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Social anxiety and internet use – A meta-analysis: What do we know? What are we missing?
Abstract
Objective The present meta-analysis quantitatively reviewed existing literature on social anxiety (SA) and internet use, examining the relationships between SA and three internet use variables: (1) feelings of comfort online; (2) time spent online; and (3) problematic internet use (PIU). In addition, it considered developmental level (age) as a moderator of the social anxiety-internet use relationship. Method We conducted a literature search using PubMed and PsycINFO databases. Our meta-analysis was based on 22 studies and included 13,460 participants. Results and discussion Results indicated that social anxiety (a) is correlated positively with feelings of comfort online, (b) is not correlated with total time spent online, email use and IM, but is correlated positively with time spent on gamming, and (c) is correlated positively with PIU. The study also found developmental level to be a moderator of the correlations between social anxiety and internet use variables. Research and clinical implications are discussed.
... Online communication can be particularly beneficial for adolescents who experience such inhibitions it may help overcome them (McKenna et al., 2002) or gain additional social support (Frison & Eggermont, 2016). It is unclear whether adolescents leverage these opportunities by using online communication more; the current research provides inconsistent results for both social anxiety (see Prizant-Passal et al., 2016) and depressed moods (Frison et al., 2019;van den Eijnden et al., 2008). The primary goal of our study is to clarify these mixed results. ...
... For instance, an Australian study found no relationship between adolescents' social anxiety and the time spent communicating online (Bonetti et al., 2010). A meta-analysis of 10 studies shows that social anxiety does not affect how frequently people communicate with others using instant messaging or email (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Nevertheless, there were marked differences between the results of individual studies, with some reporting a positive association, some negative, and some no relationship (see Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). ...
... A meta-analysis of 10 studies shows that social anxiety does not affect how frequently people communicate with others using instant messaging or email (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Nevertheless, there were marked differences between the results of individual studies, with some reporting a positive association, some negative, and some no relationship (see Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). ...
Adolescents commonly use the Internet to communicate with their acquaintances. This study examines how social anxiety and depressed moods influence adolescents’ online communication – both its frequency and the level of self-disclosure. We propose that these relationships are mediated by adolescents’ preference for online social interaction (POSI), which helps explain the mixed results of previous research. Moreover, since the communication patterns may differ based on communication partners, we differentiate between online and offline acquaintances. Using structural equation modeling, we tested our hypotheses on survey data from 1,530 Czech adolescents (ages 13–18, 50.1% female). Our results suggest that while social anxiety is directly related to less online communication, indirectly, through higher POSI, it is related to more online communication. Notably, these associations are canceled out in communication with online acquaintances, but the inhibitions predominate in communication with offline acquaintances. Experiencing depressed moods is associated with more extensive online communication, both directly and via POSI, indicating that adolescents use online communication to cope with negative feelings. Theoretically, our findings support both the rich-get-richer and social-compensation hypotheses and suggest they are complementary. Moreover, they emphasize the role of adolescents’ perceptions of online communication within the social-compensation mechanism.
... Early research found that, by utilising computer-mediated communication (CMC), individuals with SAD can be socially re-enabled, particularly when forming communities with users that share their experiences [58,82]. Socially anxious users appreciate CMC due to the lack of pressure to correctly observe social cues, the ability to plan their communication due to its asynchronous natures, and the ability to better tailor how they present themselves [172,225]. While this allows for increased social confidence within these online spaces, this confidence does not necessarily translate to face-to-face (FTF) interactions [32,58,82] and can lead instead to increased social avoidance and maladaptive views about their suitability for future FTF communication [32,123]. ...
... Those with SAD can tend toward problematic internet use as they fill time with non-social passive interaction, leading to worsening loneliness [32,137,225]. Heavy use of online gaming also correlates with SAD symptoms [128,172], an activity that often requires minimal social disclosure and direct interaction. Finally, the internet offers a direct and highly accessible way to engage socially anxious users with therapeutic interventions while circumventing the difficulties of traversing a FTF social space to start receiving help [58,123] (see 2.2.3). ...
... An overt action might be avoidance of a feared future social situation or use of computer-mediated communication instead, i.e. Situation Selection [172,173]. More covert actions might be limiting eye-contact and interaction by focusing on one's phone [23], i.e. ...
Social anxiety is a prevalent mental health concern and its adverse effects impact quality of life. Exposure Therapy is a key component of prominent psychotherapies for social anxiety, but adherence can be challenging and an intervention improving retention and accessibility would be valuable. Vibrotactile stimulation is a potential intervention for in vivo exposure as it can discreetly augment other objects or wearable devices during a social situation without interrupting conversation. This thesis explored the development of a calming vibrotactile intervention for social anxiety exposure therapy, prioritising the experiences of socially anxious users to inform the design and display of novel stimuli. As vibrotactile stimuli have a narrow affective range, novel emotionally resonant stimuli, which evoke real world sensations to elicit an associated emotional response (e.g. stimuli that evoke cat purring to remind users of past animal touch), were studied as an avenue to deliver calming experiences. Five studies and two surveys were conducted. Results from the first two experiments showed emotional responses to stimuli varied between participants, depending individual associations with real-world phenomena. Along with two surveys, this informed the investigation of the specific requirements and affective haptic preferences of socially anxious users. User suggestions and affective preferences from these surveys informed the testing of a wider selection of emotionally resonant cues in the third experiment, trialed alongside warm and cool thermal cues to observe impact on emotional resonance and response, although the effects were too minor to justify their future use. With a library of emotionally resonant stimuli validated, methods of delivering them to users was explored with participatory prototyping. Participants who reported high levels of social anxiety designed personalised comfort objects, then augmented them with stimuli. These designs informed the design of three prototype objects which were augmented with vibrations in a final between-groups study which assessed if they could reduce anxiety during a social exposure task. Participants in the treatment group held their choice of object and stimulus during exposure and exhibited significantly more varied anxiety responses to the task than a control group, reporting that their objects were calming and helpful. These findings suggest that emotionally resonant vibrotactile cues can act as a calming intervention, but their efficacy requires personalisation and varies strongly per user. This thesis contributes novel understanding of the specific requirements of socially anxious users when interacting with affective haptics and pioneers a new category of calming vibrotactile stimuli, with demonstrable applicability in socially anxious settings.
... Social anxiety, similar to the otaku phenomenon (Galbraith, 2010), is defined as "a state of anxiety resulting from the prospect or presence of interpersonal evaluation in real or imagined social settings" (Leary, 1983); it is characterized by an extensive fear of being evaluated by others (Wieser et al., 2010); it is also regarded as a form of shyness (Baker & Oswald, 2010;Madell & Muncer, 2006), and it is the most common type of anxiety for a personal life prevalence that affects more than 12% of the human population (Heeren et al., 2015;Stein & Stein, 2008). Socially anxious individuals describe their relationships with family, friends, and even partners as damaged (Erwin et al., 2004), and often feel afraid to talk in public or meet with strangers and are uneasy about making new friends in the real world (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Social anxiety is a disorder characterized by an intense fear of social situations causing impaired ability and considerable distress to function in at least some aspects of daily life (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). ...
... Socially anxious individuals describe their relationships with family, friends, and even partners as damaged (Erwin et al., 2004), and often feel afraid to talk in public or meet with strangers and are uneasy about making new friends in the real world (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Social anxiety is a disorder characterized by an intense fear of social situations causing impaired ability and considerable distress to function in at least some aspects of daily life (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Therefore, the Internet can be considered as a communication tool that makes it possible to avoid face-to-face contact with people. ...
... Previous research has found that socially anxious individuals are likely to strengthen their Internet interactions to avoid face-to-face interactions (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Besides, Kraut et al. (2002) suggested that socially anxious individuals who spend a large amount of time interacting with others on the Internet are more likely to express greater comfort in interactions and higher reliance on the Internet as a social outlet to the exclusion of face-to-face interactions. ...
A higher number of socially anxious users were found as more users joined social network sites. Since social commerce has become an important issue, this study investigated the effect of social anxiety on online users’ social commerce intention. Online social interactions are hypothesized to influence social commerce intention directly or indirectly through online social support. 427 effective samples were collected from Facebook users, and the results confirmed most of the causal effects. The study also tested the moderating effect of social anxiety on the causal effects. Of the eight relationships, social anxiety significantly moderates six of them. The relationships between online social interaction and emotional support and between online social interaction and social commerce intention are stronger for users with higher social anxiety. For users with lower social anxiety, the relationship between social support and the receiving of social commerce intention is stronger. The research findings lead to significant theoretical contributions and managerial implications.
... These maladaptive cognitions result in a combination of predisposed individual vulnerabilities, such as social anxiety and the user experience of online applications. Although social media addiction is positively associated with insecure attachment (anxious and avoidant, D'Arienzo et al., 2019) and with loneliness (Primack et al., 2017), social anxiety is known to be strongly related to the development of Internet addiction (Caplan, 2006;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016) and has already been identified as a key vulnerability to YouTube addiction (de Bérail et al., 2019). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis: H4a: viewer characteristics, especially social anxiety, will be associated with the viewer degree of YouTube addiction. ...
... The desire to engage in parasocial processes with the favorite YouTuber also mediated the relationship between viewer social anxiety and YouTube addiction. These results are in line with previous studies reporting an association between PSR and social media addiction (Baek et al., 2013(Baek et al., , 2014, and between social anxiety and online addiction (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). In a previous study, we found that PSR and viewer social anxiety were positively associated with YouTube addiction and that PSR mediated this relationship (de Bérail et al., 2019). ...
... For this reason, YouTubers could promote positive social or health behaviors among adolescents and prevention campaigns targeting this particular audience could rely on these media figures. As socially anxious individuals appear to report more intense parasocial relationships with YouTubers and are also specifically vulnerable to other disorders such as depression, drug abuse (Buckner et al., 2008;Lecrubier et al., 2000), Internet addiction (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016), or smartphone addiction (Enez Darcin et al., 2016), designing prevention campaigns relying on YouTubers could be very efficient. ...
YouTube is a popular social media platform that fosters the development of social bonds between viewers and YouTubers called parasocial relationships (PSR). These relationships might be associated with both viewer characteristics, such as social anxiety, and YouTuber video characteristics, such as self-disclosure. Additionally, PSR might be associated with the level of addiction to the platform. Data from 370 college students were extracted from a previous study and 360 videos of 72 YouTubers were coded to (a) explore the different dimensions of PSR and (b) examine a mediation model of YouTube addiction. The results support the existence of three PSR dimensions. The results also showed that PSR dimensions were associated with both viewers’ social anxiety and YouTubers’ evaluative self-disclosure. One PSR dimension was positively associated with YouTube addiction. This study encourages the development of qualitative studies to more precisely identify the different facets of PSR with social media figures.
... In the IS field, SIA has been considered an individual trait related to a problematic use (e.g. addiction) of the internet, cell phone, social media and online games, especially among young people (Elhai et al., 2018;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016;Stetina et al., 2011). Specifically, a metaanalysis by Prizant-Passal et al. (2016) suggested that SIA is positively correlated with a feeling of comfort online (rather than in-person interactions), time spent on gaming and social media. ...
... addiction) of the internet, cell phone, social media and online games, especially among young people (Elhai et al., 2018;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016;Stetina et al., 2011). Specifically, a metaanalysis by Prizant-Passal et al. (2016) suggested that SIA is positively correlated with a feeling of comfort online (rather than in-person interactions), time spent on gaming and social media. People with SIA were more comfortable with technology-mediated communications (Pierce, 2009). ...
... As discussed, overall findings from extant studies on the effect of SIA have been negative (e.g. Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). However, our findings on SIA suggest that CT can be used to address some negative effects of high SIA and can eventually improve the customers' overall experience in some human-facing service settings, including QSR and other service environments. ...
Purpose
This study aims to apply the information system success model (ISSM) to examine the relationships among actual use, use continuance intention, user satisfaction and net benefits in the context of quick-service restaurant (QSR) patrons using two contactless technologies (CT): self-service kiosks (SSK) and mobile applications (MA) for food ordering. The study also investigates the moderating roles of social interaction anxiety (SIA) and language proficiency (LP) in the abovementioned relationships.
Design/methodology/approach
Survey data from 421 QSR patrons with experience using McDonald's SSK and MA were collected and analyzed through a seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR) technique.
Findings
Research findings reveal positive associations among actual use, use continuance intention and satisfaction with CT (i.e. SSK and MA). The actual use and satisfaction with CT are positively associated with individual benefits, leading to improved patron satisfaction with QSR. Findings also reveal that, in the case of MA, SIA positively moderates relationships between actual use/satisfaction and individual benefits and between satisfaction and organizational benefit, while LP shows negative moderating effects on those relationships.
Originality/value
This study is one of the first attempts to present empirical evidence of constructs in the ISSM (actual use, use continuance intention, satisfaction and individual/organizational benefits) in the context of QSR patrons using SSK and MA. It also shows that using MA can address some patrons' psychological problems interacting with others in their food-ordering processes.
... Sosyal kaygı her yaştan bireyi olumsuz anlamda etkileyebilirken ergenlik dönemindeki bireylerin diğerleri tarafından izlenme ve değerlendirilme kaygısı ile birlikte sosyal kaygı sorunundan daha çok etkilendikleri belirtilmektedir (30,31). Yapılan çalışmalar sosyal kaygının başlangıç yaşının 12 yaş civarında olduğunu, orta ergenlik dönemi olan 13-14 yaşlarının ise sosyal kaygının görülme sıklığının en fazla olduğu yaş aralığı olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır (32).Sosyal kaygısı yüksek bireyler, diğer insanlar ile birlikte iken kaygı, utangaçlık, korku, stres gibi olumsuz duygular ile karşı karşıya kalabildikleri için yüz yüze iletişim yolunu tercih etmekten kaçınmakta (24) gizlilik, anında cevap vermeme alternatifi (25,26,27) gibi nedenlerden dolayı daha konforlu ve rahat bir iletişim sağladığı için sosyal medya aracılığıyla iletişim kurmayı tercih etmektedirler (28,29,96). Sosyal medya kullanımı, sosyal kaygısı olan kişilerin başkalarıyla iletişim kurmasını kolaylaştırırken potansiyel tehdidi ve buna bağlı kaygıyı en aza indiren güvenli davranışlardan biri haline gelmektedir (97). ...
... Bu iki değişkeni birlikte incelemenin en önemli gerekçesi, ergenlik döneminin doğasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Literatürdeki yapılan araştırmalar incelendiğinde, ergenlik döneminde artan izlenme ve değerlendirilme kaygısı ile birlikte gençlerin sosyal kaygı sorunundan daha çok etkilendikleri (30) ve sosyal kaygısı yüksek bireylerin de yüz yüze iletişim kurmak yerine daha çok sanal ortamlar üzerinden iletişim kurmayı tercih ettikleri (29) bilinmektedir. Yeni gelişim görevleri ile birlikte birçok yeni becerinin kazanılıp yeterlik inancının sınandığı bu dönemde, yeni becerilerin test edilebilmesi için gerçek yaşam koşullarına ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. ...
Objective: The aim of the current study was to determine the effects of social anxiety, academic self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, emotional self-efficacy on predicting adolescents' social media addiction. Method: The study group of this research consisted of 532 students continuing their education in the 7th and 8th grades. While determining the study group of the research, easily accessible case sampling, one of the sampling methods, was used. The relational survey method was administered in this study. "Social Media Addiction Scale for Adolescents", the "Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents", the "Self-Efficacy Scale for Children" and the "Personal Information Form" were used as data collection instruments. Results: The results of the study show that there is a positive significant relationship between social media addiction and social anxiety and a negative significant relationship between social media addiction and academic self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, and emotional self-efficacy. According to the results of the multiple regression analysis, it was concluded that adolescents' social anxiety, academic self-efficacy and social self-efficacy scores were a significant predictor of social media addiction, but emotional self-efficacy scores were not a significant predictor of social media addiction. Conclusion: The findings obtained as a result of the research were weighed in the context of other research findings, and suggestions were made to the practitioners and researchers.
... Studies have shown that social anxiety is a predisposing factor in the problematic use of various technologies, including mobile phones (Kong et al., 2020), social media (Dempsey et al., 2019), and the Internet (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). These findings provide general insights into the problematic use of digital media. ...
... The effect of social anxiety on problematic technology use has been well documented within the I-PACE framework. For example, research has shown that social anxiety is a proximal factor leading to the problematic use of various technologies, such as the Internet (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016) and mobile phones (Kong et al., 2020). By extending the I-PACE model and related earlier findings to the domain of CAI, this study predicts that social anxiety is also likely to promote PUCAI. ...
The growing prevalence of conversational artificial intelligence (CAI), digital agents that talk and respond socially to users, has increased the likelihood of over-dependency on this new technology. Drawing on the interaction of person-affect-cognition-execution model, this study examined how social anxiety, loneliness, and rumination contribute to the problematic use of CAI (PUCAI). The study also investigated the moderating role of mind perception by analyzing how the human-like mental capacity of CAI influences PUCAI. The serial mediation and moderated mediation analyses of data collected from 516 CAI users (214 males and 302 females, Mage = 27.06) revealed that social anxiety was positively associated with PUCAI, and this connection was serially mediated by loneliness and rumination. Moreover, mind perception intensified the positive association between social anxiety and PUCAI, but it buffered the positive association between rumination and PUCAI.
... Problematic Internet use and specific Internet-related disorders share similar patterns of relationships with specific poor social functioning indicators. Previous studies showed that they are both related to anxious and avoidant attachment (e.g., D'Arienzo et al., 2019;Kor et al., 2014;Marci et al., 2021), feelings of social isolation and loneliness (Biolcati et al., 2018;Bőthe et al., 2018), and social anxiety (Atroszko et al., 2018;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016;Wéry et al., 2020). ...
... Poor social functioning, namely loneliness, social anxiety, anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment, was positively related to all components of problematic Internet use. Those results are congruent with the theory of problematic Internet use and previous studies (Marci et al., 2021;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Individuals with poor social skills might be more prone to problematic Internet use as they tend to decrease the risk of social judgment and want to control their self-presentation (Brailovskaia et al., 2020a;Caplan, 2006). ...
Background: The present study aimed to adapt and psychometrically validate the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 (GPIUS2) based on the cognitive-behavioral model of problematic Internet use. Furthermore, the study aimed to examine the relationship between problematic Internet use and other specific Internet-related disorders (i.e., Social Networking Sites addiction, Facebook addiction, and problematic pornography use), as well as the relationships with indicators of poor psychosocial functioning.
Participants and Procedure: GPIUS2 was administered to 1155 young Internet users. Participants completed a survey assessing problematic Internet use, specific Internet related-disorders, and indicators of poor psychosocial functioning (anxious and avoidant attachment, social anxiety, and loneliness) via two measuring contexts (online and offline).
Results: Results support a four-factor internal structure of the GPIUS2, similar to the initially proposed and the results of the previous studies. GPIUS2 demonstrated good reliability as well as scalar invariance across online and offline measured contexts.
Conclusions: Problematic Internet use is a multidimensional construct rather than a one-dimensional construct with strong albeit not overlapped positive relations to the other specific Internet-related disorders. Those relationships are especially strong among problematic activities related to the social context of Internet use. Furthermore, our findings prove the theoretical assumptions that psychosocial problems and poor social skills are related to problematic Internet use.
... Prior studies (e.g., Erwin et al., 2004;Pierce, 2009;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016) have identified the relationship between various communication technologies and social anxiety. Socially interactive technologies, such as instant messaging and chat rooms, could positively and negatively affect face-to-face communication among individuals with high social anxiety (Pierce, 2009). ...
... These technologies allow socially anxious users to avoid unpleasant situations (Pierce, 2009). Prizant-Passal et al. (2016) found that socially anxious users tend to use online communication tools more intensively. While positive experience communicating with others and an increased sense of social support online could lead to high confidence in face-to-face communication (Erwin et al., 2004), replacing in-person interactions with mediated communication could hinder one's ability to interact with others in social situations (Nie & Hillygus, 2002). ...
The rise in MIM apps usage have resulted in increased interruptions to people daily social life, causing distractions and online social anxiety. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of social, technical, and mobility factors on social anxiety, as well as the initial and continuation intention of users of MIM applications. We surveyed 231 Taiwanese users of the leading MIM app LINE. Smart-PLS was adopted to analyze social, technical, mobility, social anxiety, and MIM continuation intentions. Our findings show that online social anxiety can decrease both initial and continuation intentions for MIM apps. Moreover, online social anxiety moderates the relationship between initial and continuance adoption intentions. However, social, technical, and mobility factors appears to have positive influences on the initial MIM adoption intention. Therefore, the three factors can be integrated to promote MIM app use without increasing social anxiety.
... Perceptions of the Internet as providing opportunities for invisibility and control over the timing and content of communication may foster a sense of comfort, safety, or protection in online settings, or lower anxiety when communicating online versus in face-to-face settings (Yen et al., 2012). Supporting this suggestion, a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that social anxiety is positively associated with feelings of comfort in online settings for social interaction, and with the degree to which perceptions of reduced nonverbal cues online contribute to feelings of comfort online (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Kamalou et al. (2019) found a positive association between social anxiety and preferences for methods of online communication that afford greater control over self-presentation and safety. ...
... Notably, however, socially anxious young adults did not report perceiving that the Internet affords greater control over social interactions and self-presentation in the online environment, nor did they differ in levels of social Internet use as compared than their less-anxious counterparts. This finding supports past research that found there was no significant association between social anxiety and time spent engaging with others online (Doorley et al., 2020;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). However, the finding is novel in that it demonstrates that in online settings, social engagement levels among socially anxious and less-anxious young adults appear commensurate. ...
A growing area of research has begun to explore the opportunities that social media and the Internet provide for social connection. In contributing to this literature, the current study aimed to examine links between young adults’ perceptions of protection and control in the online environment, social Internet use, and social connectedness. Furthermore, as online communication has been suggested to be beneficial for those who are socially anxious, we tested social anxiety as a moderator of the aforementioned associations. A sample of Australian young adults (N = 687; 59.8% female; Mage = 19.45 years, SD = 2.07) were included in the study. A multigroup mediation model tested the effects of perceptions of protection and control online on social connectedness, via social Internet use, for groups of young adults classified as socially anxious, or low to moderate in social anxiety. For all young adults, social Internet use was positively associated with social connectedness, but there were key differences in the associations between Internet perceptions and social connectedness among young adults with and without social anxiety. For example, for socially anxious young adults, perceptions of control online were directly associated with lower social connectedness. Furthermore, although perceptions of protection online were linked to lower social connectedness of those without social anxiety, the negative effect was not significant for socially anxious young adults. These findings may have implications for clinical practice, and importantly, highlight links between perceptions of online contexts and connectedness that may be driven by social anxiety. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)
... Shaw and colleagues (2015) also confirmed that passive use is considered a significant predictor of social anxiety (81). Therefore, it can be concluded that people with high social anxiety may prefer online communication to face-to-face interactions as a way to reduce and control anxiety symptoms such as physical symptoms (82). However, we should be mindful that this type of social anxiety measured by the SAS-SMU can even lead people to stay away from social media, rather than causing them to overuse it. ...
Objective: Social anxiety refers to an excessive concern or fear about social situations. It seems that social media, which has become one of the most popular and effective tools for communication today, can be one of the contexts of social anxiety. Due to the lack of a Persian instrument to assess social anxiety in the context of social networks, the current study was undertaken to analyze the psychometric criteria of the Iranian version of the Social Anxiety Scale for Social Media Users (SAS-SMU). The SAS-SMU is a 21-item questionnaire designed by Alkis and colleagues (2017) to measure social anxiety emerging from the social media platforms. Method: In this study, a total of 842 participants within the age range of 11 to 82 years old (mean age 33.11 ± 12.134), 59% female) answered the questions in an online survey. The original version of the scale was translated into Persian using the back translation procedure. All participants completed a Demographic Questionnaire, the SAS-SMU, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory. In order to analyze the collected data, internal and external consistency, factor analysis, construct validity, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were examined. A significance level of less than 0.05 was considered to determine statistical significance. Results: Four subscales were obtained from the exploratory factor analysis (SCA, PCA, IA, and SEA), which were confirmed by the confirmatory factor analysis. Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency was found to be 0.931 for the total scale and 0.920, 0.846, 0.901, 0.828 for SCA, PCA, IA, and SEA, respectively. In addition, the test-retest scores of 30 participants (interval: between 2 to 3 weeks) for all four subscales (SCA = 0.641, PCA = 0.773, IA = 0.688, SEA = 0.727) indicated acceptable stability of the questionnaire over time. Conclusion: This study validates the Persian version of the SAS-SMU for use in studies in the field of psychological problems related to social media and online communications.
... It is likely that the use of problematic gaming and PIU as compensatory strategies also extends to the negative interpersonal-related outcomes associated with this insecure attachment style (e.g., fewer peer relationships, lower social competence) (Kokkinos et al., 2016) and its characteristics (e.g., constant concern about the possibility of abandonment and the unavailability of others). It is likely that for individuals with an anxious social group attachment style, it is easier to establish and maintain social connections in cyberspace because in this space, there are fewer indicators of social rejection (e.g., there are fewer non-verbal cues [Venter, 2019]) and there are fewer communication barriers for people with some degree of social anxiety (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Also in cyberspace, others are more readily accessible , which likely leads to a lower concern about the unavailability of others. ...
Gaming and Internet use are positively associated with benefits for interpersonal relationships in adolescence, with these behaviors when excessive having been negatively linked with positive aspects of interpersonal connections, such as secure attachment. Using a representative sample of 7918 Portuguese adolescents, with ages ranging from 13 to 19 (Mage = 15.5, 53.3% females), and three self-report measures of problematic gaming, problematic Internet use, and social group attachment (secure, anxious, avoidant), this cross-sectional study aimed to examine the associations between problematic gaming, as well as problematic Internet use, and secure and insecure (anxious and avoidant) social group attachment styles, in the groups with and without these problems. In the groups without problematic gaming and without problematic Internet use, excessive gaming and involvement with the Internet were negatively associated with secure social group attachment and positively associated with anxious social group attachment; on the other hand, in the groups with severe levels of these problems, problematic gaming and Internet use were positively associated with secure social group attachment and negatively associated with anxious social group attachment. These results go against what had been initially hypothesized and suggest that in the case of adolescents with severe levels of these problems, they may serve as an effective compensatory mechanism for coping with the negative effects of insecure attachment styles, which in turn likely contributes to the maintenance of problematic gaming and Internet use.
... As the first study to examine the effects of internet use on social interactions and well-being, Kraut et al. (74) concluded that internet use decreases social interaction with family and friends, thus increasing loneliness and decreasing well-being. Several early studies supported the view that internet usage reduces face-to-face interaction time, which negatively impacts the happiness of individuals (32,33,(51)(52)(53)(54)75). According to more and more researchers, as ICTs have developed and the internet has become increasingly popular, particularly with the emergence of SNSs, the use of the internet does not entirely replace face-to-face communication with family and friends. ...
Using data from the 2018 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this study investigates the impact of internet use on residents’ happiness. Empirical results show that internet use significantly enhances residents’ happiness. Considering the possible endogeneity problem, a two-stage tool variable estimation is carried out with ownership of a mobile phone as the tool variable. After overcoming the endogenous problem and conducting a series of robustness tests, the conclusion is still valid. The action mechanism finds that social interaction frequency and socioeconomic status (SES) play significant mediating effects in the process of internet use affecting happiness. Specifically, internet use significantly increases the social interaction frequency of residents and enhances their SES. The improvement of social interaction frequency and SES will significantly increase residents’ happiness. Therefore, this paper gives policy recommendations from the perspectives of regulating and deepening internet use, increasing the frequency of communication among residents, and improving their SES to better enhance their happiness.
... For people with social anxiety, online social interaction may be less distressing than offline social interaction (Erliksson et al., 2020). A review confirms that many socially anxious individuals prefer online above offline communication, although such preference is more typically seen in adults than adolescents (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Both social anxiety and generalized anxiety disorder in childhood are associated with difficulties in social interaction (McClure & J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Nowicki, 2001;Pickard et al., 2017;Scharfstein et al., 2011) and the tendency to withdraw from social contact (Kingery et al., 2010). ...
... For example, girls tend to show excessive fear of social events, people in authority, criticism, and talking to strangers, as compared with boys (Ranta et al., 2007). Remote working reduces face-toface interaction, provides certain anonymity, and enables asynchronous communication (see a summary by Prizant-Passal et al., 2016), all of which minimize the likelihood of making undesirable impressions on others. Moreover, both laboratory and field studies confirm that males are more eager to compete, and their performance is more positively associated with competition (Niederle & Vesterlund, 2011). ...
The unprecedented COVIDÀ19 pandemic required millions of people across the world to become remote workers. However, little is known about how to achieve effective remote working for organizations. This study investigates the types of employees that are more suited to accepting remote working by considering two determinants: gender and internet skills. Based on an official data set from China, this study reveals that females are more likely to accept remote working, as are those employees with advanced internet skills. This study further investigates the impacts of perceived benefits on employees' acceptance of remote working. It appears that the preference of females for remote working is attributed to avoiding face-to-face interaction rather than free time planning. This study is among the first to reveal how skill matching matters in order to be successful remote workers. Meanwhile, this study indicates that it is gender-specific psychological differences rather than the division of labor in families that motivate females to accept remote working, an important observation which has been neglected so far. The findings are helpful for employers and employees in the post-pandemic era.
... In contrast, recent meta-analyses have provided evidence that social interaction through social media and the internet may have a negative impact on children's wellbeing. Prizant-Passal et al. [21] identified 22 studies including more than 13,000 youths and found that social anxiety is positively related to internet use (e.g., feelings of comfort online and problematic use of social media apps). Similarly, Appel et al. [22] reviewed meta-analytic evidence and found intensive use of social media apps is positively associated with loneliness, depression, and narcissism. ...
The purpose of this perspective article is to identify problematic behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic and recommend a school-based intervention (e.g., self-reflection, motivational interview, and workbook) to address post-COVID social anxiety among children and adolescents. The recommendations involve comparing students’ social interaction behaviors pre-pandemic, during the pandemic, and post-pandemic, and evaluating any behavioral changes in social relationships six months later. We also discuss the evaluation criteria and surveys used to assess the impact of the intervention on behavioral changes. Our evaluation criteria are based on students’ beliefs and abilities and aim to demonstrate that the intervention improves in-person social interactions and helps students adapt to the transition back to school. The proposed perspectives and strategies of the intervention can be modified to meet the needs of the researchers and professionals. By working together, global policymakers from the fields of education and public health can create school-based interventions that enhance students’ physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. This program aims to mitigate the negative effects of school closures and social isolation and to broaden the role of schools in supporting students in the challenging post-pandemic world by addressing their holistic needs.
... It could be noted though, that the higher level of comfort experienced by social anxiety sufferers online could also become an incentive to avoid the face-to-face interactions that have the potential to generate anxious feelings (cf.Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Avoidance behaviours may provide temporary relief from anxiety, but they could hinder the capacity to regulate such feelings and potentially increase anxiety in the relevant situations. ...
During the pandemic of Covid-19, internet-based communication became for many the primary, or only, means of interaction with others, and it has been argued that this had a host of negative effects on emotional and mental health. However, some people with a lived experience of mental ill-health also perceived improvements to their wellbeing during the period in which social activities were moved online.
In this paper, I explore the possibility that some of these improvements are due to the partial “disembodiment” of emotions facilitated by internet-mediated interaction. In particular, I consider the phenomenology of social anxiety and how it may be impacted upon by encountering others primarily through the medium of internet-enabled technology.
I will start by reconstructing a phenomenological account of social anxiety to which disruptions of bodily experience are central. I will then move to consider how the experiential dynamics that are particularly prominent in social anxiety can be weakened when communicating with others via video calls, instant messages, and social media more broadly. I will suggest that this is the case due to the diminished visibility of the body online, and the higher degree of control and agency over one’s experience that can be exercised in this context.
Finally, I will argue that the weakening of social anxiety through internet-mediated contact exemplifies some of the processes which are key to emotion regulation more widely, thus suggesting that communication and interaction online could have a positive effect on a wider range of affective disturbances.
... The result found has important implications for the prevention of PIU, a phenomenon with significant negative repercussions on mental and physical health, as well as significant associated economic costs [66]. Resilience may function as a protective factor for PIU by mitigating the negative impact of adverse situations or environments, causing individuals to suffer lower levels of depression or anxiety [67], two variables that have been consistently linked in the scientific literature to PIU [12,[68][69][70]. Additionally, in theoretical terms, the negative association found between resilience and PIU could be explained in relation to the I-PACE model, which explains the onset and development of PIU by the interaction of personal, affective, cognitive and executive variables [6]. ...
Problematic Internet use has become a major problem worldwide due to its numerous negative correlates in the field of health, both mental and physical, and its increasing prevalence, making it necessary to study both its risk and protective factors. Several studies have found a negative relationship between resilience and problematic Internet use, although the results are inconsistent. This meta-analysis assesses the relationship between problematic Internet use and resilience, and analyses its possible moderating variables. A systematic search was conducted in PsycInfo, Web of Science and Scopus. A total of 93,859 subjects from 19 studies were included in the analyses. The results show that there is a statistically-significant negative relationship (r = −0.27 (95% CI [−0.32, −0.22]), with publication bias. This meta-analysis presents strong evidence of the relationship between the two variables. Limitations and practical implications are discussed.
... Alleviating negative emotional states arising from stressful contexts or adversities in life and escaping from everyday problems 114,[258][259][260][261][262] Interpersonal Social anxiety Overwhelming fear of social situations 5,239,[263][264][265] Attachment style Internalized mental representation of the self and others in close relationships 266 Feelings of isolation and loneliness - [267][268][269] Deficiencies in selfother differentiation Impaired ability to experience a sense of self as a separate individual in relationships with others 270 These results suggest that online multiplayer games might attract more vulnerable players. ...
Gaming disorder was officially recognized as a disorder of addictive behaviour in the International Classification of Diseases 11th revision in 2019. Since then, other types of potentially problematic online behaviour have been discussed as possible candidates for inclusion in the psychiatric nosography of addictive disorders. Understanding these problematic online behaviours requires further study of the specific psychological mechanisms involved in their formation and maintenance. An important but underdeveloped line of research has examined the ways in which technology design features might influence users’ capacity to exert control over how they engage with and use websites and applications, thereby amplifying uncontrolled, and perhaps addictive, use. In this Review, we critically examine the available research on the relationships between technology design features and the loss of control and harms experienced by those who engage in online video gaming, online gambling, cybersexual activities, online shopping, social networking and on-demand TV streaming. We then propose a theory-driven general taxonomy of the design features of online applications that might promote uncontrolled and problematic online behaviours.
... Moreover, individuals' perceived severity is highly associated with the feelings of anxiety [38], and recent studies have shown that COVID-19's severity could also predict individuals' social anxiety [39]. As a serious consequence of relational victimization, social anxiety is also a predictor of video game addiction [40,41]. According to cognitive-behavioral theory, social anxiety is an underlying psychopathology in overuse of the internet [16]. ...
Video game addiction, a common behavioral problem among college students, has been more prominent during the COVID-19 pandemic; at the same time, females’ video game usage has also attracted considerable research attention. Against this background and under the perspective of social interaction, this study aimed to examine the relationship between relational victimization and video game addiction among female college students, as well as its underlying mechanism—the mediating roles of social anxiety and parasocial relationships with virtual characters. Female college students (N = 437) were recruited to complete a set of questionnaires voluntarily in June 2022. Through the mediating effect analysis, the results found that (1) relational victimization was positively associated with female college students’ video game addiction; (2) social anxiety and parasocial relationships with virtual characters could independently mediate this relation; (3) social anxiety and parasocial relationships with virtual characters were also the serial mediators in this association. These findings not only expand previous studies by revealing the social motivation of video game usage and the underlying mechanism accounting for video game addiction, but also provide basis and guidance for the prevention and intervention of video game addiction in the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... These results suggest that IA may be characterized by blunted cortisol responses in acute stress settings. The results demonstrated that depression, trait anxiety, and perceived stress are higher in IA, supporting prior studies (e.g., Alpaslan et al., 2016;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). Additionally, negative affect acutely increased in response to the stressful task, supporting the validity of the stress task used in this study. ...
Studies have demonstrated that addiction leads to blunted responses of cortisol and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) to acute stressors; however, limited studies have examined the neuroendocrine and SNS stress responses in Internet addiction (IA). To examine acute stress responses in IA, the current study recruited a total of 76 Japanese university students and staff members (51 females and 25 males, mean age = 22.4 years, SD = 4.7), and measured the salivary cortisol, salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), and blood pressure (BP) responses to an acute stressor under stress or a nonstress placebo conditions in IA and non-IA groups. The results revealed that patients with IA showed a blunted cortisol response to a stressor. In contrast, no differences were found in the sAA and BP responses between the IA and non-IA groups. These results suggest that IA may be characterized by blunted cortisol responses in acute stress settings.
... Existing research on digital stress and the effects of too much internet interaction on individuals is wide-ranging, although there is a dearth of studies examining the effects of increased use of internet and digital technologies by faculty since the online pivot. Prizant-Passal et al. (2016) propose that excessive use of internet is detrimental for mental health. According to Przybylski and Weinstein (2017) some use of digital technology is not intrinsically harmful, where used in moderation, while high levels are related to worsened levels of well-being, suggesting that excessive absorption in virtual communication has a detrimental effect on individuals. ...
Much has been written about the demands of ‘pandemic pedagogy’ and the ‘online pivot’ which have seen educators across the globe move to online teaching. Multiple studies are emerging of these online pedagogies and hasty upskills. Less exploration exists on the educator’s own curation of the online self and on the extra workload of teaching online. This paper draws on the work of Zygmunt Bauman and Rein Raud, their work on performativity and ‘practices of selfhood’, to examine educators’ self-curation onscreen. I suggest that educators’ work has expanded to include the cultivation of an online self and that teaching online is a feature of the encroachment on the personal space and personal lives of academics. Teaching online, as such, is being weaponized by the neoliberal agendas at play in the education field.
... Also browsing information in social media can make individuals overly concerned with the behavioral performance of the self in social situations, the more severe the tendency of social anxiety (Vannucci et al., 2017). Not only social media, but also time spent on games and social anxiety are positively correlated (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). It has also been proven that frequent users of social media develop irrational beliefs such as others are better and happier than they are, and can have psychological emergence such as social comparison (De Vries and Kühne, 2015), and this leads to emotional experiences such as anxiety and depression (Shaw et al., 2015). ...
As modernization continues to advance the development of digital society, social media has become an important part of people’s daily life and an extension and expansion of real social interactions. In this process, social media use and individual social psychology have increasingly become the object of academic attention, among which the relationship between selfie behavior, as an important interaction practice of youth group in social media, and social anxiety needs to be further explored and discussed. The purpose of this study is to investigate the current situation of selfie behavior, body image, and social anxiety among young people in China. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative empirical methods, a questionnaire survey was conducted in Chinese mainland (n = 920) to examine the mediating effects of social comparison and body image on social media selfie behavior and social anxiety, and found that there was a significant negative relationship between youth social media selfie behavior and social anxiety, while the sequence mediating effects of social comparison and body image were significant. The findings of the study provide new ideas and directions for exploring the intervention paths of youth social psychology in the era of image socialization.
... The use of the internet could be conceived as part of a set of diverse contributory antecedents and functions related to well-being [32]. Some studies have found that, the more time one spends on the internet and on using instant messages, the more likely they are to be associated with high levels of depression, loneliness, and a decrease in happiness [33][34][35]. Another branch of literature supported the positive impacts of the internet on individuals' subjective well-being. ...
During the past decades, the number of rural–urban migrants has dramatically increased in China. Their well-being is important for social development and has attracted the attention of researchers. This paper adopts five waves of repeated cross-sectional datasets within a nine-year span, included in the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS 2010–2018), to evaluate the impacts and mechanisms of internet adoption on the health status and subjective well-being of rural–urban migrants. Empirical results suggest that there are significant positive correlations between internet adoption and health status as well as subjective well-being. The results of structural equation modeling suggest that the impact of the internet on well-being occurs through increasing, bridging, and bonding social capital for rural–urban migrants. The mediating impact of bonding social capital on subjective well-being is more prominent, while the mediating impact of bridging social capital on health is stronger. Furthermore, we have explored the heterogeneous effects across gender and education. This is an early study which investigates such an important topic in the context of the digital era.
... Previously, it has been demonstrated that social anxiety is positively correlated with PSI (Greenwood, 2008). In line with a suggestion that those high in social anxiety perceive online communication as less threatening than communicating face-to-face (Lee & Stapinski, 2012;Weidman et al., 2012), socially anxious individuals may use the 'safe place' provided by the internet to avoid face-to-face interactions (e.g., Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). In a study specific to users of the video streaming platform YouTube, social anxiety was found to predict PSIs (de Bérail et al., 2019), and it was also found to predict YouTube addiction. ...
With the rise in accessibility of media personae and celebrities through social media sites, parasocial relationships (PSRs) can offer a meaningful alternative for individuals who experience obstacles in forming real-life relationships. Existing research suggests that PSRs are multidimensional. Building on this, we considered how social media and social anxiety factors relate to the dimensions of PSRs. We examine whether social media engagement, social media addiction, and social interaction anxiety predict parasocial-love and parasocial-friendship. Participants (N = 239) responded to a questionnaire assessing multiple elements of PSRs, social interaction anxiety, social media engagement, and social media addiction. Results revealed social media addiction to be a significant predictor of parasocial-friendship and emotional aspects of parasocial-love. However, physical aspects of the parasocial-love were predicted by social media engagement. Social interaction anxiety was only associated with aspects of parasocial-love but did not predict this type of PSR. These findings suggest that developing a PSR may be strongly linked to social media use and foster social media addiction, whilst face-to-face social interaction anxiety may be less relevant to PSRs with celebrities. The current results also support the suggestion that PSRs with media personalities are multifaceted.
... According to data from the 2016 Social Tracking Survey of Older People in China, watching news, chatting, and watching movies and dramas are the top functions most frequently used by older people. However, studies found that Internet use for learning is positively associated with subjective well-being, but Internet use mainly for gaming and leisure is positively associated with perceived stress, depression and anxiety (Prizant-Passal et al., 2016;Paez et al., 2020). Therefore, we suggest that MAOP should control the amount of time they spend online and use the Internet more for chatting, reading news and studying, and less for playing games and relaxing. ...
The purposes of this study were to investigate the effects of gender and marital status on depression among middle-aged and older people in China, and to explore the mediating effect of subjective well-being and the moderating effect of degree of digitization in the relationship between subjective well-being and depression. A total of 15,586 Chinese middle-aged and older people (≥ 45 years old) were included in the study using data from the 2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS). T -test, ANOVA, hierarchical regression and Bootstrap methods were adopted to test the mediating role of subjective well-being and the moderating role of degree of digitization. The results showed that middle-aged and older women were more likely to suffer from depression than men, and married middle-aged and older people were less likely to be depressed than those who were separated or divorced, widowed and never married. Subjective well-being partially mediated the relationship between gender and depression, and masked the relationship between marital status and depression, and all five dimensions it contains also played a mediating role. Degree of digitization moderated the effect of subjective well-being on depression. Simple slope tests indicated that the effect of subjective well-being on depression increased as degree of digitization increased. In conclusion, to address the mental health problems of middle-aged and older people brought about by the ageing and digital society, we should start by improving their subjective well-being and promoting their integration into the digital society.
... Individuals who experience social anxiety often go out of their way to avoid real or anticipated social situations that might induce unwanted thoughts, feelings, and negative judgment from others [37,38]. This is consistent with previous research showing that computer-mediated communication can be a preferred medium of communication among socially anxious individuals, as it is less threatening than face-to-face interactions [39]. Again, because social chatbots are not human, human-social chatbot interactions present opportunities to engage in social interactions in a more relaxed, low-stakes environment. ...
Background
Although social chatbot usage is expected to increase as language models and artificial intelligence improve, very little is known about the dynamics of human-social chatbot interactions. Specifically, there is a paucity of research examining why human-social chatbot interactions are initiated and the topics that are discussed.
Objective
We sought to identify the motivating factors behind initiating contact with Replika, a popular social chatbot, and the topics discussed in these interactions.
Methods
A sample of Replika users completed a survey that included open-ended questions pertaining to the reasons why they initiated contact with Replika and the topics they typically discuss. Thematic analyses were then used to extract themes and subthemes regarding the motivational factors behind Replika use and the types of discussions that take place in conversations with Replika.
Results
Users initiated contact with Replika out of interest, in search of social support, and to cope with mental and physical health conditions. Users engaged in a wide variety of discussion topics with their Replika, including intellectual topics, life and work, recreation, mental health, connection, Replika, current events, and other people.
Conclusions
Given the wide range of motivational factors and discussion topics that were reported, our results imply that multifaceted support can be provided by a single social chatbot. While previous research already established that social chatbots can effectively help address mental and physical health issues, these capabilities have been dispersed across several different social chatbots instead of deriving from a single one. Our results also highlight a motivating factor of human-social chatbot usage that has received less attention than other motivating factors: interest. Users most frequently reported using Replika out of interest and sought to explore its capabilities and learn more about artificial intelligence. Thus, while developers and researchers study human-social chatbot interactions with the efficacy of the social chatbot and its targeted user base in mind, it is equally important to consider how its usage can shape public perceptions and support for social chatbots and artificial agents in general.
... A narrative review showed consistent evidence that adolescents' excessive social media use may lead to adverse psychosomatic conditions (e.g., sleep difficulties), psychological problems (e.g., anxiety and depression), and social developmental deficits (e.g., hostility and loneliness) [4]. Several meta-analysis studies also certified the relationship between children's and adolescents' excessive social media use and emotional disorders [5][6][7]. In addition, adolescents diagnosed with internet gaming disorder have more sleep problems [8]. ...
Adolescents’ excessive electronic device use is associated with psychological problems. However, it is unknown which psychological symptom, including emotional symptoms and sleep difficulty, correlates with excessive electronic device use most strongly. Besides, according to the social displacement theory, parent–adolescent communication might mediate the relationship between excessive electronic device use and psychological symptoms. Using the Czech national survey Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) data in the years 2006 (n = 4782) and 2014 (n = 5082), we used network analysis to explore the relationship between psychological symptoms and excessive electronic device use. In addition, we conducted a mediation analysis to examine the role of parent–adolescent communication. The results revealed that excessive electronic device use correlated most strongly with adolescents’ irritability or bad temper, and this conclusion was stable in 2006 and 2014. In 2014, parent–adolescent communication mediated the relationship between adolescents’ excessive electronic device use and their psychological symptoms. The findings suggest that as the internet industry grows, it is essential to improve parent–adolescent communication quality to prevent adolescents’ psychological problems caused by excessive electronic device use.
... Overall, these research findings suggest limited evidence for a longitudinal association between increased social media use and mental health problems (Coyne et al., 2020;Puukko et al., 2020) and that SM use may serve as an indicator rather than a determinant of risk of psychological distress (Beeres et al., 2021). In the current study, we extend previous research by examining the prospective association between PSMU and psychological distress among adults, given that there is evidence that the link between PSMU and mental health problems may be larger in older samples (Marino et al., 2018;Prizant-Passal et al., 2016). ...
Background
It still remains unclear whether problematic social media use (PSMU) is a cause or a consequence of psychological distress. The present study aimed to investigate the temporal relationships between PSMU and psychological distress through a three-wave panel study (between April and July 2020, with an interval of 1 month between each period of time).
Methods
3,912 adult Italian participants were surveyed during the COVID-19 pandemic for psychological distress (Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale) and PSMU (Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale). Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models were applied to disaggregate between-person from within-person associations as regards PSMU and an individual’s distress.
Results
On a between-person level we found that adults with higher PSMU also reported heightened levels of psychological distress across the three waves. However, on a within-person level, no cross-lagged associations were found between changes in distress and subsequent changes in PSMU and vice versa. The results were largely unchanged with the inclusion of participants’ gender and age or COVID-19-related fears as covariates, and when the three subscales of depression, anxiety and stress were examined in separate models.
Conclusions
The current study suggests that the link between PSMU and psychological distress is mainly driven by trait-like differences and not by state-like individual changes over time.
Phubbing harms relationships and reduces well‐being of phubbees. However, limited research has explored the potential causes and underlying mechanisms for phubbing; and an important risk factor, social anxiety, has been largely ignored from previous studies. The present study employed a moderated mediation model to examine whether social anxiety was positively related to phubbing, whether problematic social networking mediated the relationship, and whether the first path of this mediating process was moderated by family socioeconomic status. The data of 1379 undergraduates ( M age = 18.84; SD = 0.94) were collected anonymously to test the model. Findings demonstrated that social anxiety was positively linked to phubbing, problematic social networking mediated the linkage, and family socioeconomic status played a moderating role in the first stage. Specifically, the indirect association between social anxiety and phubbing via problematic social networking was stronger for undergraduates with lower family socioeconomic status. Results provide a new perspective for understanding phubbing and highlight the significance of uncovering the underlying mechanisms.
Socially anxious individuals struggle with establishing and maintaining social relationships. We hypothesized that, when socially anxious, people often turn to nostalgia, which alleviates the interpersonal competence deficits that accompany social anxiety. We tested and supported this hypothesis in six studies ( N = 1,858), three preregistered. In cross-sectional Study 1, higher (compared with lower) social anxiety individuals more frequently identified interpersonal incompetence as a trigger of nostalgia. In cross-sectional Study 2, social anxiety was associated negatively with interpersonal competence, but positively with nostalgia, which in turn predicted higher interpersonal competence. In the final four studies, we tested causation. Although social anxiety reduced interpersonal competence, it also triggered nostalgia (Studies 3–3S), and nostalgia increased interpersonal competence (Studies 4–5).
In the present study, we investigated the relationship between online vigilance and phubbing, a specific form of technoference that implies ignoring someone while favoring technological, Internet-based devices, such as smartphones. We also explored the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating role of moral disengagement in the relationship between online vigilance and phubbing. Our sample comprised 607 young adults aged 18 to 30 (M = 20.80, SD = 2.70, 71.5% females) who completed an online survey. Correlation analyses suggested significant positive relations between phubbing, loneliness, moral disengagement, and online vigilance. Subsequent analyses suggested that loneliness mediated the relation between online vigilance and phubbing, regardless of participants’ age and gender. At the same time, moral disengagement moderated this relationship. Finally, we discuss some practical ways to use these results (i.e. online vigilance and loneliness predict phubbing and moral disengagement moderates the relation between online vigilance and phubbing) to prevent and reduce phubbing behaviors among youth
Prior research has suggested that the use of social media could be associated with psycho- pathology (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms). To measure social anxiety associated with social media use, Alkis et al. (2017) developed the Social Anxiety Scale for Social Media Users (SAS-SMU). The aims of the present study were to investigate the factor structure of the SAS-SMU in a nonclinical sample of Italian adults and to analyze its psychometric properties. Three hundred and eighty participants (222 women and 158 men) were administered Italian versions of the SAS-SMU, the Social Phobia Inventory, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory Revised, the General Anxiety Disorder-7, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. The original hierarchical model, with four first-order factors and one second order factor had good fit to the data (χ2185=405.81, RMSEA=0.06, 95%CI 0.05–0.06, CFI=0.99, TLI=0.98, SRMR=0.04). SAS-SMU had satisfactory internal consistency (ordinal α=0.94) as well as good convergent and divergent validity. Finally, different SAS-SMU scores were associated with different level of social anxiety. The SAS-SMU is, therefore, a reliable and valid measure of social anxiety in relation to social media use.
In recent decades, the number of people who experience their Internet use behavior as problematic has risen dramatically. In Germany, a representative study from 2013 estimated the prevalence of Internet use disorder (IUD) to be about 1.0%, with higher rates among younger people. A 2020 meta-analysis shows a global weighted average prevalence of 7.02%. This indicates that developing effective IUD treatment programs is more critical than ever. Studies show that motivational interviewing (MI) techniques are widely used and effective in treating substance abuse and IUDs. In addition, an increasing number of online-based health interventions are being developed to provide a low-threshold treatment option. This article presents a short-term online-based treatment manual for IUDs that combines MI techniques with therapy tools from cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). The manual includes 12 webcam-based therapy sessions, each lasting 50 min. Each session is framed by a standardized beginning, conclusion, outlook, and flexible session content. In addition, the manual contains example sessions to illustrate the therapeutic intervention. Finally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of online-based therapy compared to analog treatment settings and provide recommendations for dealing with these challenges. By combining established therapeutic approaches with an online-based therapeutic setting based on flexibility and motivation, we aim to provide a low-threshold solution for treating IUDs.
This study investigates the situation of school bullying, which has become a global concern in recent years. Bullying in school, which can take many different forms and has an effect on both the offender and the victim, has gained significant global significance in recent years. This paper presents the forms of bullying we encounter in the school unit and the crucial role of social media in it. Adolescent life now includes using social media inextricably. Social Media Use (SMU) could have harmful effects on teenage health, such as exposing them to aggressive content online. We looked at how teenagers engaged in SMU varied by age, gender, and country, as well as the connections between SMU and victimization and cyberbullying. SMU and cyberbullying vary among nations according to gender and developmental trends. Participating in SMU was linked in pooled analyses to experiencing cyberbullying victimization. These relationships were more pronounced for females against males and for cyber-perpetrators versus cyber-victims. Cyberbullying, whether as a victim and a perpetrator, was most significantly and consistently linked to problematic SMU. According to stratified studies, SMU was associated with cybervictimization in 19%-45% of nations and cyber-perpetration in 38%-86% of countries. Social media's accessibility and widespread use have created new chances for online hostility. Teenagers' use of social media, problematic behavior, and online conversations are all related to cyberbullying and call for public health action. The danger is greatest and most persistent when it comes to problematic social media use.
In recent years, the number of players of otome games, which target the niche market of young females, has been rapidly increasing in Asia. Although previous studies have attempted to explain continued playing intention and in-game purchase intention in terms of social influence among players, the parasocial phenomenon has never been used to understand female players' emotional psychology and interactive behaviors. In this study, we obtained the responses of 615 female otome game players from China and analyzed the data using structural equation modeling. The results show that social anxiety and real-life interaction had positive effects on parasocial interaction (PSI), real-life interaction had a negative effect on romantic PSI, and online social interaction had a positive effect on romantic PSI. In addition, PSI and romantic PSI positively affected continued playing intention, and romantic PSI positively affected in-game purchase intention. The present study also found a strong association between PSI and romantic PSI, meaning that, as the interaction and intimacy between female players and male characters in otome games increases, the PSI between players and game characters may convert to romantic PSI.
Researchers have suggested several comorbid types of problematic smartphone use (PSU) exist. However, little is known about the commonalities and differences among comorbid types. This study aimed to identify comorbid PSU types based on cluster analysis and further examine the common and specific risk factors. The participants included 1292 adolescents (age:11–18 y/o; female: 45.28%). Cluster analysis results identified four types of PSU, including “multiple problematic use,” “problematic online gaming/smartphone use,” “problematic social networking sites/smartphone use,” and “PSU only.” Compared to non-addictive adolescents, all PSU types revealed higher perceived stress, social anxiety, depression, and avoidant coping styles/escapism. However, distinctive PSU types might have their unique specific risk factors, such as gender, high use expectancy and low refusal self-efficacy of certain smartphone/internet activities. Further stepwise logistic regression analyses results showed that perceived stress and social anxiety were the common stronger risk factors for all comorbid types of PSU whereas perceived stress and depression were the significant risk factors for the stand-alone type of PSU. Conversely, gender, the high positive expectancy and low refusal self-efficacy of using certain online activities predicted the specific type of problematic smartphone use respectively. This study gives the first empirical evidence of PSU comorbid classification, providing better insights for developing precise PSU prevention strategies.
Background: Individuals with social anxiety reportedly prefer online communication over face-to-face communication. However, no study has directly compared the cognitive and affective responsiveness to face-to-face communication and video call in individuals with social anxiety. Thus, it is still unclear whether online video call is advantageous for individuals with social anxiety.
Methods: This study recruited 500 Japanese workers who had used video call applications for a business purpose to retrospectively rate the levels of subjective anxiety, distress, self-focused attention, and attention to the speech content experienced during face-to-face communication, video call, and audio-only call.
Results: Individuals with elevated social anxiety showed higher levels of anxiety, distress, and self-focused attention than the healthy control in all three ways of communication. Social anxiety did not moderate the effect of the communication mode.
Limitations: Retrospective recall method may have caused bias in the responses. Self-reported assessment of social anxiety symptoms may also limit the generalizability to clinical populations.
Conclusions: Individuals with elevated social anxiety might feel similar levels of anxiety both during face-to-face communication and online video calls. Impairments related to online video calls in individuals with elevated social anxiety should also be addressed.
Menjadi seorang ibu merupakan salah satu fase terpenting dalam sepanjang kehidupan wanita yang menuntut banyak perubahan. Perubahan-perubahan yang kompleks memberikan konsekuensi psikologis pada ibu primipara seperti stres dan depresi. Oleh karena itu diperlukan self-compassion dalam diri ibu sebagai penyangga untuk menyesuaikan diri menjalani peran barunya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat hubungan dukungan sosial dan self-compassion pada ibu primipara. Penelitian ini menggunakan dua skala, yaitu self-compassion scale (SCS) dan postpartum social support questionare (PSSQ). Sampel dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 243 ibu primipara dengan kriteria sampel yaitu ibu yang berusia 20-40 tahun, tinggal bersama suami, tidak ada kelahiran kembar, tidak pernah mengalami keguguran, kondisi anak dalam keadaan normal dengan rentang usia anak 1-24 bulan. Teknik sampling yang digunakan adalah purposive sampling. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara dukungan sosial dan self-compassion pada ibu primipara.
This study investigated how older adults’ informational, social, and recreational motives predict their Internet use and life satisfaction. In doing so, we tested how two distinct forms of digital skills—receptive and participatory—affect the ways in which older people fulfil their needs through the Internet as well as the extent to which their Internet use leads to psychological benefits. A total of 200 Internet users in their 60s joined a face-to-face survey. As predicted, the older users’ informational, social, and recreational motives predicted their corresponding Internet use and life satisfaction. In particular, participatory skills affected how the use of the Internet predicts life satisfaction, such that only those with moderate or higher participatory skills obtained mental benefits through their Internet use. Lastly, we discussed older adults’ online engagement and its impacts on their well-being, with an emphasis on digital competencies.
The rapid growth in the accessibility of technology mediums has resulted in the growing dependency and is associated with Compulsive Internet Use (CIU) and Problematic Phone Use (PPU). The present study was an effort to study the relationship between psychosocial problems like loneliness and social anxiety with problematic phone use (PPU) and compulsive internet use (CIU). It was hypothesized that loneliness and social anxiety would significantly PPU and CIU. A total of 260 participants (149 males and 111 females) within the age range of 17–35 years (M = 23.3, SD 3.01) responded on four standardized questionnaires viz., Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version (Kwon et al. in PLoS ONE 8:56936, 2013), Compulsive Internet Use Scale (Meerkerk et al. in Cyberpsychol Behav 12:1–6, 2009), UCLA loneliness scale-version 3 (Russel et al. in J Personal Assess 66:20–40, 1996), and Social Anxiety Questionnaire for Adults (Caballo et al. in Behav Ther 43:313–328, 2012). The regression results showed that loneliness and social anxiety emerged to be significant predictors of Problematic Phone Use (PPU) and Compulsive Internet use (CIU). The findings and implications are discussed in the paper.
ODREDNICE OVISNOSTI O INTERNETU ZAGREBAČKIH SREDNJOŠKOLACA
[DETERMINANTS OF INTERNET ADDICTION AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE CITY OF ZAGREB]
Introduction
In the last twenty years, technology has become an indispensable part of people’s lives around the world, and at the same time the availability and accessibility of the Internet has been increasing. Children are surrounded by modern technologies from birth, and almost all young people are highly dependent on the Internet during their education. As a result, it is not surprising that there are currently nearly five billion active Internet users in the world and a portion of the population has been developing problems related to excessive Internet use or Internet addiction. Young people, i.e., high school and college students, are continuously cited as a particularly vulnerable group for the development of Internet addiction because they belong to a generation that has grown up with an extraordinary accessibility to modern technologies and for whom the Internet is inseparable from almost all aspects of life. Although prevalence data vary and there is no consensus, findings suggest a slightly higher prevalence of Internet addiction among high school students in Asian countries, where it ranges from 14% to 20%, while in European countries it ranges from 1% to 5%.
As for individual risk factors for developing Internet addiction, the most significant are younger age of first Internet use, shyness, loneliness, certain personality traits, low self-esteem and self-efficacy, and low self-control. Special emphasis is also placed on the presence of mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and stress, as well as impulsivity, hyperactivity, and problems with maintaining attention. In addition to individual factors, environmental factors, especially family and peer factors, are also important. Family factors include frequent conflicts between parents and between parents and adolescents, inadequate parental control of Internet use, substance abuse and positive attitude of close family members towards it, parents’ mental health issues, and lower level of family functioning. The most important risk factors related to peer relationships are social loneliness, peer pressure, and peer rejection.
The main goals of this study are to gain insight into the characteristics and habits of social networking and video game use among adolescents, to examine the prevalence of Internet addiction, and to identify possible differences in the characteristics of use and Internet addiction in relation to key personal and sociodemographic characteristics. In addition, the contribution of selected personal characteristics to Internet addiction among adolescents who prefer social networking sites and adolescents who prefer online video games will be examined.
Methodology
This research was conducted on a probabilistic sample of a total of 825 students from the first to the final grade of different high schools (three- and four-year vocational schools and grammar schools) from the City of Zagreb. This type of sampling allows us to generalize the results of the sample to the population of high school students in the City of Zagreb. The sample consists of a total of 49.0% boys, 50.7% girls and 0.3% students who did not provide information about their gender, and the participants’ ages ranged from 14 to 20 years (Mage=16.65 years; SDage=1.208).
In order to provide a comprehensive response to the research goals and problems, an extensive battery of measurement instruments was used: (1) Questionnaire on participants' baseline characteristics; (2) Questionnaire on frequency of use of social networks and online video games; (3) Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1998); (4) International Personality Item Pool-20 (Donnellan et al., 2006); (5) Self-Description Questionnaire II (Marsh, 1992); (6) General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer and Jerusalem, 1995); (7) Hyperactivity - impulsivity - attention Scale (Vulić-Prtorić, 2006); (8) Questionnaire of emotional skills and competence (Takšić, 1998); (9) Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995); (10) Internet Motive Questionnaire for Adolescents (Bischof-Kastner, Kuntsche, and Wolstein, 2014); (11) Social Comparison Scale (Gibbons and Buunk, 1999); (12) Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale (diTommaso and Spinner, 1993).
Prior to the start of this study, the approval of the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education and Rehabilitation Sciences of the University of Zagreb was obtained, as well as the approval of the Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia with a positive opinion of the Education and Teacher Training Agency. Consent was obtained from the principals of the selected schools, and from the parents of the minors. After obtaining the above consents, the research in the schools began. It was conducted during the second semester of the 2020/2021 school year, using the "pencil and paper" method of self-reporting. The students gave their verbal consent to participate in the research after having been informed about the basic aim of the research, anonymity, and voluntary nature of participation, as well as the possibility to stop filling in the questionnaire at any time.
Results
The results show that the participants of this research use social networks the most, namely Instagram and YouTube. They are followed by Snapchat, which is used slightly less frequently than Instagram and YouTube, and in third place is TikTok. All four types of online video games, Facebook and Pinterest share the "fourth" place, meaning they are used less frequently compared to Instagram, YouTube, Snapchat and TikTok. Twitter is used the least.
Almost all social networks (Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok and Pinterest), are used more often by girls, while only YouTube is used more by men, which points to significant gender differences in social media usage. Gender differences were not found in the use of Facebook and Twitter, which are those social networks that are used the least (almost not at all) by both girls and boys compared to other networks. As for the differences in the frequency of use of online video games, they are significant in favour of young men, i.e., they play them to a greater extent than girls.
Most participants (79%) use the Internet in a way that helps them fulfil their obligations and occasionally provides entertainment without interfering with their daily routine. About 20.1% of adolescents have a moderate level of addiction, while 0.8% of them meet the criteria for a high level of addiction. In other words, one fifth of Zagreb high school students have certain problems related to Internet use, and their daily psychosocial functioning is impaired in almost all areas, such as in interpersonal relationships, academic success, reducing Internet usage, and the like. The results indicate differences in students’ gender and age and the type of secondary schools. It has been found that the prevalence of addiction is higher in girls than in boys. Furthermore, first grade students report the presence of certain symptoms of Internet addiction to a greater extent than older students. As far as the type of secondary schools is concerned, the results have shown that grammar school students express problems related to Internet addiction most often.
Hierarchical regression analysis was performed and significant predictors of Internet addiction among adolescents who predominantly used social networks were found, such as the female gender; lower levels of conscientiousness and self-efficacy; more problems with attention; emotional loneliness; a greater tendency to compare oneself with others; motivation to use the Internet with the aim of social conformity (conformism), mood elevation, and as a coping strategy for stressful life situations; and more intensive use of social networks. Significant predictors of Internet addiction among adolescents who predominantly played online video games were higher levels of attention problems, motivation to use the Internet as a coping strategy for stressful life situations, and more intensive use of online video games.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study has certainly contributed to the expansion of the body of knowledge in scientific and professional contexts. The characteristics and habits of Internet use among Zagreb high school students were investigated, especially in relation to the frequency and intensity of use of certain online activities. The prevalence of Internet addiction among Zagreb high school students was determined, which allowed comparison of the results with foreign and domestic studies. The correlates of Internet addiction among adolescents depending on the dominant online activity were investigated and the role of certain factors in explaining Internet addiction, which are included but not clearly enough described in the model I- PACE, was described in more detail. The research findings point to the need for changes in the way Internet addiction is measured, with a particular focus on measuring addiction to specific online activities. The findings provide a starting point for the development and implementation of effective prevention and treatment interventions for adolescents.
The present study contributes to the existing literature by testing a model that considers the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI), fear of negative evaluation (FNE), and problematic internet (PIU) and social network site use (PSNSU). In this study, 1067 young adults (44.6 % males, 55.4 % females) within the age bracket of 18 to 25 years completed self-administered online questionnaires. It was found that low self-esteem and high social anxiety facilitate fear of negative evaluation in social situations, thus mediating the relationship between emotional intelligence and problematic internet and social network site use. The moderation analysis confirmed that the strength of the relationship between emotional intelligence and problematic internet and social network site use is not constant. It depends on the level of fear of negative evaluation. We have confirmed that heightened social anxiety and low self-esteem result in overuse of the internet and social network site due to fear of negative evaluation from others.
This chapter reviews the current literature on internet addiction (IA) and provides a comprehensive summary regarding: (i) potential positive and negative effects of internet and technology use, (ii) main conceptual frameworks, (iii) biological bases, (iv) comorbidity factors, (v) prevalence rates, (vi) assessment methodologies, and (vii) treatment approaches. Although the current evidence suggests a relatively low prevalence rate of IA worldwide, and that several scholars remain doubtful about the validity and utility of IA as a clinical phenomenon, the existing evidence indicates that further research is required in order to facilitate greater understanding of this intricate issue and to tackle a range of challenges identified in the literature. Furthermore, the current scientific trend points toward the adoption of more specific terms that underscore the role of specific online activities in eliciting addictive usage, as opposed to the adoption of the broad and unspecific umbrella term IA.KeywordsInternet addictionProblematic internet useCompulsive internet useBehavioral addictionTreatment
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the expectation of social support in social networks and the exposure to emotional violence among nursing students. Design and Methods: This study was conducted with 431 students of the Cukurova University Faculty of Health Sciences Nursing Department. Findings: There was a statistical difference between gender (p < 0.039) and time spent with family (p < 0.013). There was a statistically significant and positive weak correlation between the students' average total score on Social Support Expectation in Social Networks Scale and the average score of the frustration subscale (r = 0.123, p < 0.05). Practical Implications: Nursing students need to be educated about digital literacy, and a course that includes emotional mood management skills should be included in the nursing curriculum.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the expectation of social support in social networks and the exposure to emotional violence among nursing students.
Design and Methods
This study was conducted with 431 students of the Cukurova University Faculty of Health Sciences Nursing Department.
Findings
There was a statistical difference between gender (p < 0.039) and time spent with family (p < 0.013). There was a statistically significant and positive weak correlation between the students' average total score on Social Support Expectation in Social Networks Scale and the average score of the frustration subscale (r = 0.123, p < 0.05).
Practical Implications
Nursing students need to be educated about digital literacy, and a course that includes emotional mood management skills should be included in the nursing curriculum.
This paper reports the results from two waves of studies on the development of Chinese Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS) and its revision (CIAS-R). Based upon the conception framework adapted from other traditional addiction disorders such like pathological gambling and substance addictions, the tendency of Internet addiction was presumably characterized with two aspects of behavioral manifestation, i.e., core symptoms and related problems. In study 1, the original items of the CIAS depicting core symptoms and related problems of the Internet addiction were thus generated through focused interview and derived from the diagnostic criteria of other well-defined addiction disorders. The CIAS, background questionnaire eliciting data on basic demographics, weekly on-line hours, habitual domains, and experience of Internet utilization were administered in a traditional paper and pencil manner to a random sample of students of National Taiwan University (N=1336) Factor analysis, correlation analysis, and t-test were utilized to analyze data. The results show that: The CIAS is an appealing and reliable test with satisfactory test-retest reliability and internal consistency. Correlation analyses yield significantly positive correlation of total scale and subscale scores of CIAS with weekly Internet hours, but not with experience of Internet utilization. Moreover, high-risk students show different attitudes toward Internet use and addiction from the normal. In study 2, the CIAS-R, with modification of item wording as well as addition and elimination of some items, were administered to another wave of random subjects at National Taiwan University (N=1975). Same procedure and analyses were applied. It results in a better factor structure in CIAS-R, with similarly satisfactory psychometric properties. Future research concerning scale revision as well as possible psychopathological approach to Internet addiction will be discussed accordingly.
Objective
The aim of this study was to develop a self-administered scale based on the special features of smartphone. The reliability and validity of the Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI) was demonstrated.
Methods
A total of 283 participants were recruited from Dec. 2012 to Jul. 2013 to complete a set of questionnaires, including a 26-item SPAI modified from the Chinese Internet Addiction Scale and phantom vibration and ringing syndrome questionnaire. There were 260 males and 23 females, with ages 22.9±2.0 years. Exploratory factor analysis, internal-consistency test, test-retest, and correlation analysis were conducted to verify the reliability and validity of the SPAI. Correlations between each subscale and phantom vibration and ringing were also explored.
Results
Exploratory factor analysis yielded four factors: compulsive behavior, functional impairment, withdrawal and tolerance. Test–retest reliabilities (intraclass correlations = 0.74–0.91) and internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.94) were all satisfactory. The four subscales had moderate to high correlations (0.56–0.78), but had no or very low correlation to phantom vibration/ringing syndrome.
Conclusion
This study provides evidence that the SPAI is a valid and reliable, self-administered screening tool to investigate smartphone addiction. Phantom vibration and ringing might be independent entities of smartphone addiction.
This study examined how internet users’ psychological characteristics, amount of internet use and demographic factors contribute to particular dimensions of internet addiction. The sample consisted of 384 adolescents, ranging in age from 15 to 18 years. Participants were asked to complete the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), measures of Locus of Control, Depression, Loneliness, Self-esteem, and Social Anxiety as well as an inventory that included demographic factors and questions about the amount of Internet use. Results revealed significant associations between variables and different sets of predictors across the four dimensions of Internet use behaviour identified in the study. However, locus of control, depression, and amount of internet use were significant predictors of all internet addiction dimensions. Recommendations are provided on how researchers can strengthen the field of research concerning how internet addiction is manifested and which adolescent internet users are more susceptible to different manifestations of addiction.
Contradictory evidence exists regarding the benefit of the Internet for social and personal wellbeing, with some studies indicating deleterious effects and others possible social enrichment. The potential for increased social isolation from 'over- involvement' in online activities or, conversely, the Internet's possibilities for enhancing social relationships, may be particularly salient during young adult- hood and adolescence because of the special importance of the peer group during this developmental phase. This study was an investigation of the relationships between the levels of identity development, Internet use and social anxiety among a sample of 161 older adolescents/young adults aged between 18 and 25. Results indicated that, for males only, higher levels of social anxiety and less mature identity statuses were associated with more frequent Internet use, specifi- cally time spent in chatrooms, online browsing for personal use, and games. For females (who were in this sample less socially anxious, more identity-developed, and lower users of the Internet than males), social anxiety and identity status were not significantly associated with time spent online. Discussion centred around the potential roles of Internet use in reinforcing already-existing social anxiety or, alternatively, in supporting and maintaining social contacts in those with lower levels of social deficit.
Alternative views of computer-mediated communication suggest that it is devoid of affective cues and interpersonal expression, or that the translation of affect into verbal cues facilitates relational communication. Little research has examined basic affective communication online, mirroring a dearth of empirical research identifying spontaneous affective verbal cues in face-to-face interaction. An experiment prompted participants to enact greater or lesser affinity in face-to-face or synchronous computer chat dyads in order to assess the proportion of affect expressed verbally online compared to that which is verbal offline and the specific behaviors that account for affective communication in each channel.Partners’ ratings demonstrated affective equivalency across settings. Analyses of the verbal, kinesic, and vocalic behaviors of face-to-face participants and verbal transcripts from computer sessions revealed specific cues in each condition that led to these ratings. Results support a primary but previously untested proposition in the social information processing theory of mediated interaction.
A reasons for Internet Use Questionnaire was developed to examine the relationship between internet use, social anxiety, general anxiety, and depression. Research suggests that socially anxious individuals may find it easier to interact online where anonymity can be maintained rather than engage in face to face interaction where being observed by others might induce a fear of negative evaluation. In line with the self-regulation model, it was hypothesised that social anxiety, low ego strength, anxiety and depression, would be related to use of the internet to cope with social fears. The results were partially in line with the hypothesis. Implications of these findings are discussed.
The model introduced and tested in the current study suggests that lonely and depressed individuals may develop a preference for online social interaction, which, in turn, leads to negative outcomes associated with their Internet use. Participants completed measures of preference for online social interaction, depression, loneliness, problematic Internet use, and negative outcomes resulting from their Internet use.Results indicated that psychosocial health predicted levels of preference for online social interaction, which, in turn, predicted negative outcomes associated with problematic Internet use. In addition, the results indicated that the influence of psychosocial distress on negative outcomes due to Internet use is mediated by preference for online socialization and other symptoms of problematic Internet use.T he results support the current hypothesis that that individuals’ preference for online, rather than face-to-face, social interaction plays an important role in the development of negative consequences associated with problematic Internet use.
The purpose of the study was to gather descriptive
information about college students’ Internet use
and to explore the relationship between types of
Internet use and well-being. The sample consisted
of 312 college students (67% female; age range
18-49 years; M = 21.34 years, SD = 5.05).
Self-report questionnaires were administered in
a large undergraduate psychology course. Exploratory
factor analyses suggested 5 specific types
of use: Meeting People, Information Seeking,
Distraction, Coping, and E-mail. Confirmatory
factor analyses on a new sample from the same
university (N = 169) verified the 5-factor
structure. Using the Internet for coping purposes
related to depression, social anxiety, and family
cohesion more so than frequency of use. This study
highlights the importance of examining types of
Internet use in relation to well-being.
Given the widespread use of the Internet, researchers have begun to examine the personal and social consequences associated with excessive online involvement. The present study examined college students' problematic Internet use (PIU) behaviors within the framework of Jessor and Jessor's (1977) problem-behavior theory. Its specific aim was to investigate the links between PIU with both internalizing (depression, social anxiety) and externalizing (substance use and other risky behaviors) problems. Relevant variables from the perceived environmental system, the personality system, and the behavioral system were entered in a canonical correlation analysis. The analysis yielded two distinct functions: the first function, titled traditional problem-behavior syndrome, characterized students who are impulsive, hold socially deviant attitudes and show a propensity to use tobacco and illicit drugs. The second function, titled problematic Internet-behavior syndrome, characterized students who are socially anxious, depressed, report conflictive family relations, and show a propensity toward PIU. Thus, PIU did not share the characteristics typically associated with the traditional problem-behavior syndrome consistent with problem-behavior theory, but showed correlates more consistent with internalizing rather than externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
This study developed and tested an “Internet-attribute-perception” model that explains how self-disclosure develops in instant messaging (IM) interactions. Following hyperpersonal communication theory, two attributes of computer-mediated communication (i.e., reduced nonverbal cues and controllability) were assumed to be responsible for increased online self-disclosure in IM. However, our model posed that any actual effects of these attributes would depend on users' perceptions of the relevance of these attributes. Furthermore, our model posed that these perceptions would mediate the relationship between personality characteristics (i.e., pri vate and public self-consciousness, and social anxiety) and online self-disclosure. Using structural equation modeling on a sample of 1,203 Dutch adolescents, we found that adolescents' perceptions of the relevance of reduced nonverbal cues and controllability encouraged their feelings of disinhibition, which in turn increased their online self-disclosure. As expected, private and public self-consciousness and social anxiety stimulated adolescents' perceptions of the relevance of reduced nonverbal cues and controllability, but did not directly influence online self-disclosure. The study shows the vital role of users' perceptions of CMC attributes in Internet-effects research.
The development, reliability, and discriminative ability of a new instrument to assess social phobia are presented. The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI) is an empirically derived instrument incorporating responses from the cognitive, somatic, and behavioral dimensions of social fear. The SPAI high test–retest reliability and good internal consistency. The instrument appears to be sensitive to the entire continuum of socially anxious concerns and is capable of differentiating social phobics from normal controls as well as from other anxiety patients. The utility of this instrument for improved assessment of social phobia and anxiety and its use as an aid for treatment planning are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A survey with 172 students was conducted at a large southern research university to examine how unwillingness-to-communicate in interpersonal communication influences gratifications sought and gratifications obtained from Facebook use. The study investigated the relationship between two dimensions of unwillingness-to-communicate (approach-avoidance and reward) and different motives of Facebook use. In addition, it examined the relationship between unwillingness-to-communicate and the behavioral and attitudinal outcomes of Facebook use (e.g., the number of hours spent on Facebook, duration of use, the number of Facebook friends, satisfaction with Facebook). Results of multiple regression analysis revealed that respondents who felt anxiety and fears in their face-to-face communication used Facebook to pass time and feel less lonely more than other respondents, but they had fewer Facebook friends. Overall, this paper finds evidence that people who are involved in online relationships are those who are willing to communicate in real life, rather than the opposite. Such results seem to justify the rich-get-richer hypothesis, which states that the internet primarily benefits extraverted individuals. Our results are in contrast to findings that socially anxious individuals are more likely to form relationships online. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reports tests of the relationships between problematic Internet use (PIU), time spent using the Internet, and psychosocial problems from the two perspectives. Ten individual meta-analyses were first conducted to identify weighted mean correlations among the five variables included within the models. The correlations derived from the meta-analyses were subsequently used in path analysis to test the alternative characterizations. The results offer some support for the deficient self-regulation model but provide relatively little evidence consistent with the pathology perspective of PIU.
This study integrates research on social skill and self-presentation into the recently introduced cognitive-behavioral theory of generalized problematic Internet use. The model proposed and tested here predicted that individuals who lack self-presentational skill are especially likely to prefer online social interaction over face-to-face communication. Further, the model predicted that a preference for online social interaction fosters compulsive Internet use, which results in negative outcomes. Participants in this study completed measures of social skill, preference for online social interaction, compulsive Internet use, and negative outcomes associated with Internet use. Structural equation modeling analysis techniques tested the proposed model. The analysis indicated a good fit between the hypothesized model and the current data.
Social anxiety was compared between online and real-life interaction in a sample of 2,348 college students. Severity of social anxiety in both real-life and online interaction was tested for associations with depression, Internet addiction, Internet activity type (gaming versus chatting), and scores on Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)/Behavioral Activation System (BAS) scales. The results showed that social anxiety was lower when interacting online than when interacting offline. Depression, Internet addiction, and high BIS and BAS scores were associated with high social anxiety. The social anxiety decreased more in online interaction among subjects with high social anxiety, depression, BIS, and BAS. This result suggests that the Internet has good potential as an alternative medium for delivering interventions for social anxiety. Further, the effect of BIS on social anxiety is decreased in online interaction. More attention should be paid for BIS when the treatment for social anxiety is delivered online.
Online social networking services are Internet websites that allow individuals to learn about and communicate with others. This study investigated the association between use of these websites and friendship quality for individuals varying in shyness. Participants (N = 241) completed questionnaires assessing their use of Facebook, an online social networking service, shyness, perceived available social support, loneliness, and friendship quality. Results indicated an interaction between shyness and Facebook usage, such that individuals high in shyness (when compared to less shy individuals) reported stronger associations between Facebook use and friendship quality. Facebook use, however, was unrelated to loneliness among highly shy individuals. Therefore, online social networking services may provide a comfortable environment within which shy individuals can interact with others.
Children and adolescents now communicate online to form and/or maintain relationships with friends, family, and strangers. Relationships in "real life" are important for children's and adolescents' psychosocial development; however, they can be difficult for those who experience feelings of loneliness and/or social anxiety. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in usage of online communication patterns between children and adolescents with and without self-reported loneliness and social anxiety. Six hundred twenty-six students ages 10 to 16 years completed a survey on the amount of time they spent communicating online, the topics they discussed, the partners they engaged with, and their purposes for communicating over the Internet. Participants were administered a shortened version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale and an abbreviated subscale of the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A). Additionally, age and gender differences in usage of the online communication patterns were examined across the entire sample. Findings revealed that children and adolescents who self-reported being lonely communicated online significantly more frequently about personal and intimate topics than did those who did not self-report being lonely. The former were motivated to use online communication significantly more frequently to compensate for their weaker social skills to meet new people. Results suggest that Internet usage allows them to fulfill critical needs of social interactions, self-disclosure, and identity exploration. Future research, however, should explore whether or not the benefits derived from online communication may also facilitate lonely children's and adolescents' offline social relationships.
The current study examined the longitudinal associations of time spent on Internet activities for communication purposes (i.e., IM-ing) versus time spent on Internet activities for non-communication purposes (i.e., surfing) with depression and social anxiety, as well as the moderating role of perceived friendship quality in these associations. Questionnaire data were gathered from 307 Dutch middle adolescents (average age 15 years) on two waves with a one-year interval. For adolescents who perceive low friendship quality, Internet use for communication purposes predicted less depression, whereas Internet use for non-communication purposes predicted more depression and more social anxiety. These results support social compensation effects of IM-ing on depression and poor-get-poorer effects of surfing on depression and social anxiety, respectively.
Reports the specification of a construct of social anxiety, the subsequent development of 2 scales, and validational studies. The Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE) and the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SAD) were given to 358 undergraduates. 3 experiments and other correlational data are presented. People high in SAD tended to avoid social interactions, preferred to work alone, reported that they talked less, were more worried and less confident about social relationships, but were more likely to appear for appointments. Those high in FNE tended to become nervous in evaluative situations, and worked hard either to avoid disapproval or gain approval. Certain convergent and discriminant relationships had been part of the construct of social anxiety, and the correlational data support these differentiations. (17 ref.)
Facebook (FB) is a popular platform for interacting with others to establish or maintain relationships. Compared to other interpersonal exchanges, FB does not require in-person interactions. Therefore, FB may represent an important social sphere for individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD). Examining the relationship between social anxiety symptoms and FB activity could inform future research on the benefits or consequences of FB use in SAD individuals. This study examined the relationship between social anxiety symptoms and different FB usage patterns. We also considered the role of brooding—a known risk factor for SAD. 75 nonclinical FB users completed questionnaires about psychological symptoms, FB usage, and brooding. Greater social anxiety symptoms were associated with spending more time on FB and passively using FB (i.e., viewing other's profiles without interacting). Brooding mediated the relationship between passive FB use and social anxiety symptoms. An alternative model demonstrated that social anxiety symptoms mediated the association between passive FB use and brooding. This study was limited by its cross-sectional, self-report design. Future research should assess FB use with objective, real-time data and use experimental designs. Results have implications for the cognitive–behavioral model of SAD.
IntroductionIndividual studiesThe summary effectHeterogeneity of effect sizesSummary points
The centrifugal microfluidic platforms utilize primarily the rotationally controlled centrifugal field in combination with capillary forces to network a range of laboratory unit operations (LUOs) such as metering, aliquoting, mixing and extraction for biofluids as well as sorting, isolation and counting of bioparticles to integrate and automate bioanalytical assay protocols. Due to its evident technological analogies to optical disc drive (ODD) technologies such as a compact disc (CD) or digital versatile disc (DVD) and due to its high sensitivity, specificity and ease of integration with a low-footprint, rugged and essentially maintenance-free instrument, optical detection techniques have been the mainstay for read out of “lab-on-a-disc” (LoaD) systems. This chapter surveys the repertoire of optical sensing techniques that has been successfully implemented for such LoaD platforms.
Research on Facebook has suggested that individuals’ profiles are an accurate portrayal of the self and that it may be possible to identify traits such as narcissism and extraversion by viewing a Facebook profile. It has been suggested, however, that largely internal experiences, such as anxiety, should be less detectable in such contexts. In the current study, the authors tested if objective criteria (e.g., number of interests) on users’ profiles (N = 62) could discriminate between individuals who were higher and lower in social anxiety. The authors asked six coders to view each participant’s Facebook profile and rate the participant’s level of social anxiety and then tested whether these ratings correlated with the participant’s own self-reported social anxiety level. Our results suggest that social anxiety is recognizable both in objective criteria on the Facebook profile page and from raters’ impressions of the Facebook profile. Clinical and research implications are discussed.
The current study investigated the relationship between problematic Internet use and social interaction anxiety among pre-service teachers. Participants were 1235 students attending teacher training programs at a Turkish state university. The “Problematic Internet Use Scale” and “Social Interaction Anxiety Scale” were used to collect the data. Independent-samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were conducted to examine the differences; and correlation and regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between variables. Findings revealed that male students’ use of the Internet was more problematic compared to female students’. As the time spent on the Internet increased, so did the problematic Internet use levels. In addition, the problematic Internet use levels of students varied with regard to departments. A significant relationship was found between the level of problematic Internet use and social interaction anxiety, and social interaction anxiety was found to be among the predictors of problematic Internet use. Implications and suggestions for further research are provided.
Research suggests that people with high social anxiety trait may be more inclined to interact through computer-mediated communication (CMC). The psychological underpinnings of this inclination however remained unclear. The present research thus examines if cognitive appraisal bias (i.e. heighten estimation of social risk and deflated self-efficacy) would mediate the relationship between social anxiety and one’s perception of CMC attributes, contributing to a differential pattern of responses in CMC use. Four hundred and ten adolescents aged 12–18 years completed a set of self-reported measures tapping social anxiety trait, cognitive appraisals, perception of CMC attributes, and pattern of CMC social responses. Structural equation modeling lent support to the mediating role of the cognitive appraisal factors. Those with higher social anxiety trait would attach higher self-relevance to the CMC attributes, and engage in a more socially-involved pattern of interpersonal responses in CMC. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Anecdotal reports indicated that some on-line users were becoming addicted to the Internet in much the same way that others became addicted to drugs or alcohol, which resulted in academic, social, and occupational impairment. However, research among sociologists, psychologists, or psychiatrists has not formally identified addictive use of the Internet as a problematic behavior. This study investigated the existence of Internet addiction and the extent of problems caused by such potential misuse. Of all the diagnoses referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1995), Pathological Gambling was viewed as most akin to the pathological nature of Internet use. By using Pathological Gambling as a model, addictive Internet use can be defined as an impulse-control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant. Therefore, this study developed a brief eight-item questionnaire referred to as a Diagnostic Questionnaire (DQ), which modified criteria for pathological gambling to provide a screening instrument for classification of participants. On the basis of this criteria, case studies of 396 dependent Internet users (Dependents) and 100 nondependent Internet users (Nondependents) were classified. Qualitative analyses suggest significant behavioral and functional usage differences between the two groups such as the types of applications utilized, the degree of difficulty controlling weekly usage, and the severity of problems noted. Clinical and social implications of pathological Internet use and future directions for research are discussed.
The development and validation of the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) two companion measures for assessing social phobia fears is described. The SPS assesses fears of being scrutinised during routine activities (eating, drinking, writing, etc.), while the SIAS assesses fears of more general social interaction, the scales corresponding to the DSM-III-R descriptions of Social Phobia—Circumscribed and Generalised types, respectively. Both scales were shown to possess high levels of internal consistency and test–retest reliability. They discriminated between social phobia, agoraphobia and simple phobia samples, and between social phobia and normal samples. The scales correlated well with established measures of social anxiety, but were found to have low or non-significant (partial) correlations with established measures of depression, state and trait anxiety, locus of control, and social desirability. The scales were found to change with treatment and to remain stable in the face of no-treatment. It appears that these scales are valid, useful, and easily scored measures for clinical and research applications, and that they represent an improvement over existing measures of social phobia.
The social compensation hypothesis states that the internet primarily benefits individuals who feel uncomfortable communicating face-to-face. In the current research, we tested whether individuals higher in social anxiety use the internet as a compensatory social medium, and whether such use is associated with greater well-being. In Study 1, individuals higher in social anxiety reported greater feelings of comfort and self-disclosure when socializing online than less socially anxious individuals, but reported less self-disclosure when communicating face-to-face. However, in Study 2, social anxiety was associated with lower quality of life and higher depression most strongly for individuals who communicated frequently online. Our results suggest that, whereas social anxiety may be associated with using the internet as an alternative to face-to-face communication, such a strategy may result in poorer well-being.
Previous research suggests that Internet use may be associated with decreases in well-being among adolescents. However, there has been little investigation of the relationship between well-being and social aspects of Internet use. In the present study, 130 7th graders from a middle-class public school in California completed dispositional measures of well-being, and on three subsequent evenings they responded to questions regarding their Internet use (including detailed logs of instant messages) and daily well-being. Time spent on-line was not associated with dispositional or daily well-being. However, as suggested by intimacy theory, the closeness of instant message communication partners was associated with daily social anxiety and loneliness in school, above and beyond the contribution of dispositional measures.
This article introduces a cognitive-behavioral model of Pathological Internet Use (PIU). While previous studies on Internet addiction have described behavioral factors, such as withdrawal and tolerance, the present article focuses on the maladaptive cognitions associated with PIU. The cognitive-behavioral model of PIU distinguishes between specific PIU and generalized PIU. Specific PIU refers to the condition in which an individual pathologically uses the Internet for a particular purpose, such as online sex or online gambling, whereas generalized PIU describes a more global set of behaviors. The model implies a more important role of cognitions in PIU, and describes the means by which PIU is both developed and maintained. Furthermore, it provides a framework for the development of cognitive-behavioral interventions for PIU.
This study examined teens’ use of socially interactive technologies (SITs), such as online social sites, cell phones/text messaging, and instant messaging (IM), and the role that social anxiety plays on how teens communicate with others (technologically or face-to-face). Participants included 280 high school students from a large western city. On average, 35–40% of teens reported using cell phones/text messaging and online social sites between 1 and 4 h daily, 24% reported using IMs 1–4 h daily and only 8% reported using email between 1 and 4 h daily. Females tended to use cell phones/text messaging and online social sites more so than did males. In assessing social anxiety, analyses revealed a positive relationship between social anxiety (not comfortable talking with others face-to-face) and (1) talking with others online and (2) talking with others via text messaging. In contrast, there was a positive relationship between the lack of social anxiety (feeling “comfortable” talking with others) and making friends online. Assessing gender differences and social anxiety also revealed significant differences. Results revealed females reported more social anxiety (not comfortable talking with others in person) than did males. In addition, females, more than males, reported feeling more comfortable using SITs (text messaging and online social sites only) rather than talking with others face-to-face.
Loneliness has been associated with increased Internet use. Lonely individuals may be drawn online because of the increased potential for companionship, the changed social interaction patterns online, and as a way to modulate negative moods associated with loneliness. Online, social presence and intimacy levels can be controlled; users can remain invisible as they observe others’ interactions, and can control the amount and timing of their interactions. Anonymity and lack of face-to-face communication online may decrease self-consciousness and social anxiety, which could facilitate pro-social behavior and enhance online friendship formation. Support for this model was found in a survey of 277 undergraduate Internet users that was used to assess differences between lonely and not-lonely individuals in patterns of Internet use. Loneliness was assessed on the UCLA Loneliness Scale; students in the highest 20% (Lonely) were compared with all other students (Non-lonely). Lonely individuals used the Internet and e-mail more and were more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than others. Social behavior of lonely individuals consistently was enhanced online, and lonely individuals were more likely to report making online friends and heightened satisfaction with their online friends. The lonely were more likely to use the Internet to modulate negative moods, and to report that their Internet use was causing disturbances in their daily functioning.
The cognitive theory of panic disorder proposes that panic attacks occur as a result of an enduring tendency to misinterpret bodily sensations as a sign of imminent catastrophe such as a heart attack. The persistence of such catastrophic cognitions is in part due to the tendency of patients to avoid and/or escape situations where panic occurs. It is proposed that within-situation safety seeking behaviours also have the effect of maintaining catastrophic cognitions in the face of repeated panics during which the feared catastrophe does not occur. The association between catastrophic cognitions and within-situation safety behaviours matched the pattern predicted from the cognitive theory in 147 panic disorder patients. The implications of these findings for the way in which therapy is conducted are discussed.