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School Suspensions and Adverse Experiences in Adulthood

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Abstract

The “school-to-prison pipeline” and the negative effects of suspensions, expulsions and school arrests have received increasing national attention recently. Researchers have documented some of the potential harms of these exclusionary school discipline practices for students, including academic difficulties, increased misconduct, and future justice system contact. However, these investigations have been somewhat limited in scope, as they tend to focus only on students’ academic outcomes and juvenile justice system involvement. In this paper we seek to expand upon prior studies by considering how school suspensions may affect youth in peripheral and long-lasting ways. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health, we analyze whether being suspended from school relates to the likelihood of students experiencing a number of adverse events and outcomes when they are adults. We find that being suspended increases the likelihood that a student will experience criminal victimization, criminal involvement, and incarceration years later, as adults.

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... Scholars also demonstrate that the widespread use of exclusionary discipline practices contributes to the "school-to-prison pipeline," a system that pushes suspended and/or expelled youth into the U.S. criminal legal system (Hirschfield 2008;Kang-Brown et al. 2013;Monahan et al. 2014). Specifically, studies find that exposure to exclusionary discipline can serve as a turning point toward offending, arrest, and incarceration both as a juvenile and adult (Fabelo et al. 2011;Gerlinger et al. 2021;Hemez, Brent, and Mowen 2020;Mittleman 2018;Skiba, Arredondo, and Williams 2014;Wolf and Kupchik 2017). Finally, although exclusionary discipline has been shown to negatively shape social and academic outcomes for those exposed to this type of school punishment, it is important to note that in some cases, removing students from the classroom for disruptive behavior is associated with improvement in academic achievement outcomes for nonsuspended students, particularly historically marginalized groups (Figlio 2007;Hwang and Domina 2021). ...
... Importantly, scholarship on the school-to-prison pipeline also finds exposure to exclusionary discipline increases the risk of criminal legal contact in later life. For example, several studies find that suspended youth are more likely to report a history of incarceration in adulthood (Hemez et al. 2020;Novak 2019;Wolf and Kupchik 2017). ...
... Despite growing attention on the potential health consequences associated with exclusionary discipline, several gaps remain. First, this understudied area of scholarship focuses predominately on mental health and health behaviors, and findings are often mixed (Hemphill et al. 2012;So et al. 2024;Sutherland and Shepherd 2001;Wolf and Kupchik 2017). For instance, some scholars find school suspension does not significantly increase the risk of depression or anxiety (Wolf and Kupchik 2017), whereas others find significant associations between exclusionary discipline and current depression and anxiety (So et al., 2024). ...
Article
School suspension has been linked to numerous adverse social outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. While research continues to highlight the deleterious consequences tied to suspension, less is known about how exposure to suspension influences health over the life course. Drawing from panel data, we address this gap by investigating whether school suspension is associated with self-rated health from adolescence to midlife. Compared to youth with no history of suspension, suspended youth were more likely to report poorer health in adolescence. Findings also demonstrate that school suspension plays a significant role in self-rated health patterns over time. Specifically, we find suspended youth experience a persistent health gap in excellent health from adolescence to midlife and a more rapid acceleration of fair and poor health from their late 20s to midlife. Taken together, this study provides new evidence of the role of exclusionary discipline in shaping health disparities from adolescence to midlife.
... Disruptive (i.e., challenging) behaviors exhibited by children have been associated with poor short-and long-term outcomes, such as peer rejection [1], suspension [2], reduced academic performance [3], criminal activity, adult incarceration [4], placement in exclusionary settings, poor social development, and decreased social interactions [5]. Disruptive behaviors, which have been generally defined as any repeated pattern of behavior that inhibits learning or engagement with others [6], can take the form of a variety of topographies (e.g., self-injury, aggression, noncompliance; [2,7]). ...
... Juliet reported that her favorite part of participating in the intervention was getting to work with her friend (i.e., receiving assistance from the peer mediator). For the peer mediators, Ricky's mean social validity score was a 5 and Joe's was a 4 (range: [3][4][5]. For the RBTs, Erica's mean social validity score was 4.8 (range: 4-5), Summer's 4.7 (range: 3-5), Lauren's 4.7 (range: [4][5], and Lillian's 4.2 (range: 3-5). ...
... For the peer mediators, Ricky's mean social validity score was a 5 and Joe's was a 4 (range: [3][4][5]. For the RBTs, Erica's mean social validity score was 4.8 (range: 4-5), Summer's 4.7 (range: 3-5), Lauren's 4.7 (range: [4][5], and Lillian's 4.2 (range: 3-5). We did not assess the social validity of Wendy, as she only participated in baseline sessions. ...
Article
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Self-monitoring (SM) is a widely used intervention to address a myriad of problem behaviors exhibited by individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other disabilities (e.g., specific learning disability). SM of performance (SMP) interventions have been effective in increasing task completion and on-task behaviors in the general education setting. However, most of the research on SM interventions has been completed in a school setting, and few have evaluated the inclusion of a peer mediator component within a SM treatment package. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a SMP intervention on disruptive behavior and task completion in three children with ASD. This study extends previous research by incorporating a peer mediator component, including children with ASD, and implementing the intervention in a clinic setting. The results show that the SM treatment package was effective, as the level of disruptive behavior and task completion improved for all three participants compared to baseline levels.
... discipline for educational outcomes, finding that experiencing exclusionary discipline is associated with lower academic achievement and higher rates of high school dropout (Duxbury & Haynie, 2020;Morris & Perry, 2016;Noltemeyer et al., 2015). In a second domain, scholars have documented the extent to which youth, particularly youth of color, are pushed from education systems to criminal legal systems, a phenomenon broadly referred to as the school to prison pipeline (STPP) (Kim et al., 2010;Skiba et al., 2014;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). These studies indicate that students who experience exclusionary school discipline tend to have higher rates of arrest, juvenile justice involvement, and adult incarceration than their peers who do not experience exclusionary discipline (Mittleman, 2018a;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
... In a second domain, scholars have documented the extent to which youth, particularly youth of color, are pushed from education systems to criminal legal systems, a phenomenon broadly referred to as the school to prison pipeline (STPP) (Kim et al., 2010;Skiba et al., 2014;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). These studies indicate that students who experience exclusionary school discipline tend to have higher rates of arrest, juvenile justice involvement, and adult incarceration than their peers who do not experience exclusionary discipline (Mittleman, 2018a;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). As other scholars have pointed out, the two branches of work we highlight here are related. ...
... It is likely that both processes are at work here, with youth responding to exclusionary school discipline in ways that expose them to further and more serious interactions with law enforcement and with school authority figures and law enforcement increasing scrutiny directed towards youth and responding to behavior punitively. Regardless of the mechanism, the field remains concerned about the relationship between exclusionary discipline and criminal legal outcomes because these negative consequences persist long after the school years and into the adult years as well (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
... A Ministry of Justice report found that over 60% of adult prisoners reported being temporarily excluded as a child, and over 40% reported being permanently excluded (Williams, Papadopoulou, and Booth 2012). Being permanently excluded from school is also associated with higher levels of antisocial behaviour (Hemphill et al. 2006;McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007), substance abuse (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007) criminal involvement (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007;Wolf and Kupchik 2016), criminal victimisation (Wolf and Kupchik 2016) and imprisonment (Wolf and Kupchik 2016). ...
... A Ministry of Justice report found that over 60% of adult prisoners reported being temporarily excluded as a child, and over 40% reported being permanently excluded (Williams, Papadopoulou, and Booth 2012). Being permanently excluded from school is also associated with higher levels of antisocial behaviour (Hemphill et al. 2006;McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007), substance abuse (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007) criminal involvement (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007;Wolf and Kupchik 2016), criminal victimisation (Wolf and Kupchik 2016) and imprisonment (Wolf and Kupchik 2016). ...
... A Ministry of Justice report found that over 60% of adult prisoners reported being temporarily excluded as a child, and over 40% reported being permanently excluded (Williams, Papadopoulou, and Booth 2012). Being permanently excluded from school is also associated with higher levels of antisocial behaviour (Hemphill et al. 2006;McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007), substance abuse (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007) criminal involvement (McCrystal, Percy, and Higgins 2007;Wolf and Kupchik 2016), criminal victimisation (Wolf and Kupchik 2016) and imprisonment (Wolf and Kupchik 2016). ...
Article
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It is estimated that 1 in 2 young people who are educated in Alternative Provision (AP) educational settings have social, emotional and mental health difficulties. However, the extent to which the mental health needs of these young people are currently being met by Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) is less clear. In this qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 CAMHS practitioners who had worked with young people educated in AP settings to explore secondary health care service engagement. We analysed the data using thematic analysis. Findings suggest that young people educated in AP settings have complex mental health needs for which they are currently not receiving adequate support, due to shortcomings within AP schools and numerous external barriers to care. Implications for clinicians and service commissioners include a need for further integration between CAMHS and education services, and better quality support across AP settings.
... For many years, discipline has been cited as a chief concern of teachers. According to Wolf and Kupchik (2017), improper treatment of discipline and behavioral problems negatively affect learners' performance. Ill-discipline and bad behavior are challenging concerns for all government schools in South Africa. ...
... Ill-discipline and bad behavior are challenging concerns for all government schools in South Africa. Wolf and Kupchik (2017) further explained that despite long-standing attention to the problem, there is a growing perception that not all public schools are out-performing and disciplined. Some learners are spending time outside of the classroom, in places like in-school suspension or out-of-school suspension, instead of in classroom settings, which ultimately affects their academic achievement. ...
Article
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Learners’ academic performance is one of the most imperative elements of the classroom and a core responsibility of teachers as well as schools. Thus, it is imperative to manage a classroom in a way that is conducive to teaching and learning that can promote high academic performance. Consequently, the study aimed to examine the role of classroom management in enhancing learners' academic performance. A generic qualitative research method approach was employed in the study. A purposive sampling technique was used to select a total of 18 teachers from six government secondary schools to study the phenomenon. Therefore, it was found that effective classroom management plays an important role in learners' performance. During the research, it was found that the no availability of physical resources and poor classroom management contribute to learners, performance. Based on the research findings it was identified that teacher effectiveness, teacher preparedness and teacher social and emotional proficiency, teacher-learner relationship, and learners' motivation, behavior, and discipline are the major factors that also have a strong role on learners' performance. The schools selected to conduct research are lacking resources, and teachers are not as effective and skilled as required. Due to the lack of resources and skills, teachers can't manage classrooms which can enhance learners' academic performance. It is thus mandatory to provide resources to schools and skills and training to teachers.
... Although many school and law enforcement officials perceive these disciplinary actions as a necessity to control adolescent behavior, the literature consistently suggests there are negative life-course consequences associated with receiving these forms of punishment (e.g., Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). In particular, suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to the juvenile justice system have been associated with diminished educational achievement, employment opportunities, and income over the life-course (Cobb, 2009;Davison et al., 2022;Krezmien et al., 2010). ...
... Moreover, these disciplinary punishments can have a lasting impact on the individual, potentially contributing to ongoing involvement with the criminal legal system during adulthood (Eyllon et al., 2022;Hemez et al., 2020;Sanders et al., 2023). For example, Wolf and Kupchik (2017) demonstrated that exclusionary school discipline practices increase the likelihood of being a victim of crime, criminal involvement, and incarceration during adulthood. These findings were corroborated with evidence from Barnes and Motz (2018) who demonstrated that racial inequalities in suspension and expulsion contributed to racial inequalities in adulthood arrests, above and beyond a host of other criminogenic mechanisms. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives The over usage of exclusionary discipline to address school-based behaviors remains a substantive concern given the linkage between school discipline (e.g., suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to the juvenile justice system) and adulthood involvement in the legal system. Research on strategies to reduce the usage of exclusionary discipline remains limited, warranting the quasi-experimental evaluation of School Justice Partnerships (SJPs). Methods A statewide evaluation of the effects of SJPs on disciplinary actions for school-based behaviors at the county-level was conducted by estimating multi-level interrupted time series analyses using publicly available data. Results The results of the analyses suggested that the implementation of a SJP was associated with immediate and sustained reductions in the rate of complaints to juvenile justice, but immediate reductions in long-term suspensions that rebounded over time. Conclusions Improvements to the SJPs model should be implemented to ensure that the partnership is effective at reducing both referrals to juvenile justice and school disciplinary actions.
... Although many school and law enforcement officials perceive these disciplinary actions as a necessity to control adolescent behavior, the literature consistently suggests there are negative life-course consequences associated with receiving these forms of punishment (e.g., Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). In particular, suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to the juvenile justice system have been associated with diminished educational achievement, employment opportunities, and income over the life-course (Davison et al., 2022;Cobb, 2009;Krezmien et al., 2010). ...
... Moreover, these disciplinary punishments can have a lasting impact on the individual, potentially contributing to heightened psychological distress, antisocial behavior during adolescence, and ongoing involvement with the criminal legal system during adulthood (Eyllon et al., 2022;Hemez et al., 2020;Sanders et al., 2023). For example, Wolf and Kupchik (2017) demonstrated that exclusionary school discipline practices increase the likelihood of being a victim of crime, criminal involvement, and incarceration during adulthood. These findings were corroborated with evidence from Barnes and Motz (2018) who demonstrated that racial inequalities in suspension and expulsion contributed to racial inequalities in adulthood arrests, above and beyond a host of other criminogenic mechanisms. ...
... As a result, racially and ethnically minoritized youth are disproportionately placed in restrictive educational settings (Bal et al., 2019). Exposure to exclusionary discipline procedures and being identified as having a disability has been linked to a host of negative outcomes including but not limited to (a) increased dropout rates, (b) increased interactions with the criminal justice system, (c) lower lifetime income, and (d) poorer health outcomes (Child Mind Institute, 2020;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
Article
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Exclusionary discipline is a racialized mechanism through which schools systematically remove racially and ethnically minoritized youth from the learning environment. Although the development of Functional Behavior Assessments (FBAs) and linked behavior support plans have been identified as an alternative practice, school psychologists often do not ask questions about the cultural and contextual factors that may influence students’ behavior during FBA interviews. Therefore, training is warranted. Unfortunately, staff often have limited time and resources to devote to professional development; therefore, it is critical to ensure that training procedures that require more time offer better outcomes than those that require fewer resources. The present study compared the effectiveness of high intensity training (e.g., behavioral skills training) versus a low intensity training procedure (e.g., self-training) procedures on school psychologists’ ability to facilitate simulated FBA interviews grounded in cultural humility with caregivers before and after exposure to one of two training conditions. Findings from regression analyses indicated that self-training adequately prepared school psychologists to adhere to the questions on the protocol, however, behavioral skills training improved the quality of interview delivery. Implications for future research and training are discussed.
... Prolonged periods of school absence can have significant consequences in the lives of adolescents, in both the short and the long term. In the short term, children and adolescents who are frequently absent from school are at greater risk of dropping out of school, earning lower grades, engaging in risky sexual and drug behaviours, and even engaging in criminal activity (Balfanz et al., 2007;Gottfried, 2010;Hallfors et al., 2002;Liu et al., 2021;Morrissey et al., 2014;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). In the long run, poor school attendance reduces the likelihood of entering university or finding a job, and increases the likelihood of economic deprivation in adulthood (Ansari et al., 2020;Cattan et al., 2023;Liu et al., 2021). ...
Article
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This study examines the relationship between growing up in single-parent families and school absence in Andalusia (Spain), considering differences according to adolescents’ social background. Empirical analyses of data from the Social Survey 2010: Education and Housing show that adolescents growing up in single-parent families have, on average, a higher number of school absences than their peers in two-parent families. These disadvantages are greater for adolescents with low social backgrounds, regardless of whether this is measured by parental education or housing tenure. Both economic resources (lower household income) and social resources (poor relationship with absent parent) partially explain the differences in school absence rates amongst adolescents growing up in single-parent families. School environment (teacher–student relationship, atmosphere amongst students, experiences of school violence or ownership of educational institution) are not influential in explaining educational disadvantage amongst adolescents from different family structures, although they are strong predictors of school absence.
... There is limited evidence regarding the intended impact of punitive approaches on behaviour and academic outcomes for affected pupils and their peers [13][14][15][16] . There is also a growing concern for the potential negative implications that punitive approaches may have on wellbeing outcomes later in life 17,18 . This is important given that young people's mental health has declined in recent years in the UK, partly due to disruptions in school and home routines following COVID-19 and the pandemic response strategies 19 . ...
Article
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Background Disciplinary behaviour management strategies are implemented in schools to manage pupil behaviour. There is limited evidence of their intended impact on behaviour but there is growing concern around the potential negative impacts on pupil wellbeing. Methods We carried out a systematic review to examine the impact of these strategies on psychosocial outcomes in pupils (PROSPERO Registration: CRD42021285427). We searched multiple sources and double-screened titles, abstracts, and full texts. Data extraction and risk of bias assessment were done by one reviewer and checked by another. Results were narratively synthesised. Results We included 14 studies, from 5375 citations, assessing temporary suspension (n=10), verbal reprimand (n=2), and mixed strategies (n=2). Depression was the most common outcome (n=7), followed by academic grades (n=4) and behaviour in class (n=4). All except one study were at high risk of bias. We found a recurring pattern in the evidence of disciplinary strategies associated with poor mental wellbeing and behaviour in pupils. The effect on academic attainment was unclear. Conclusions Disciplinary behaviour management strategies may have negative impact on pupil mental wellbeing and class behaviour. These important consequences should be assessed in better designed studies before these strategies are implemented.
... A zero-tolerance policy against misconduct may not yield the expected outcomes despite the steps adopted, as there will always be certain contextual circumstances that lead to students misbehaving. These punitive tactics may have unexpected repercussions in addition to the contextual issues, such as lower academic performance [66], criminal activity and incarceration [67], and school dropouts [68,69]. ...
Article
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Even though numerous measures have been implemented to combat this issue, school violence still poses a significant challenge in South African schools. School violence is not just a challenge in regular schools, special schools also have to deal with it. Educators’ experiences with school violence interventions are covered in this article. This empirical paper uses the results from my doctoral thesis, which examined strategies for reducing school violence in a special needs school. An interpretive paradigm and a phenomenological case study design were used to perform a qualitative investigation. Five educators and 10 learners from a school with learners with disabilities were specifically chosen to participate in the doctoral study. Semi-structured interviews, qualitative questionnaires, and documents were employed to collect the data. The study found that because the participants believed their efforts were not appreciated, they lacked the motivation to contribute to the reduction of school violence. They believed that the present interventions were ineffective, and some participants complained that the educational system was overly forgiving of the learners. Additionally, they said that the Department of Basic Education and the parents were not providing them with enough support.
... Destekleyici ve ilgili bir öğretmen, fiziki ve sosyal çevresi güvenli bir okul, çocuğun okul yaşamında oldukça olumlu bir etkiye sahip olabilmektedir. Bununla birlikte, okulda zorbalığa uğrayan, dışlayıcı okul cezalarına maruz kalan çocuklar yetişkinlikte duygusal ve davranışsal sorunlar yaşayabilmektedir (Lund vd., 2009;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
Article
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Aggression includes behaviors that are done with the intention of harming others. The experiences of individuals between the ages of 2-11 can be expressed as childhood experiences. The sense of inadequacy is the sense of self that an individual sees as insufficient from others. This study aimed to investigate whether the feeling of inadequacy has a mediating role in the relationship between childhood experiences and aggressive behavior and also to examine whether the variables of the study differ according to some demographic characteristics. In this context, 291 volunteers, 190 women and 101 men. Data were collected with the Childhood Experiences Scale, Feeling of Inadequacy Scale, and Buss-Perry Aggression Scale. Quantitative analysis techniques were used. Significant relationships were found between feelings of inadequacy, aggression, and childhood experiences. Independent groups t-test findings showed that the sense of inadequacy and aggression differed significantly depending on the educational status. The mediation analysis showed that feelings of inadequacy played a mediating role in the relationship between school experiences and aggression. Findings were discussed on the basis of the relevant literature and suggestions were made to both academicians and field workers.
... The ramifications of exclusionary disciplinary have been shown to stymie academic achievement due to increases grade retention, drop-out, juvenile justice involvement, and incarceration rates-more aptly depicted as the school-to-prison nexus (Fabelo et al., 2011;Mallett, 2016;Nocella et al., 2017;Noltemeyer et al., 2017;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). Further, disciplinary tactics have not been shown to be effective in curtailing behavioral infractions (Okonofua et al., 2016;Skiba et al., 2016). ...
Article
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The school reliance on exclusionary discipline drives behavioral inequities and sustains the marginalization of youth in schools. The narratives of punishment often extend beyond the walls of the school system and may be reinforced by news media discourse. Nevertheless , the relationship between news media discourse and the school disciplinary structure is an understudied area of research. Using critical discourse techniques-with a theoretical framework of critical race and news framing theories-we analyze news coverage of exclusionary discipline across (N = 64) newspaper articles. Our findings underscore news discourse with a hyper-focus on youth deficits, stigmatizing portrayals of violence and blame, and teacher resistance to discipline alternatives and reform. Discursive absence included a lack of youth and family voices and perspectives, and a disconnection from the systemic mechanisms that shape the disciplinary structure. We conclude with implications for educators, policymakers, and scholars-as we advocate for a re-invigorated focus toward the equitable support and inclusion of youth.
... That is to say, disparity in the cost of juvenile adjudications is not a "Pennsylvania problem"-it is a problem that stems from the nature of including juvenile adjudications which are themselves products of disparity and disadvantage. Youths of color are more likely to be involved in school disciplinary actions, even net of self-reported violations (Browne, Losen, and Wald 2001;Skiba et al. 2002), which then increases their risk of being exposed to the juvenile justice system in many districts (Puzzanchera 2021;Wolf and Kupchik 2016), especially those in predominantly Black areas (Fisher et al. 2020). Once exposed to the system, they may be more likely to be adjudicated delinquent (Engen, Steen, and Bridges 2002;Leiber 2015) less likely to have their adjudication withheld (Hayes-Smith and Hayes-Smith 2009), and more likely recommended for out-of-home placement in paternalistic courts (Bridges and Steen 1998). ...
Article
Objectives: To assess whether, and to what extent, juvenile adjudications contribute to cumulative disadvantage at adult sentencing. Additionally, we parse out the relative contribution of structural disadvantage. Methods: Using data on individuals sentenced in Pennsylvania Courts of Common Pleas from 2015 to 2019, we estimate real and counterfactual incarceration sentences (probability and length). We term the difference between these estimates the “collateral cost” of juvenile adjudication. We also estimate counterfactuals under alternative policy structures. Results: Adjudications impose a substantial collateral cost on adult sentences, raising the probability of incarceration by 0.14 (23 percent of total risk) and the length of incarceration by 3 months. The cost of juvenile records is greater for individuals convicted of moderately to very serious crimes and for Black and male defendants. Structural factors are most impactful for the most common offense levels. Alternative policy structures can lessen absolute costs but are not capable of eliminating disparate costs across demographic groups. Conclusions: The use of juvenile adjudications to inform adult sentencing recommendations contributes to cumulative disadvantage, both in that Black and male defendants are more likely to be affected and that they face greater costs when they do. Guidelines changes can reduce this cost for many defendants.
... There is a fine line to walk when attempting to discipline students in an effort to motivate them toward desired practices. Research has shown that minority students in urban settings are overdisciplined (Marcucci, 2020;Wolf & Kupchik 2017). Unsurprisingly, the practice of overdisciplining and lack of respect by adults coincided with greater disengagement from class activities and is significantly related to academic achievement (Fredricks et al., 2019). ...
Article
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Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore how urban physical educators' experiences influence their motivations toward vocational persistence emphasizing health and fitness. Methods: Participants included 16 urban physical educators who participated in semistructured interviews about their experiences teaching in urban settings. For minority youths, who predominantly attend urban public schools, fitness rates are lower than the national average. Physical education has been discussed as a potential solution to combating this public health trend; however, considering Common Core reforms in public education by which health and physical education has been de-emphasized as a curricular requirement, scholars are pursuing knowledge of how the experiences of urban physical educators are evolving. Using occupational socialization as the operating theoretical framework, this study seeks to explore how 16 urban physical educators' experiences are evolving with the changes in public education, including administrative support and other indicators of marginalization and attrition. Results: Qualitative data analysis resulted in the construction of six themes which suggest that teaching students to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle remains a powerful motivator for urban physical educators' persistence despite feelings of marginalization and burnout. Conclusions: The authors provide practical suggestions for practitioners and scholars to overcome feelings of marginalization and lack of resources.
... In the UK examples can be found in legislation relating to behaviour and discipline (Bennett, 2017;DfE, 2016), which Bagley and Hallam (2015, p. 433) discussed as being 'lowtolerance behaviour strategies'. Similar examples can be found in the US (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017) and Australia (Sullivan et al., 2014). This presents a concern for practitioners and stakeholders, in relation to how behaviour policies and other systemic factors may influence or impact the PCP meeting. ...
Article
Person‐centred planning (PCP) is both a philosophy and method of service delivery across varied contexts. It is used in pathway planning for young people with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) to promote positive transition outcomes. Due to idiosyncratic use, it is unclear how PCP meetings are organised and structured and to what extent this reflects fidelity to PCP as a philosophy. It is also unclear how young people experience PCP meetings and how this impacts transition. To explore this further, a systematic literature review was undertaken from which six studies were included and their data reported using PRISMA guidelines. Drawing upon Gestalt theory as an interpretive lens, findings from these studies suggest that PCP meetings comprise intersecting ‘foreground’ and ‘background’ elements, making PCP meetings a complex space requiring skilled facilitation. Limitations and recommendations for further research and practice are included.
... Students who experience exclusionary discipline are more likely to have adverse outcomes in school, such as being held back a grade and dropping out (Fabelo et al., 2011). Research has also linked exclusionary discipline in school with a higher likelihood of incarceration in adulthood (Wolf and Kupchik, 2017). ...
... Monahan et al. (2014) estimated that students excluded with suspensions or expulsions were two times more likely of being arrested later that month in comparison to peers who did not experience these discipline outcomes. In combination with legal involvement, students who experience lower graduation and higher dropout rates (Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2011) are likely to experience criminal victimization, criminal involvement, and incarceration years later (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
... In particular, it suggests that the current law and/or the way the law is implemented has a discriminatory impact on disabled ākonga. Given the wealth of research demonstrating the significant and enduring adverse consequences of removal from school, this is deeply troubling (Gluckman & Lambie, 2018;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
Article
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All children in Aotearoa New Zealand have the right to enrol in and receive a quality, inclusive education. Despite this, a recent report by the Education Review Office ([ERO] 2022), the government’s external education evaluation agency, identified numerous ways in which disabled ākonga are excluded from and within the education system. This article explores one of ERO’s key findings; principals lack understanding of their legal obligations with respect to disabled ākonga. Through contextualising this finding within national and international literature on principals’ legal literacy, the urgent need for professional development (PD) to develop principals’ understanding of the relevant law is highlighted. Recommendations for the content and delivery of this PD are outlined along with regulatory measures to safeguard the rights of disabled ākonga. Watch the interview with Nicola Leete.
... There is limited evidence regarding the intended impact of punitive approaches on behaviour and academic outcomes for affected pupils and their peers [13][14][15][16]. There is also a growing concern for the potential negative implications that punitive approaches may have on wellbeing outcomes later in life [17,18]. This is important given that young people's mental health has declined in recent years in the UK, partly due to disruptions in school and home routines following COVID-19 and the pandemic response strategies [19]. ...
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Background Disciplinary behaviour management strategies are implemented in schools to help manage pupil behaviour. There is limited evidence of their intended impact on behaviour and academic outcomes for pupils but a growing concern for the potential negative impact that punitive approaches may have on pupil wellbeing. Methods We carried out a systematic review of the impact of disciplinary behaviour management strategies in schools on pupil psychosocial outcomes. We searched multiple electronic databases, and other sources. Primary outcomes were mental health and wellbeing, and secondary outcomes were social behaviours and academic attainment. Double screening of all titles, abstracts and full texts was undertaken, and data extraction was led by one reviewer with second reviewer checking all. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) group’s criteria for nonrandomised studies. Results were narratively synthesised. Results We included 14 studies from 5375 citations, assessing three types of strategies: temporary suspension (n = 10), verbal reprimand (n = 2), and mixed strategies (suspension along with other disciplinary intervention; n = 2), reporting on 18 primary and secondary outcomes. Depression was the most frequently reported outcome (n = 7), followed by academic grade scores (n = 4) and poor social behaviour in class (n = 4). Studies were mostly surveys, and all except one were at high risk of bias. We found a recurring pattern in the evidence of disciplinary strategies associated with poor mental health and social behaviour in pupils. The effect on academic attainment was unclear. Conclusions Disciplinary strategies aimed at improving behaviour at school may have negative effects on the pupil mental wellbeing as well as class behaviour. These are important consequences and should be assessed in better designed studies before these strategies are implemented.
Article
The negative outcomes of exclusionary discipline practices on children and youth are well established. Fortunately, for the past two decades, research has demonstrated that pro-active instructional approaches and building supportive class and school environments can effectively promote student social, emotional, and behavioral well-being, especially when evidence-based practices are placed within a problem-solving multitiered system of supports such as school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS). Recent work examining state-wide behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) initiatives, which include professional development and technical assistance to school leadership teams, has clearly documented that educators can reduce problem behavior and thereby reduce the need or use for exclusionary discipline practices. This study extends that body of knowledge by examining Missouri’s SWPBIS initiative over time and across grade levels. Using an extant data base, schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity were compared with nonimplementing schools over 11 school years. Results indicated that schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity had statistically significant lower rates of exclusionary discipline practices at the primary, middle, and high school level. Results are discussed within the context of past state-wide SWPBIS initiatives.
Chapter
Attending school is a pre-requisite not only for academic learning, but also for social connections, emotional wellbeing, and physical development. This is even more important for students experiencing disadvantage, such as those in out-of-home care. However, these students are likely to be absent from school far more often than their more privileged peers, which means school attendance is a crucial equity issue. Importantly, absence from school is not just an educational concern but also a social concern. It is certainly not simply the fault of students, their families or carers. In this chapter, we outline three ways of reimagining school attendance. First, making school systems more inclusive to reduce system-generated absences. Second, ensuring schools are places where students want to be, to reduce unauthorised absences. Finally, strengthening links between social services and schools to enable students to be at school and reduce authorised absences. All of these require changes in practices, political will, and proper resourcing. Enabling students experiencing disadvantage to gain the full benefits of school by being in class and in the playground alongside their peers is a key foundation for a better and more equitable future—both for these students themselves, and for our wider communities.
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Plain English Summary How does school discipline affect pupil mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review In England, a variety of approaches are used in schools to manage pupils’ behaviour. There isn’t much evidence about their impact on behaviour, but there’s growing concern they might negatively affect pupils’ wellbeing. We systematically reviewed the published research to understand the impact of these behaviour management strategies on pupils’ wellbeing. We searched multiple sources and two people looked at titles, abstracts and full papers. One reviewer extracted the data and assessed the studies for risk of bias, while another checked this work. Results from all studies were combined together in text and tables. We included 14 studies from the 5,375 papers that we looked at. Included studies explored at a range of strategies, including temporary suspension (10 studies), verbal reprimand or being told off (2 studies), and a combination of strategies (2 studies). Seven studies looked at whether these strategies led to depression, four looked at the impact on exam grades and four on behaviour in class. All except one study were at high risk of bias, meaning we can’t fully trust their findings. Many of the studies showed these disciplinary strategies were linked to poor mental wellbeing and behaviour in pupils. The effect on exam results wasn’t clear. It appears pupil mental wellbeing and class behaviour was made worse by these strategies. These are important impacts and should be researched in high quality studies before these strategies are used further.
Article
Using data extracted from the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2019 National Household Education Surveys Program, this study used a series of linear probability models to examine the association between family–school relationships and exclusionary discipline. The sample included 15,360 U.S. families of K–12 non-homeschooled and non-virtual school students. Results suggest that students with disabilities experienced significantly more expulsion and suspension and that their families were less satisfied with school and received significantly more individual contact from school for negative reasons. In addition, parent satisfaction with school and individual contacts from school to parent regarding positive behaviors or schoolwork and behavior problems were statistically significantly associated with exclusionary discipline after accounting for student characteristics, such as race, age, and gender. These associations between family–school relationships and exclusionary discipline did not differ by a student’s disability status.
Article
Past research has linked peer and teacher discrimination to risk factors for school discipline, but few studies have examined whether peer and teacher discrimination have a direct impact on school discipline. This study examines the effects of general peer and teacher discrimination at the individual‐ and school‐level on school suspension using nationally representative, secondary data on almost 12,000 youth across 131 schools. Hierarchical logistic regression models indicated that general teacher discrimination at the individual‐ and school‐level—but not general peer discrimination—increased the odds of receiving school suspension. Findings suggest that general discrimination by direct learning instructors and teachers representing the broader school culture can shape student conduct. Reducing school discipline thus falls on teachers, staff, principals, and learners.
Article
Background: School Resource Officer (SRO) programs do not reduce school violence and increase school discipline. We describe the use of a culturally responsive framework to form a school community collaborative among students, parents, staff, administrators, and law enforcement to reform an SRO program, promote school safety, and reduce punitive measures. Methods: Members of a participating school district, a local county, and a university collaborated. Adapting an identified culturally responsive model, a racially/ethnically diverse school community co-developed and implemented a School Community Collaborative (SCC) to address a school safety priority (SRO program reform). The main outcomes were SCC model development and implementation, policy change, and school community feedback. Results: Sixteen community members participated in the 5-week SCC with students, staff, law enforcement, and parents. The SCC revised the district's SRO memorandum of understanding (MOU) with law enforcement. Participants reported favorable feedback, and 89% reported the inclusion of diverse voices. Conclusions: Co-development and implementation of an SCC process with schools were feasible. School SCC participated in a community-engaged evaluation and revision of an MOU.
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Academic stress is one of the major reasons which influence students’ mental health. Tolerance significantly contributes to managing academic pressure, a sense of competence, and parental and social expectations while lacking causes mental health issues. Objective: To explore the relationship between distress tolerance and mental health problems among university students. Methods: 500 students from different universities of Faisalabad. The age range of the participants covered the years 20 to 40. The sample was taken using a purposive sampling technique. The following measures were used to assess the findings i.e. demographic form, distress tolerance scale, depression, anxiety and stress scale were used to explore the relationship between distress tolerance and mental health problems among university students. Results: Findings indicate a significant relationship between distress tolerance and depression (r = -.182, P < 0.01), distress tolerance and anxiety (r = -.243, P < 0.01), and distress tolerance and stress (-.252, P < 0.01) among university students. Conclusions: It is concluded that the level of tolerance significantly helps to overcome daily life stressors, anxieties, and depressive symptoms among the students.
Article
Exclusionary school discipline is one of the primary ways that schools address student behavior. Existing scholarship has focused on examining the implications of exclusionary school discipline for two sets of outcomes: academic achievement and future juvenile and criminal legal involvement. However, these two areas of scholarship are largely treated as separate. In this paper, we bridge these two research areas by drawing on scholarship examining the negative educational consequences of police contact for youth. Specifically, we formally test the proposition that the association between school suspension in childhood and adolescent academic achievement is mediated by police contact experienced in early adolescence. Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we find support for this hypothesis: Early adolescent police contact explains approximately 30% of the association between school suspension in childhood and adolescent GPA. By relying on exclusionary school discipline, our results suggest that schools are setting the stage for youth to become involved in the criminal legal system, which, in turn, hinders future academic achievement.
Article
Amidst a decline in exclusionary school discipline, the current study asks how a more holistic set of school discipline practices are associated with emerging adult well-being. We use original survey data from over 700 college-educated emerging adults to show that this sample can be categorized into three groups with unique school disciplinary histories—those who received minimal discipline, those who received primarily school-managed discipline, and those who received intensive discipline. These groups were distinguishable not just on the severity or exclusionary nature of discipline but also the involvement of parents, police, or support staff (e.g., counselors). After accounting for selection into these groups, we find that emerging adults with histories of both school-managed and intensive discipline reported lower well-being than their minimally-disciplined counterparts. Such findings demonstrate the reach of school discipline even to this relatively privileged sample and the need to think about discipline and its potential consequences more expansively.
Article
Racial disproportionality in school discipline is a major U.S. educational problem. Official data show that Black boys are disciplined at the highest rates of any racial and gender subgroup. Scholars suggest the “criminal” Black male image shapes teachers’ views and treatment of their Black male students. Yet few studies examine the everyday mechanisms of racial discipline disparities, particularly in early childhood. This study uses ethnography to understand first-grade teachers’ disciplinary interactions with Black and White boys. The findings uncover teachers’ racialized disciplinary practices via differential surveillance of, differential engagement with, and differential responses to noncompliance from Black and White boys as key mechanisms that reproduce unequal disciplinary experiences in early childhood education.
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Importance There are racial and ethnic inequities in exclusionary school discipline (ESD) (ie, a disciplinary action that removes students from their classroom or school environment, eg, referrals, suspensions, and/or expulsions) practices in the US. Exclusionary school discipline has been associated with negative education, health, and criminal justice outcomes. Objectives To investigate whether experiencing an ESD event was associated with decreased grade point average (GPA) and whether minoritized students (eg, Black or Latine [description used in database]) are disproportionately affected compared with White students. Design, Setting, and Participants In a cohort study using retrospective administrative longitudinal data of children in the 6th to 10th grades (August 18, 2014, to May 26, 2017) in a large, single urban school district in California, linear mixed models were applied to compare the timing of the first exclusionary event and the average change in GPA and evaluate the relative variation among minoritized students experiencing an exclusionary event. Data analysis was conducted from August 18, 2018, to August 21, 2023. Exposure Year at which students experienced first ESD events over the study period. Main Outcomes and Measures The primary outcome of interest was change in average grade point average (GPA); students’ GPA averaged across courses was averaged across each year. Results Of the 16 849 students (8756 [52.0%] male), 21.4% experienced at least 1 ESD event. The mean (SD) age was 14.3 (1.6) years, and 7.5% identified as Black, 25.6% Latine, and 10.0% White. Black and Latine students experienced exclusionary events at nearly 10 and 3 times more than White students (mean [SD]: Black, 6.69 [12.80] events; Latine, 2.01 [6.18] events; White, 0.71 [4.46] events; P < .001). When controlling for gender, maternal educational level, race and ethnicity, and school year, having experienced an ESD event in the first year was associated with an average decrease in GPA by 0.88 (95% CI, −0.91 to −0.84) points compared with no ESD events; experiencing ESD events also had significant differences in the second (−0.63 [95% CI, −0.67 to −0.59]) and third (−0.52 [95% CI, −0.57 to −0.47]) years. Black and Latine race and ethnicity was associated with the greatest decrease in GPA compared with White students (Black, −0.56 [95% CI, −0.61 to −0.51]; Latine, −0.51 [95% CI, −0.54 to −0.47]; P < .001). Conclusion and Relevance This study observed racial and ethnic inequities in ESD prevalence and its association with educational attainment. The findings suggest that it may be beneficial for pediatricians and other health care professionals to screen for exclusion, as experiencing ESD events may affect health across the life course. In addition, it may be useful to categorize ESD events as an adverse childhood experience and abolish the practice from schools as a disciplinary measure.
Article
According to the focal concerns perspective, the concerns guiding judges’ sentencing considerations are blameworthiness and harm, community protection, and practical considerations. Regarding racial and other disparities in sentencing, focal concerns contend that various constraints, associations between defendants’ demographic characteristics, and the three focal concerns influence judicial decision-making. One association that is explored infrequently is the institutionalization decision of juveniles and how that decision is associated with race and various school-based metrics. Using a sample of adjudicated delinquent juveniles from one state over a 5-year period and merged with American Community Survey data, the present study explores how school factors alongside race serve as focal concerns for judges, impacting the decision to institutionalize juveniles.
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Prior research has shown that Black and Hispanic students are more likely to experience office discipline referrals than White youth, and the magnitude of these inequalities has been found to vary by gender. However, it remains unclear whether racial/ethnic and gender disparities in office referrals might be amplified among students in more disruptive classroom environments. Analyses of data from the 2012-2021 8th /10th grade cohorts of the Monitoring the Future survey (N = 70,442) reveal that, among male youth, Black- and Hispanic-White differences in office referrals are substantially weaker for students who describe their classrooms as more disruptive. In contrast, the heightened risk of an office referral for minority female students relative to White females increases in correspondence with higher levels of classroom disruptiveness.
Article
Using a recent nationally representative sample of schools, this test of Minority Threat Theory, which predicts greater use of punitive social controls in places with more people of color, is the first to use an empirically and conceptually based security typology that distinguishes among strategies intended to (1) control, (2) surveil, and (3) protect students at school. This study not only accounts for the way particular security strategies are often bundled, but also for differential objectives that are seemingly dependent on the racial and ethnic context of schools—essential considerations for understanding how minority threat manifests in school security programs. Ultimately, our results demonstrate the need for policymakers to recognize how disparate implementation of school security strategies may exacerbate inequality for youth of color.
Article
A growing body of literature has demonstrated that when schools suspend students, the suspension acts not as a deterrent but as an amplifier of future punishment. Labeling theory has emerged as the predominant explanation for this phenomenon, suggesting that the symbolic label conferred along with a suspension shapes how other people perceive and respond to labeled students. Few studies, however, have attended to racial/ethnic differences in this process even though critical race theory suggests the consequences of suspension likely differ across racial/ethnic groups due to prevailing racial/ethnic stereotypes. This study uses six waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 (N = 8,634) to examine how the relationship between suspension and subsequent arrest differs for White, Black, and Hispanic students. Using a series of within‐person analyses that control for time‐stable personal characteristics, this study finds that suspension amplifies Black and Hispanic students’ risk of arrest relative to that of White students. White students’ risk of arrest was not amplified by suspension and, in some models, was diminished. This study's findings underscore the importance of understanding the labeling process as different by race/ethnicity and indicate that suspension is particularly harmful for Black and Hispanic relative to White students.
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Introduction The study examines age-crime prevalence and age-crime frequency curves based on longitudinal data from boys in the Pittsburgh Youth Study and girls in the Pittsburgh Girls Study. Results Results show that the prevalence of the age-crime curve for theft and violence (based on self-reports or police charges) followed the typical age-crime curve for males and slightly less distinctly for females, with the peak of offending occurring earlier for self-reports than for police charges. The decrease in police charges for violence and theft took place at an earlier age for females than males, but this was not distinct when self-reported delinquency was the criterion. The mean frequency of self-reported theft and violence followed the age-crime curve for males but not for females, who showed a mean frequency of offending which was more constant. In contrast, the mean frequency of police charges increased with age for males and females. Comparing African-American and Caucasian males and females shows a higher prevalence but not a higher mean frequency of self-reported offending. Conclusions The results are reviewed in the light of other studies, and the policy implications of the findings are discussed.
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This study uses the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health data set to evaluate the long-term influence of school discipline and security on political and civic participation. We find that young adults with a history of school suspension are less likely than others to vote and volunteer in civic activities years later, suggesting that suspension negatively impacts the likelihood that youth engage in future political and civic activities. These findings are consistent with prior theory and research highlighting the long-term negative implications of punitive disciplinary policies and the role schools play in preparing youth to participate in a democratic polity. We conclude that suspension undermines the development of the individual skills and capacities necessary for a democratic society by substituting collaborative problem solving for the exclusion and physical removal of students. The research lends empirical grounds for recommending the reform of school governance and the implementation of more constructive models of discipline.
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An influential literature in criminology has identified indirect “collateral consequences” of mass imprisonment. We extend this criminological perspective to the context of the U.S. education system, conceptualizing exclusionary discipline practices (i.e., out-of-school suspension) as a manifestation of intensified social control in schools. Similar to patterns of family and community decline associated with mass incarceration, we theorize that exclusionary discipline policies have indirect adverse effects on non-suspended students in punitive schools. Using a large hierarchical and longitudinal dataset consisting of student and school records, we examine the effect of suspension on reading and math achievement. Our findings suggest that higher levels of exclusionary discipline within schools over time generate collateral damage, negatively affecting the academic achievement of non-suspended students in punitive contexts. This effect is strongest in schools with high levels of exclusionary discipline and schools with low levels of violence, although the adverse effect of exclusionary discipline is evident in even the most disorganized and hostile school environments. Our results level a strong argument against excessively punitive school policies and suggest the need for alternative means of establishing a disciplined environment through social integration.
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Discipline practices in schools affect the social quality of each educational environment, and the ability of children to achieve the academic and social gains essential for success in a 21st century society. We review the documented patterns of office discipline referrals in 364 elementary and middle schools during the 2005-2006 academic year. Data were reported by school personnel through daily or weekly uploading of office discipline referrals using the Web-based School-wide Information System. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses indicate that students from African American families are 2.19 (elementary) to 3.78 (middle) times as likely to be referred to the office for problem behavior as their White peers. In addition, the results indicate that students from African American and Latino families are more likely than their White peers to receive expulsion or out of school suspension as consequences for the same or similar problem behavior. These results extend and are consistent with a long history of similar findings, and argue for direct efforts in policy, practice, and research to address ubiquitous racial and ethnic disparities in school discipline.
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One of the strongest findings in the juvenile delinquency literature is the relationship between a lack of school success, school disengagement, and involvement in the criminal justice system. This link has been deemed the "school-to-jail pipeline." To date, research has not clarified the antecedents or origins of this school failure and disengagement, although it is known that it occurs at relatively young ages. This study examines one possible source: racial bias in school discipline experienced during the elementary school years. Using a multi-level analysis, we examine whether African-American elementary school students are more likely to receive disciplinary infractions while controlling for individual-level, classroom-level, and school-level factors. Our findings, robust across several models, show that African-American children receive more disciplinary infractions than children from other racial categories. Classroom factors, school factors, and student behavior are not sufficient to account for this finding. We also find that school-level characteristics (e.g., percentage of black students) are related to overall discipline levels, consistent with a racial threat hypothesis. These findings have important implications for the school-to-jail literature and may point to one explanation for why minority students fare less well and are more likely to disengage from schools at a younger age than whites.
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Although there can be no dispute that schools must do all that can be done to ensure the safety of learning environments, controversy has arisen about the use of zero tolerance policies and procedures to achieve those aims. In response to that controversy, and to assess the extent to which current practice benefits students and schools, the American Psychological Association convened a task force to evaluate the evidence and to make appropriate recommendations regarding zero tolerance policies and practices. An extensive review of the literature found that, despite a 20-year history of implementation, there are surprisingly few data that could directly test the assumptions of a zero tolerance approach to school discipline, and the data that are available tend to contradict those assumptions. Moreover, zero tolerance policies may negatively affect the relationship of education with juvenile justice and appear to conflict to some degree with current best knowledge concerning adolescent development. To address the needs of schools for discipline that can maintain school safety while maximizing student opportunity to learn, the report offers recommendations for both reforming zero tolerance where its implementation is necessary and for alternative practice to replace zero tolerance where a more appropriate approach is indicated.
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Tests of the racial threat hypothesis, linking the racial composition of place to various measures of social control, find that where there are greater percentages of blacks, more punitive criminal justice policies are implemented. Just as the criminal justice system continues to get tougher on crime despite stagnant crime rates, it is also clear that schools are becoming harsher toward student misbehavior and delinquency despite decreases in these school-based occurrences. However, only a very limited number of studies have been able to partially explain this trend of intensifying social control in schools. Using a national sample of 294 public schools, the present study is the first to test the racial threat hypothesis within schools to determine if the racial composition of students predicts greater use of punitive controls, regardless of levels of misbehavior and delinquency. Results of multivariate analyses support the racial threat perspective, finding that schools with a larger percentage of black students are not only more likely to use punitive disciplinary responses, but also more likely to use extremely punitive discipline and to implement zero tolerance policies. They also use fewer mild disciplinary practices and restitutive techniques. In addition, racial threat is more influential when school delinquency and disorder are lower.
Article
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Federal legislation and concern about high-profile school shootings have placed attention on safe schools and school discipline. Anecdotal evidence and several reports indicate that in response to calls to promote safety, schools are increasingly referring students to the juvenile courts for acts of misbehavior. Using data from the National Juvenile Court Data Archive, the study reported here examined school referrals (SR) to the juvenile courts in five states from 1995 to 2004. We studied SR over time as well as the proportion of total referrals originating in schools. There was variability in the number of referrals to the juvenile courts originating in the schools and in the trends of SR across states as well as the odds that referrals originated in schools. We found evidence that in four of five states, referrals from schools represented a greater proportion of total referrals to juvenile courts in 2004 than in 1995. We also found differences in the odds of SR to out-of-school referrals (OSR) by race and by gender in some states but not in others. The findings suggest that states may differ in the way in which their schools respond to misbehavior and in the way their schools directly refer students to the juvenile courts. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the findings.
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School discipline addresses schoolwide, classroom, and individual student needs through broad prevention, targeted intervention, and development of self-discipline. Schools often respond to disruptive students with exclusionary and punitive approaches that have limited value. This article surveys three approaches to improving school discipline practices and student behavior: ecological approaches to classroom management; schoolwide positive behavioral supports; and social and emotional learning. The article examines their epistemological and empirical roots and supporting research, suggesting ways to combine approaches.
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Little research has assessed the effects of juvenile justice involvement during high school on educational outcomes. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, this study assesses the effect of first-time arrest and court involve-ment during high school on educational attainment. In addition, differential effects by structural location are examined. Findings suggest support for the labeling perspective. First-time court appearance during high school increases the chances of dropping out of high school independent of involvement in delin-quency. Furthermore, the effect of court appearance is particularly detrimental to less delinquent youths.
Book
As zero-tolerance discipline policies have been instituted at high schools across the country, police officers are employed with increasing frequency to enforce behavior codes and maintain order, primarily at poorly performing, racially segregated urban schools. Actions that may once have sent students to the detention hall or resulted in their suspension may now introduce them to the criminal justice system. This book explores the impact of policing and punitive disciplinary policies on the students and their educational experience. Through in-depth interviews with and observations of students, teachers, administrators, and police officers, this book offers an interesting account of daily life at a Bronx high school where police patrol the hallways and security and discipline fall under the jurisdiction of the NYPD. It documents how, as law enforcement officials initiate confrontations with students, small infractions often escalate into “police matters” that can lead to summonses to criminal court, arrest, and confinement in juvenile detention centers. The book follows students from the classroom and the cafeteria to the detention hall, the dean’s office, and the criminal court system, clarifying the increasingly intimate relations between the school and the criminal justice system. Placing this trend within the context of recent social and economic changes, as well as developments within criminal justice and urban school reform, it shows how this police presence has created a culture of control in which penal management overshadows educational innovation.
Article
A growing literature suggests that juvenile arrests perpetuate offending and increase the likelihood of future arrests. The effect on subsequent arrests is generally regarded as a product of the perpetuation of criminal offending. However, increased rearrest also may reflect differential law enforcement behavior. Using longitudinal data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) together with official arrest records, the current study estimates the effects of first arrests on both reoffending and rearrest. Propensity score methods were used to control differences between arrestees and nonarrestees and to minimize selection bias. Among 1,249 PHDCN youths, 58 individuals were first arrested during the study period; 43 of these arrestees were successfully matched to 126 control cases that were equivalent on a broad set of individual, family, peer, and neighborhood factors. We find that first arrests increased the likelihood of both subsequent offending and subsequent arrest, through separate processes. The effects on rearrest are substantially greater and are largely independent of the effects on reoffending, which suggests that labels trigger “secondary sanctioning” processes distinct from secondary deviance processes. Attempts to ameliorate deleterious labeling effects should include efforts to dampen their escalating punitive effects on societal responses.
Book
During the 1940s, teachers were certain they had some grievous complaints about students' behavior in school. Among these were excessive noise, littering, and gum chewing. More recently, teachers' concerns have taken on a far more dire tone. Today, their focus is on the rape, robbery, and substance abuse incidents that occur in alarming numbers in their workplaces. In recent years, the news on violent crime in our schools has often been devastating. And although school officials have begun taking measures to decrease the level of violence on their grounds (e.g., installing metal detectors, hiring guards to patrol hallways), the violence that continues to occur is often more lethal and no less troubling. To further understand and ameliorate the causes of violence among our children-especially at school-this book takes a comprehensive approach to addressing the issues. Violence in Schools: Cross-National and Cross-Cultural Perspectives provides both a broad overview of violence in schools and offers specific descriptions of models that have been used successfully within school settings to prevent violent crime from occurring. For example, this volume: Recognizes that violence on school grounds is a global problem that requires an international perspective to counteract. Takes a broad view of what constitutes violence-that is, the focus is not only on physical assault, but the neglect and abusive behavior (e.g., racism, sexism, cultural discrimination and suppression) that contribute to its occurrence. Explores the history of the phenomenon of school violence in order to effectively ameliorate its current condition. Violence in Schools: Cross-National and Cross-Cultural Perspectives speaks with legitimate authority to scholars as well as to those on the frontlines in combating school violence, including school and counseling psychologists, school administrators, teachers and staff as well as concerned parents. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. All rights reserved.
Article
This study is based upon a longitudinal analysis of data for a cohort of 181,897 Florida state students who were first time 9th graders in the 2000-01 school year and follows them trough to high school and post-secondary outcomes. Analysis of 9th grade suspension data finds that black students, students who are economically disadvantaged, and special education students are three demographics subgroups that are disproportionately suspended, both in the frequency of suspensions and the duration in number of school days lost. While poverty and ethnicity are themselves highly correlated, poverty alone does not explain the disproportionate suspension rates amongst black students. Further analyses show that out-of-school suspensions in the 9th grade year are also significantly and negatively correlated to later high school graduation as well as post-secondary enrolment and persistence. Thus demographic disparities in disciplinary incidents serve to further widen any academic achievement gaps. Closer analysis though shows though that disciplinary incidents are interrelated with other of indicators of student disengagement from school, such as course failures and absenteeism. Therefore, policies seeking to address these issues cannot focus on reducing suspensions alone, but must also address student attendance and course passing in a comprehensive and systematic manner.
Article
Police officers, armed security guards, surveillance cameras, and metal detectors are common features of the disturbing new landscape at many of today's high schools. You will also find new and harsher disciplinary practices: zero-tolerance policies, random searches with drug-sniffing dogs, and mandatory suspensions, expulsions, and arrests, despite the fact that school crime and violence have been decreasing nationally for the past two decades. While most educators, students, and parents accept these harsh policing and punishment strategies based on the assumption that they keep children safe, Aaron Kupchik argues that we need to think more carefully about how we protect and punish students. In Homeroom Security, Kupchik shows that these policies lead schools to prioritize the rules instead of students, so that students' real problems-often the very reasons for their misbehavior-get ignored. Based on years of impressive field research, Kupchik demonstrates that the policies we have zealously adopted in schools across the country are the opposite of the strategies that are known to successfully reduce student misbehavior and violence. As a result, contemporary school discipline is often unhelpful, and can be hurtful to students in ways likely to make schools more violent places. Furthermore, those students who are most at-risk of problems in schools and dropping out are the ones who are most affected by these counterproductive policies. Our schools and our students can and should be safe, and Homeroom Security offers real strategies for making them so.
Article
This article examines the nature of delinquent and related problem behavior in schools. It suggests that public perceptions that the quality of many urban schools is low has the effect of exacerbating the concentration of populations of young people at elevated risk of both delinquent behavior and poor educational outcomes in some communities. It describes delinquency and related problem behaviors in schools and suggests that delinquents and dropouts are engaged in a variety of problem behaviors, and they are low achieving, poorly motivated, and uncommitted to school. It also discusses whether individual characteristics predispose young people to problem behavior and poor school achievement. Furthermore, the chapter reveals the implications of school demography for delinquency and educational outcomes. Finally, it presents an argument concerning whether or not schools should be concerned with preventing delinquency.
Book
This book seeks to analyze the issue of race in America after the election of Barack Obama. For the author, the U.S. criminal justice system functions can act as a contemporary system of racial control, even as it adheres to the principle of color blindness.
Article
Although the association between school suspension and deleterious outcomes is widely acknowledged, policy and practice need to be informed by an evidence base derived from multiple studies revealing consistent trends. This meta-analysis aims to address this void by examining the degree to which different types of school suspensions (in-school versus out-of-school) are associated with both academic achievement and school dropout, while concurrently examining study or participant characteristics that moderate these relationships. Data sources included peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies from 1986 – 2012 obtained via bibliographic databases. A meta-analysis was conducted on 53 cases from 34 studies. The results revealed a significant inverse relationship between suspensions and achievement, along with a significant positive relationship between suspensions and dropout. Furthermore, study or participant characteristics and type of suspension significantly affected the relationship between suspensions and the outcome variables. Implications for policy, practice, and research are emphasized.
Article
Do the strategies that schools adopt in response to "disciplinary problems," including violence, actually perpetuate violence? In this thoughtful article, Pedro Noguera traces the history of institutional disciplinary measures, showing that the underlying philosophical orientation toward social control exacts a heavy toll on students, teachers, and the entire school community by producing prison-like schools that remain unsafe. Noguera maintains that a "get-tough" approach fails to create a safe environment because the use of coercive strategies interrupts learning and ultimately produces an environment of mistrust and resistance. He offers alternative strategies for humanizing school environments, encouraging a sense of community and collective responsibility.
Article
The study in this article identifies three major risk categories of high school dropouts and evaluates the impact of possible prevention strategies. As students accumulate these risks, they became more likely to drop out and prevention programs become less effective. Additionally, it was found that factors influencing the decision to drop out vary for different sources of risk, and thus there should be a range of prevention strategies offered to accommodate for this variance.
Article
As violence and crime within and around U.S. schools has drawn increased attention to school security, police, surveillance cameras, and other measures have grown commonplace at public schools. Social scientists commonly voice concern that exclusionary security measures are most common in schools attended by poor and non-White students, yet there is little empirical basis for assessing the extent of differential exposure, as we lack research on how exclusionary measures are distributed relative to school and student characteristics. To address this gap in the research, we use nationally representative school-level data from the School Survey on Crime and Safety to consider the security measures employed in elementary, middle, and high schools. Results indicate that while security measures are ubiquitous in U.S. high schools, those considered more exclusionary are concentrated in elementary, middle, and high schools attended by non-White and/or poorer students.
Article
This paper examines procedural justice in the context of citizen experiences with the police and courts. It is based on interviews of 652 citizens with recent personal experiences involving those authorities. I will consider two issues: first, whether the justice of the procedures involved influences citizen satisfaction with outcomes and evaluations of legal authorities; and second, how citizens define "fair process" in such settings. The results replicate those of past studies, which found that procedural justice has a major influence on both satisfaction and evaluation. They further suggest that such procedural justice judgments are complex and multifaceted. Seven issues make independent contributions to citizen judgments about whether the legal authorities acted fairly: (1) the degree to which those authorities were motivated to be fair; (2) judgments of their honesty; (3) the degree to which the authorities followed ethical principles of conduct; (4) the extent to which opportunities for representation were provided; (5) the quality of the decisions made; (6) the opportunities for error correction; and (7) whether the authorities behaved in a biased fashion. I found that the meaning of procedural justice varied according to the nature of the situation, not the characteristics of the people involved.
Article
The term and construct “school-to-prison” pipeline has been widely used by advocates, researchers, and policymakers to describe the relationship between school disciplinary practices and increased risk of juvenile justice contact. It has been unclear whether the construct is a useful heuristic or a descriptor of empirically validated relationships that establish school disciplinary practices as a risk factor for negative developmental outcomes, including juvenile justice involvement. In this article, we examine the literature surrounding one facet of the pipeline, school exclusion as a disciplinary option, and propose a model for tracing possible pathways of effect from school suspension and expulsion to the ultimate contact point of juvenile justice involvement. Available multivariate analyses suggest that regardless of demographic, achievement, or system status, out-of-school suspension and expulsion are in and of themselves risk factors for a range of negative developmental outcomes. Recommendations are offered to assist schools in replacing disciplinary exclusion with a range of alternatives whose goal is to preserve both school order and provide all students with educational opportunities.
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Research has found that, in 2006, over 28 per cent of B lack male middle school students had been suspended at least once, nearly three times the rate for W hite males. Other research has revealed racial disparities in discipline, including disproportionately high numbers of B lack students being removed from class on discretionary discipline grounds, while W hites had higher rates of punishment for nondiscretionary offenses. Several studies have shown that being suspended significantly increased the risk of dropping out and future contact with the juvenile justice system. This article examines what we know about racial disparities in out‐of‐school suspensions in light of research on school discipline policy. The article explores the implications of this knowledge for civil rights enforcement and making improvements. Keypoints Argument that sound educational practice can replace excessive suspensions with alternatives that address misbehavior but keeps students in school. Unpacks common misconceptions in defense of frequent use of suspensions with research on the harm of this common practice. Analyzes the national data that should raise serious concerns about the use of out‐of‐school suspensions. Makes clear recommendations for federal and state policymakers, educators and civil rights enforcement.
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Zero tolerance policies in secondary schools now embrace an array of misbehaviors varying widely in seriousness. Their utility has therefore come into question, especially because they do not address causal factors and generally maintain an emphasis on suspension and expulsion. In contrast, responses based on a restorative justice philosophy embrace stakeholders in an interactive process to repair harm by addressing the nature of the misbehavior and resulting damages. In an effort to examine the applicability of restorative justice principles to disciplinary policies in educational settings, the explorative results of a pilot project are presented. Quantitative outcomes indicate reduced behavioral referrals and suspensions. Qualitative descriptions likewise point toward positive directions. Overall, findings are supportive of employing restorative justice principles in response to school-related misbehavior, which could be combined with traditional practices (for more serious offenders) in a synergistic approach to restoring order in our schools, responsibility in our students, and, ultimately, hope in our communities.
Article
This article suggests that contact with the legal system increased school dropout in a Chicago sample of 4,844 inner-city students. According to multilevel multivariate logistic models, students who were first arrested during the 9th or 10th grade were six to eight times more likely than were nonarrested students ever to dropout of high school and are about 3.5 times more likely to drop out in Grades 9 and 10. However, selection bias is a real concern. To improve causal inference, students who were first arrested in Grade 9 (n = 228) are compared to 9th graders (n = 153) who were first arrested a year later. Given this sampling restriction, the groups hardly differ on many observables. Yet early arrest still increases early school dropout in models with many relevant covariates. The 9th-grade arrestees are also compared to matched students who avoided arrest. Similar intergroup differences in the risk of dropout were observed. Thus, being arrested weakens subsequent participation in urban schools, decreasing their capacity to educate and otherwise help vulnerable youths.
Article
Despite the general agreement that US schools have become increasingly punitive since the 1980s, researchers are uncertain about what types of schools use tough-on-crime measures. Some assert that punitive control is concentrated in poor, predominantly ethnic minority schools. Governing-through-crime scholars argue that US schools with mostly middle-class and white students are also punitive, but in less harsh ways using soft surveillance techniques. Relying on data from large, stratified samples of middle and secondary US public schools, we found that high rates of ethnic minority enrollment predicted heavy reliance on law enforcement and security personnel. As rates of student poverty increased, use of soft surveillance techniques as well as reporting students to the police significantly increased. Implications for governing-through-crime, racial control, and reproduction of inequalities theories are discussed.
Article
The fate of school discipline and security in America is at a crucial turning point. While the “school-to-prison pipeline” has recently received an increasing amount of attention from policy makers interested in improving public education, the recent shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Connecticut led to renewed calls for the heightened security measures that contributed to the rise of the pipeline. This article provides clear evidence that heightened disciplinary and security measures in schools are faulty policy responses, as they have adverse impacts on the students they intend to protect and siphon resources away from policies that more effectively ensure student safety and success. More specifically, the article analyzes a unique statewide database that contain all school arrests that occurred during a recent school year in Delaware, including individual-level variables such as age, race, gender, offense, adjudication result, and disposition result. The analysis reveals three troubling trends that have important policy implications. First, the use of arrests in response to student misbehavior has resulted in a great number of students being arrested for minor misbehavior. Second, a highly disproportionate rate of Black students faced arrests for their behavior in school and female students seemed to experience differential treatment. Third, the juvenile justice system is forced to devote its scarce resources to processing a high volume of minor school arrests, a plurality of which lead to diversionary services that could have been offered directly through schools in a much more efficient manner.
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This study investigates how community characteristics, student background, school climate, and zero-tolerance policies interact to affect school crime. The study articulates and fits a school crime model to 712 high schools participating in the 2000 School Survey on Crime and Safety, confirming that school location and student socioeconomic status have moderate effects on school crime. Much of the contextual effects are mediated via school climate. School climate reflected by school size, student mobility, and student misbehavior affect school safety in profound and predicted ways. Larger size and schools with higher student transience and misbehavior predict higher levels of criminal incidents. School security program is correlated with lower school crime; however, the effect is small and nonsignificant. Tough on crime policy is associated with higher level of school crime, controlling for community and school variables. Consequently, a positive school climate in combination with necessary security control is recommended to improve school safety and reduce school crimes.
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Data from the National Youth Survey (waves one and two) were used to assess the effects of individual students' perceptions of teacher disapproval on self-reported delinquency. The panel study included youths between the ages of 11 and 17. Consistent with the labeling perspective, the results indicated that perceptions of teacher disapproval are associated with subsequent delinquency. This relationship was significant even when controlling for prior delinquency, thus weakening the argument that labeling is merely a result, and not a cause, of delinquency. The effects did, however, appear to be indirect when measures of delinquent peer associations were included in the model.
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This study takes a life-course approach to examine whether family and religious characteristics influence individual-level delinquency trajectories from early adolescence through young adulthood. Based on data from the NLSY79, results suggest that residing with two parents deters youths from becoming delinquent and that supportive parenting practices reduce their likelihood of becoming involved in delinquent behavior early in adolescence. There is also evidence that family and religion interact to predict delinquency trajectories. Religion enhances the effect of parental affection in deterring delinquent behavior and mitigates the increased risk of high levels of delinquent behavior among youths in single-parent families. Moreover, the findings indicate that delinquency trajectories are not immutable; family transitions are associated with increases in delinquency, but religious participation throughout adolescence and marriage are associated with declines in delinquent behavior. Overall, results suggest that family and religious characteristics continually influence the extent to which youths commit delinquent acts.
Article
American schools increasingly define and manage the problem of student discipline through a prism of crime control. Most theoretical explanations fail to situate school criminalization in a broader structural context, to fully explain its spatio-temporal variations, and to specify the processes and subjectivities that mediate between structural and legal forces and the behavior of school actors. A multilevel structural model of school criminalization is developed which posits that a troubled domestic economy, the mass unemployment and incarceration of disadvantaged minorities, and resulting fiscal crises in urban public education have shifted school disciplinary policies and practices and staff perceptions of poor students of color in a manner that promotes greater punishment and exclusion of students perceived to be on a criminal justice `track'.
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Through interviews and participation with 20 preadolescent African American boys from 1 urban elementary school in school and during leisure activities, the researcher explored what "getting into trouble" meant to the boys themselves, and what it meant to the teachers, principals, truant officers, and relatives of these children. Taken together, these data construct a picture of how educators' beliefs in the natural differences of black children and the "criminal inclination" of black males shape decisions that disproportionately single out black males as being at risk. The chapters are: (1) "Don't Believe the Hype"; (2) "The Punishing Room"; (3) "School Rules"; (4) "Naughty by Nature"; (5) "The Real World"; (6) "Getting in Trouble"; (7) "Unreasonable Circumstances"; and (8)"Dreams." (Contains 105 references.) (SLD)
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Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has received considerable attention with regard to the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. In studies of veterans, behavioral sequelae of PTSD can include hostile and violent behavior. Rates of PTSD found in impoverished, high-risk urban populations within U.S. inner cities are as high as in returning veterans. The objective of this study was to determine whether civilian PTSD is associated with increased risk of incarceration and charges related to violence in a low-income, urban population. Participants (n = 4,113) recruited from Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia, completed self-report measures assessing history of trauma, PTSD symptoms, and incarceration. Both trauma exposure and civilian PTSD remained strongly associated with increased risk of involvement in the criminal justice system and charges of a violent offense, even after adjustment for sex, age, race, education, employment, income, and substance abuse in a regression model. Trauma and PTSD have important implications for public safety and recidivism.
Article
The labeling theory of deviance was extremely popular during the 1960s and 1970s. After a series of influential critiques, however, the validity of the theory had fallen into question by 1980 and was pronounced dead by 1985. In this paper we examine the application of the labeling perspective to one particular area, juvenile delinquency. We discuss the general theoretical origin of labeling theory in both conflict theory and symbolic interactionism, and use it to present two main labeling hypotheses: 1) that status attributes are influential in determining who is labeled (the “status characteristics hypothesis”) and 2) that labeling experiences are instrumental in producing problems of adjustment and in causing subsequent commitment to further deviance (the “secondary deviance hypothesis”). We note that what is often passed off as a critique of labeling theory itself is frequently a caricature of the theory. The major point of the paper is an elaboration of the full complexity of each labeling hypothesis, a suggestion for empirical research to test it, and a review of the extant literature. We suggest that labeling theory is not as invalid as its critics have claimed, and that what is needed is a restatement and revitalization of a labeling theory of delinquency.
Article
It is clear that schools are mirroring the criminal justice system by becoming harsher toward student misbehavior despite decreases in delinquency. Moreover, Black students consistently are disciplined more frequently and more severely than others for the same behaviors, much in the same way that Black criminals are subjected to harsher criminal punishments than other offenders. Research has found that the racial composition of schools is partially responsible for harsher school discipline just as the racial composition of areas has been associated with punitive criminal justice measures. Yet, no research has explored comprehensively the dynamics involved in how racial threat and other factors influence discipline policies that ultimately punish Black students disproportionately. In this study (N = 294 public schools), structural equation models assess how school racial composition affects school disciplinary policies in light of other influences on discipline and gauge how other possible predictors of school disciplinary policies relate to racial composition of schools, to various school disciplinary policies, and to one another. Findings indicate that schools responding to student misbehavior with one type of discipline tend to use other types of responses as well and that many factors predict the type of disciplinary response used by schools. However, disadvantaged, urban schools with a greater Black, poor, and Hispanic student population are more likely to respond to misbehavior in a punitive manner and less likely to respond in a restorative manner.