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Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses

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Elizabeth T. Gershoff
Elizabeth T. Gershoff
Elizabeth T. Gershoff
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Andrew Grogan-Kaylor at University of Michigan
Andrew Grogan-Kaylor
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Abstract

Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.
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Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses
Elizabeth T. Gershoff
University of Texas at Austin
Andrew Grogan-Kaylor
University of Michigan
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate
among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect
sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are
robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a
total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were
significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for
detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse
or by study design characteristics.
Keywords: spanking, physical punishment, discipline, meta-analysis
Around the world, most children (80%) are spanked or other-
wise physically punished by their parents (UNICEF, 2014). The
question of whether parents should spank their children to correct
misbehaviors sits at a nexus of arguments from ethical, religious,
and human rights perspectives both in the U.S. and around the
world (Gershoff, 2013). Several hundred studies have been con-
ducted on the associations between parents’ use of spanking or
physical punishment and children’s behavioral, emotional, cogni-
tive, and physical outcomes, making spanking one of the most
studied aspects of parenting. What has been learned from these
hundreds of studies? Several efforts have been made to synthesize
this large body of research, first in narrative form (Becker, 1964;
Larzelere, 1996;Steinmetz, 1979;Straus, 2001) and later through
meta-analyses (Ferguson, 2013;Gershoff, 2002;Larzelere &
Kuhn, 2005;Paolucci & Violato, 2004). Each of these four meta-
analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied
conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective
and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effec-
tive under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and
that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emo-
tional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (Ferguson,
2013;Paolucci & Violato, 2004). These competing conclusions
have left both social science researchers and the public at large
confused about what outcomes can and cannot be attributed to
spanking.
As this body of work on spanking and physical punishment has
accumulated, several nagging questions about the quality, consis-
tency, and generalizability of the research have persisted. Two
primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses
are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive
parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only
been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak
studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002;Ferguson, 2013;
Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005). The goal of the current article is to
address these two concerns with a new set of meta-analyses using
the most recent research studies to date. Because the social science
theories regarding why spanking might be linked with child out-
comes have been summarized extensively elsewhere (Donnelly &
Straus, 2005;Gershoff, 2002), we will not repeat them here and
instead will focus in this paper on key questions about the research
conducted to date.
The terms “corporal punishment,” “physical punishment,” and
“spanking” are largely synonymous in American culture. The
majority of the studies discussed in our literature review use the
term physical punishment which we define as noninjurious, open-
handed hitting with the intention of modifying child behavior.In
our meta-analyses, however, we focused on the most common
form of physical punishment which is known in the U.S. as
spanking, and which we define as hitting a child on their buttocks
or extremities using an open hand.
Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment
and Spanking
The question of whether parents’ use of spanking or physical
punishment is linked with children’s outcomes has been ad-
dressed in four published meta-analyses in the last 15 years.
The first and most widely cited of the meta-analyses was by
Gershoff (2002). This review included 88 studies used in sep-
arate meta-analyses of the associations between parents’ use of
physical punishment and 11 child outcomes, four of which were
measured in adulthood. Physical punishment was defined as
This article was published Online First April 7, 2016.
Elizabeth T. Gershoff, Department of Human Development and Family
Sciences, University of Texas at Austin; Andrew Grogan-Kaylor, School
of Social Work, University of Michigan.
We thank our research assistants: Megan Gilster, Jacqueline Hoagland,
and Julie Ma.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth
T. Gershoff, Department of Human Development and Family Sciences,
University of Texas at Austin, 108 E. Dean Keeton St., Stop A2702,
Austin, TX 78712. E-mail: liz.gershoff@austin.utexas.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Journal of Family Psychology © 2016 American Psychological Association
2016, Vol. 30, No. 4, 453–469 0893-3200/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191
453

Supplementary resources (2)

meta-analysis results
Data
June 2018
Elizabeth T. Gershoff · Andrew Grogan-Kaylor
Hard evidence spanking could lead to health problems, antisocial behavior
Data
October 2016
Elizabeth T. Gershoff · Andrew Grogan-Kaylor
... Various studies have determined that as many as 92% of children in Botswana receive some kind of corporal punishment in community settings, such as school, and this is considered an acceptable and effective method of discipline [1][2]. In contrast, the United States and a number of other Western countries consider physical punishment abusive due to its long-term potential for psychological harm [4][5]. Research has shown that physical punishment is associated with increased risks for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and personality disorder [6][7]. ...
... The psychological outcomes of corporal punishment have been widely examined. For example, one 2016 meta-analysis of 75 studies involving more than 160,000 children demonstrated that spanking was associated with increased externalizing behaviors and reduced mental health outcomes [4]. However, there are still gaps in understanding how such findings apply to individuals from non-Western backgrounds where corporal punishment may carry different cultural connotations [12][13]. ...
... However, these disciplinary actions have become increasingly acknowledged as being truly harmful psychologically. Meta-analyses of more than 160,000 children reported that corporal punishment is associated with a 54% increased risk of externalizing behaviors as well as increased risks for PTSD, depression, and anxiety [4][5]. Migration exacerbated the psychological effects of the patient's childhood experiences. ...
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... Although its implications may differ across various forms, a large body of literature indicates the adverse effects of harsh discipline on socioemotional and cognitive development (de Zoysa et al., 2010;Ferguson, 2013;Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016;Melançon & Gagné, 2011). Yet, the process by which different forms of harsh discipline are related to adverse child outcomes remains largely unknown. ...
... Past research found that frequent exposure to psychological aggression is associated with children's psychological maladjustment (de Zoysa et al., 2010;Vissing et al., 1991) and greater behavioral problems (Caples & Barrera, 2006;Lu et al., 2021;Melançon & Gagné, 2011). Meta-analytic and review studies synthesizing cross-sectional and longitudinal empirical evidence concluded that physical discipline is not beneficial for child development and related to a wide range of worse outcomes, such as poor parent-child relationship and greater behavioral problems (Ferguson, 2013;Gershoff, 2002;Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016;Heilmann et al., 2021). ...
... In contrast, minor physical discipline was useful in reducing child non-compliance, as an alternative back-up strategy to milder disciplinary methods like time-out and reasoning (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005). Nevertheless, a meta-analysis focusing specifically on spanking, a relatively minor form of physical discipline, showed that there were still significant negative effects of spanking on child outcomes (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016). Despite the divergent perspectives and mixed findings, the existing literature underscores the importance to discriminate between minor and severe forms of physical discipline. ...
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... They have advocated for its prohibition because it is detrimental and constitutes an infringement of human rights (Kyei-Gyamfi 2011;UNICEF 1989UNICEF , 2018WHO 2021). Some others have also questioned whether using physical punishment on children serves a purpose in functioning as a corrective method for reforming children who have engaged in inappropriate behaviour (Gershoff 2002;Gershoff et al. 2018;Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016;WHO 2021). In addition, some advocated for children's welfare, that while physical punishment may temporarily solve a behavioural problem, it may hurt children psychologically or encourage violence in the future (Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health 1998). ...
... Children's opinions on corporal punishment revealed divergent perspectives. Those who favoured its application on children argued that it instils discipline, deters future misconduct and fosters responsibility, aligning with the short-term compliance effects documented by Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016). Some children expressed the belief that physical punishment promotes their development into responsible adults and serves as an effective corrective measure. ...
... Many children also expressed negative attitudes toward its use, highlighting its detrimental effects, its inability to address long-term behavioural issues and its violation of children's fundamental rights. This critique aligns with prior research (Gershoff 2002;Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016;WHO 2021) emphasizing the psychological harm associated with corporal punishment, including anxiety and low self-esteem. Some children described the practice as inhumane and abusive, arguing that it contravenes their rights to dignity and protection from harm (UNICEF Ghana 2018). ...
Perspectives of Children on Corporal Punishment in Domestic Settings in Ghana
Article
  • Feb 2025
  • CHILD FAM SOC WORK
Despite substantial efforts to eliminate corporal punishment in schools, homes and other child-related settings in Ghana, the practice persists. There have been varied views over whether to keep, alter or remove the subject of corporal punishment from Ghana's legislation, which is currently inadequate in prohibiting its application. In addition, children's perspectives on this na- tional discussion have been sparse. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the incidence of corporal punishment among children, types of corporal punishment experienced by children, children's perspectives on the underlying causes of cor- poral punishment and their opinions on the use of corporal punishment at home. Corporal punishment was considered a stand- ard practice in most homes, and the common corporal punishment methods were caning and whipping. Five themes emerged as the causes of the use of corporal punishment at home: children stealing, children not doing their household chores, children spending too much time on social media, children disrespecting adults and children engaging in physical altercations. Also, chil- dren had mixed opinions on the use of corporal punishment at home. The study recommends that policymakers and programme managers educate children, parents and community leaders about the harmful effects of corporal punishment.
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... According to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2019), children who experience corporal punishment are more likely to develop aggressive behavior, antisocial tendencies, and mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. In the same vein, Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor (2016) assert that physical punishment correlates with poorer academic performance, lower cognitive development, and decreased classroom engagement. Beyond immediate psychological and physical harm, corporal punishment is said to undermine student-teacher relationships, creating an environment of fear rather than respect. ...
... Beyond immediate psychological and physical harm, corporal punishment is said to undermine student-teacher relationships, creating an environment of fear rather than respect. According to Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor (2016), the punitive nature of corporal punishment fosters resentment and distrust, making students less likely to participate in classroom activities. This negative classroom climate not only affects students' academic progress but also limits their ability to form positive peer relationships and develop problem-solving skills (Nasongo & Injendi (2025)). ...
... Empirical research has consistently highlighted that physical punishment does not lead to long-term positive behavior changes but contributes to various adverse outcomes. According to Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor (2016), corporal punishment is strongly associated with increased aggression, antisocial behavior, emotional distress, and academic underachievement. Similarly, Skiba et al. (2011) argue that punitive disciplinary measures foster hostility, resentment, and fear among students, ultimately leading to a counterproductive learning environment. ...
EXPLORING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ALTERNATIVE DISCIPLINE METHODS IN GHANAIAN BASIC SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF SELECTED BASIC SCHOOLS WITHIN THE GREATER ACCRA REGION, GHANA
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
This study explores Ghanaian teachers' perspective on the use of alternative disciplinary methods in basic schools compared to corporal punishment within the Greater Accra Region, contributing to the national debate on school discipline. The study adopted a mixed-method approach, utilizing surveys and interviews to collect data in other to gain a comprehensive understanding of teachers' perspective. 200 teachers participated in the survey, and in-depth interviews were conducted with a subset of the respondents. The findings revealed that while many teachers historically viewed corporal punishment as an effective disciplinary tool, a significant majority recognized its detrimental impacts, including physical injuries, psychological trauma, and increased aggression among students. Conversely, the study found strong support for alternative disciplinary methods such as positive reinforcement, restorative practices, and socio-emotional learning programs. Teachers reported that these methods were effective in promoting positive behavior, reducing disciplinary incidents, and enhancing students' social and emotional skills. The qualitative insights emphasized the importance of fostering a positive school environment through non-violent methods that build trust, respect, and mutual understanding. Based on the findings, the study recommends that the Ghana Education Service (GES) continue to enforce the ban on corporal punishment and ensure compliance with guidelines on alternative disciplinary methods. It also suggests the provision of continuous professional development for educators, adequate resource allocation, and public awareness campaigns to shift cultural beliefs towards non-violent forms of discipline.
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... On the other hand, non-physical abuse and maltreatment, which include coercive and forceful control, emotional manipulation and influence, and all other actions that damage victims' overall mental health and impair the sense of self of mothers, are elements of psychological violence. The violence experienced by these women, as per Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor (2016), should be worthy of attention as it can affect their styles in disciplining their children, influence their child-rearing practices, or still perpetuate generational cycles of violence. ...
... This area of concern has noteworthy studies exploring its overall impact on women's health, including their behavior and mental stability. Research shows that women victims of physical abuse and violence from their husbands or partners pose elevated levels of trauma, stress, and emotional pain, which are often extended and expressed in their styles of parenting their children (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016;Labella & Masten, 2018). ...
Violence and Motherhood: Comparing the Influence of Physical and Psychological Abuse on Parenting Approaches
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2025
Parenting approaches significantly influence children's developmental outcomes, yet understanding how violence against women impacts parenting remains critical. Existing research emphasizes the adverse effects of violence on familial dynamics but lacks a comparative analysis of physical and psychological violence in the Philippine context. This study addresses this gap by examining how these forms of violence influence the parenting approaches of women victims of abuse. The research employed a comparative descriptive design involving 50 women who sought care at the Dr. Jose N. Rodriguez Memorial Hospital and Sanitarium. Data were collected through validated questionnaires assessing parenting styles using a 4-point Likert scale. Respondents were categorized based on experiences of physical (21 participants) or psychological violence (29 participants). Physical violence included forms of assault such as hitting, punching, kicking, slapping, pushing, and shoving, while psychological violence encompassed manipulation, intimidation, and verbal abuse, including name-calling, shaming, and yelling. Key findings reveal that both forms of violence significantly shape parenting behaviors. Women exposed to physical violence tend to adopt stricter and more protective parenting styles, while psychological violence leads to heightened emotional vigilance and self-doubt. Psychological violence exhibited slightly more substantial impacts across dimensions, including emotional bonding, discipline, trust, and self-efficacy. Notably, respondents from both groups reported protective parenting behaviors and challenges with emotional connection. The study underscores the importance of trauma-informed interventions tailored to the distinct impacts of physical and psychological violence. These findings contribute to the development of evidence-based programs aimed at breaking cycles of violence and fostering healthier parent-child relationships in the Philippine context.
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... Some of the most frequently cited studies of physical discipline are Gershoff's initial MA (5) and an updated version co-authored with Grogan-Kaylor (21). The update is an improvement over the initial version, in that 24% of the studies in the update were longitudinal, and many studies lumping spanking with severe corporal punishment were omitted. ...
... This makes the four trials by Roberts and his colleagues (13-16) very important -and a focus of debate in the spanking literature. Promoters of spanking bans have emphasized the small sample sizes and attempted to explain away the benefits of spanking documented in this series of studies (21,24). Defenders of Canada's current approach acknowledge the small sample sizes but emphasize the large beneficial effect of this spanking on children's compliance to both parental commands and time-out (3). ...
An update on the scientific evidence for and against the legal banning of disciplinary spanking
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
In 2004, the Canadian Supreme Court upheld the right of Canadian parents to use open-handed swats to a child’s buttocks to correct child misbehavior, but only as developmentally appropriate (i.e., between the ages of 2 and 12). Some social scientists believe that the Canadian Supreme Court did not go far enough. These researchers support total bans on physical discipline. Other social scientists support Canada’s existing age-specific legislation. This commentary provides a concise overview of physical discipline research since 2004, emphasizing the methodological rigor of the research used to argue for and against total spanking bans. Advocates of total bans primarily cite reviews based on bivariate correlations and non-randomized methods known to be inherently biased against disciplinary actions (i.e., methods known to make all disciplinary responses to defiance appear harmful). In contrast, those who support Canada’s existing legislation have systematically compared methods known to be inherently biased in opposite directions (i.e., harmful- and beneficial-looking), to demonstrate that the true average effect size of customary spanking on child outcomes is likely very near zero. These researchers also emphasize four randomized clinical trials in which spanking increased compliance in defiant preschoolers. Other issues discussed in this commentary are: the developmental trajectories for children who do not learn to comply with parental directives while they are young; and children’s risk of assault in countries with and without total bans. We conclude that the most rigorous empirical studies and available crime statistics validate the appropriateness of Canada’s existing legislation on disciplinary spanking.
View
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Violence and Motherhood: Comparing the Influence of Physical and Psychological Abuse on Parenting Approaches
Article
  • Jan 2025
Parenting approaches significantly influence children's developmental outcomes, yet understanding how violence against women impacts parenting remains critical. Existing research emphasizes the adverse effects of violence on familial dynamics but lacks a comparative analysis of physical and psychological violence in the Philippine context. This study addresses this gap by examining how these forms of violence influence the parenting approaches of women victims of abuse. The research employed a comparative descriptive design involving 50 women who sought care at the Dr. Jose N. Rodriguez Memorial Hospital and Sanitarium. Data were collected through validated questionnaires assessing parenting styles using a 4-point Likert scale. Respondents were categorized based on experiences of physical (21 participants) or psychological violence (29 participants). Physical violence included forms of assault such as hitting, punching, kicking, slapping, pushing, and shoving, while psychological violence encompassed manipulation, intimidation, and verbal abuse, including name-calling, shaming, and yelling. Key findings reveal that both forms of violence significantly shape parenting behaviors. Women exposed to physical violence tend to adopt stricter and more protective parenting styles, while psychological violence leads to heightened emotional vigilance and self-doubt. Psychological violence exhibited slightly more substantial impacts across dimensions, including emotional bonding, discipline, trust, and self-efficacy. Notably, respondents from both groups reported protective parenting behaviors and challenges with emotional connection. The study underscores the importance of trauma-informed interventions tailored to the distinct impacts of physical and psychological violence. These findings contribute to the development of evidence-based programs aimed at breaking cycles of violence and fostering healthier parent-child relationships in the Philippine context.
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Corporal Punishment of Children in Theoretical Perspective
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2005
Despite being commonplace in American households a generation ago, corporal punishment of children has been subjected to criticism and shifting attitudes in recent years. Many school districts have banned it, and many child advocates recommend that parents no longer spank or strike their children. This book taps into the expertise of social science scholars and researchers who address issues of corporal punishment, a subject that is now characterized as a key issue in child welfare. The chapters discuss corporal punishment, its use, causes, and consequences, drawing on a wide array of comparative, psychological, and sociological theories. Together, they clarify the analytical issues and lay a strong foundation for future research and interdisciplinary collaboration.
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Ordinary physical punishment: Is it harmful? Comment on Gershoff (2002)
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2002
E. T. Gershoff (2002) reviewed processes that might mediate and contexts that might moderate the associations between corporal punishment (CP) and child behaviors and provided an account of the methodological weaknesses of the research reviewed in her meta-analyses. In this examination of Gershoff, the authors argue that the biases and confounds in the meta-analyses further limit any causal inferences that can be drawn concerning the detrimental "effects" of CP on associated child behaviors. The authors suggest that undesirable child outcomes are associated with CP because the construct marks inept harsh parenting and conclude that although the harmful effects of physical abuse and other extreme punishments are clear, a blanket injunction against spanking is not justified by the evidence presented by Gershoff.
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Changes in Parents’ Spanking and Reading as Mechanisms for Head Start Impacts on Children
Article
  • Nov 2015
This study examined whether Head Start, the nation’s main two-generation program for low-income families, benefits children in part through positive changes in parents’ use of spanking and reading to children. Data were drawn from the 3-year-old cohort of the national evaluation of the Head Start program known as the Head Start Impact Study (N = 2,063). Results indicated that Head Start had small, indirect effects on children’s spelling ability at Age 4 and their aggression at Age 4 through an increase in parents’ reading to their children. Taken together, the results suggest that parents play a role in sustaining positive benefits of the Head Start program for children’s behavior and literacy skills, one that could be enhanced with a greater emphasis on parent involvement and education.
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The Association Between Family Violence and Adolescent Dating Violence Onset: Does it Vary by Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Family Structure?
Article
  • Aug 2005
The authors determine if the associations between family violence(corporal punishment, violence against the child with the intention of harm, and witnessing violence between parents) and adolescent dating violence vary by subgroups based on race, socioeconomic status, and family structure. This study is guided by the theoretical propositions of Rowe, Vazsonyi, and Flannery (1994) related to examining subgroup differences and similarities in developmental processes. The sample is 1,218 early adolescents (56.6% female, 16.4% Black) who completed two self-administered questionnaires during 1 1/2 years. We found many subgroup differences in the associations between the family violence variables and dating violence; the most consistent being across race. In most cases, exposure to family violence predicted dating violence by Black adolescents but was not associated with dating violence for White adolescents. We also found within-race differences in the associations examined. Results are supportive of subgroup differences in developmental processes.
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Parenting Styles, Drug Use, and Children's Adjustment in Families of Young Adults
Article
  • Feb 1990
Childrearing practices and child adjustment are examined in a longitudinal cohort of young adults for whom detailed drug histories are available. Analyses are based on a dyadic sample of 222 parents and their oldest child aged 6 years or older. Parents who use punitive discipline methods or disagree with their spouses about discipline are more likely to report that their children are aggressive, have control problems, and are disobedient. Parents who report that they are close to their children are more likely to report that the children are well adjusted, do not have control problems, are independent, and are close to their parents. Maternal childrearing patterns are correlated with a wider range of children's behaviors than are paternal patterns. Few relationships are observed between three measures of parental drug involvement or heavy drinking and parental childrearing practices. By contrast, a relatively strong pattern emerges between maternal drug involvement and child behaviors. For all three measures of drug involvement, mothers who are more heavily involved in drugs report more control problems with their children. Fewer associations are observed with respect to fathers, and in half the instances, the associations are opposite in direction to those expected. Maternal drug use retains a statistically significant unique effect on control problems when other parental variables are entered simultaneously in a multiple regression equation and is one of the two strongest predictors of the child's problematic behavior. The finding of an effect of parental drug use on child control problems has important implications, since conduct problems in childhood and early adolescence are thought to be one of the most important precursors of adolescent drug use as well as delinquency.
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Maternal Control and Obedience in the Two-Year-Old
Article
  • Dec 1971
Each of 49 boys and 41 girls, firstborn and white, was observed with the mother in the home on 2 separate occasions when the child was 27 months of age. The focus of the observations was on the mother's reactions to the child's violation of material standards. Most of the interaction involved maternal prohibition of mild misdemeanors. The major results indicated that (a) mothers who had not attended college were markedly more prohibitive and intrusive than college-educated mothers, (b) mothers were more intrusive with sons than with daughters, and (c) the children were generally obedient.
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