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Informal urban green space: A trilingual systematic review of its role for biodiversity and trends in the literature
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  • Aug 2015
Urban greenspaces harbor considerable biodiversity. Such areas include spontaneously vegetated spaces such as such as brownfields, street or railway verges and vacant lots. While these spaces may contribute to urban conservation, their informal and liminal nature poses a challenge for reviewing what we know about their value for biodiversity. The relevant literature lacks a common terminology. This paper applied a formal definition and typology of informal urban greenspace (IGS) to identify and systematically review a total of 174 peer- reviewed papers in English (152), German (14) and Japanese (8). We identified three main topics: value for conservation (94 papers), factors influencing diversity (80), and non- indigenous species (37). Additionally, we analyzed this literature for temporal trends, spatial patterns, studied IGS types, taxa, climate zones, human impact types, and key authors. Results show IGS plays an important role for biodiversity. Management practices were identified as the most common and negative impact on diversity, while vegetation, site age, distance to city center, and habitat diversity were positive-influence factors. The number and impact of non-indigenous species varied widely. The analysis of literature patterns reveals: an increase in publications over the last 15 years and a strong geographic bias in publications, as well as towards temperate and humid climate zones. Studies of gap, powerline and microsite IGS were scarce, as were studies of mammals and reptiles. Results suggest different maintenance regimes for IGS may improve its contribution to urban conservation. We therefore propose adapting management to the local context.
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'It's real, not fake like a park': Residents' perception and use of informal urban green-space in Brisbane, Australia and Sapporo, Japan
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Urban parks and gardens may be failing to meet the diverse "nature needs" of a growing global urban population. Informal urban greenspace (IGS) such as vacant lots, street or railway verges and riverbanks may provide space for unstructured recreation and nature contact. Yet we know little about residents' relationship with IGS outside of Europe and North America, what factors influence IGS use and evaluation, or what role geographic and cultural context play.Our paper combines qualitative and quantitative methods to examine how residents in Brisbane, Australia (n=123) and Sapporo, Japan (n=163) perceive, evaluate and use IGS. Using statistical methods (e.g. correlation analysis) we analyzed what factors influence how respondents interact with IGS, including the amount of formal greenspace within 500m of survey locations using a GIS buffer analysis. Results were tested for differences and similarities between the cities.We found that respondents knew of IGS in their neighborhood (>80%), appreciated and used it (>30%), but more respondents in Brisbane used and appreciated IGS. The influence of demographic factors and local formal
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In cities around the world people use a variety of public spaces to relax, to protest, to buy and sell, to experiment and to celebrate. Loose Space explores the many ways that urban residents, with creativity and determination, appropriate public space to meet their own needs and desires. Familiar or unexpected, spontaneous or planned, momentary or long-lasting, the activities that make urban space loose continue to give cities life and vitality. The book examines physical spaces and how people use them. Contributors discuss a wide range of recreational, commercial and political activities; some are conventional, others are more experimental. Some of the activities occur alongside the intended uses of planned public spaces, such as sidewalks and plazas; other activities replace former uses, as in abandoned warehouses and industrial sites. The thirteen case studies, international in scope, demonstrate the continuing richness of urban public life that is created and sustained by urbanites themselves. [Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Loose-Space-Possibility-Diversity-Urban/dp/0415701171]
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Analysis of the spontaneous vegetation of intensively managed urban open spaces in the Potchefstroom Municipal Area, North West Province, South Africa
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This report forms part of a research programme on spontaneous vegetation in urban open spaces in the North West Province, South Africa. The spontaneously growing vegetation of intensively managed sites such as parks, pavements and parking areas was investigated, using numerical methods. The numerical classification technique, TWINSPAN was used for analysing the floristic data as a first approximation and then the data were refined by using Braun-Blanquet procedures. The result is a phytosociological table where ten communities, four sub-communities and two variants, most of them representing undescribed vegetation types for South Africa, were recognised. Associated gradients in habitat and different human impacts are identified by using an ordination algorithm (DECORANA). This is one of the first studies on synanthropic vegetation in South African urban areas and should contribute to our knowledge of the ecology and biology of plant invasions in intensively managed areas.
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Vegetation analysis of railway reserves in the Potchefstroom municipal area, North West Province, South Africa
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This report forms part of a research programme on the spontaneous vegetation in urban open spaces in the North West Province, South Africa. Using a numerical classification technique (TWINSPAN) as first approximation, the classification was refined by applying Braun-Blanquet procedures. The result is a phytosociological table. Classification, as well as a description of the communities are presented. A total of four communities, six sub-communities and four variants are described. Associated gradients in habitat or disturbances are identified by using an ordination algorithm (DECORANA). This information should contribute significantly to our present knowledge and understanding of the ecology of vegetation of disturbed areas in the Grassland Biome.
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Ruderal and degraded natural vegetation on vacant lots in the Potchefstroom Municipal Area, Noth West Province, South Africa
Article
  • Apr 1999
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Relatively little is known about ruderal and degraded natural vegetation in urban open spaces in the Grassland Biome of South Africa. The classification of the vegetation on vacant lots forms part of a research programme on spontaneous vegetation in urban open spaces in the North West Province, South Africa. Using a numerical classification technique (TWINSPAN) as a first approximation, the classification was refined by applying Braun-Blanquet procedures. The result is a phytosociological table from which six communities and seven sub-communities, belonging to two main groups, namely degraded natural and ruderal communities, are recognised. The communities which are mainly characterised by one dominant species, a few abundant species and many species with low frequency, are described. Associated gradients in habitat or disturbances are identified by using an ordination algorithm (DECORANA). Possible dynamic relationships between the communities are also discussed.
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