Identity-Based Motivation

Abstract

People believe that they know who they are and that who they are matters for what they do. These core beliefs seem so inherent to conceptualizations of what it means to have a self as to require no empirical support. After all, what is the point of a concept of self if there is no stable thing to have a concept about, and who would care if that concept was stable if it was not useful in making it through the day? Yet the evidence for action-relevance and stability are surprisingly sparse. This entry outlines identity-based motivation theory which takes a new look at these assumptions and makes three core predictions termed dynamic construction, action-readiness, and interpretation of difficulty. That is, rather than being stable, which identities come to mind and what they mean are dynamically constructed in context. People interpret situations and difficulties in ways that are congruent with currently active identities and prefer identity-congruent to identity-incongruent actions. When action feels identity-congruent, experienced difficulty highlights that the behavior is important and meaningful. When action feels identity-incongruent, the same difficulty suggests that the behavior is pointless and “not for people like me.”

Keywords:

self;
identity;
motivation;
situated cognition;
social cognition

Full text

Identity-Based Motivation
DAPHNA OYSERMAN
Abstract
People believe that they know who they are and that who they are matters for what
they do. These core beliefs seem so inherent to conceptualizations of what it means
to have a self as to require no empirical support. After all, what is the point of a con-
cept of self if there is no stable thing to have a concept about, and who would care
if that concept was stable if it was not useful in making it through the day? Yet the
evidence for action-relevance and stability are surprisingly sparse. This entry out-
lines identity-based motivation theory which takes a new look at these assumptions
and makes three core predictions termed dynamic construction,action-readiness,and
interpretation of difculty. That is, rather than being stable, which identities come to
mind and what they mean are dynamically constructed in context. People interpret
situations and difculties in ways that are congruent with currently active identi-
ties and prefer identity-congruent to identity-incongruent actions. When action feels
identity-congruent, experienced difculty highlights that the behavior is important
and meaningful. When action feels identity-incongruent, the same difculty suggests
that the behavior is pointless and “not for people like me.”
INTRODUCTION
People believe that they know who they are (the self is stable) and that who
they are matters for what they do. These core beliefs seem so inherent to con-
ceptualizations of what it means to have a self as to require no empirical
support. After all, what is the point of a concept of self if there is no stable
thing to have a concept about, and who would care if that concept was sta-
ble if it was not useful in making it through the day? On the one hand, it
seems utterly reasonable to assert that people do know themselves. One of
the earliest forms of self is a memory trace of what one looks like (Lewis &
Brooks-Gunn, 1979) and memory itself seems to implicate the self—wherever
one is, one is always there, so the self is at least indirectly always part of
memory. People have a lot of experience with themselves and a huge store
of autobiographical memories (Fivush, 2011). On the other hand, these core
beliefs about how the self functions do require further investigation precisely
Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Robert Scott and Stephan Kosslyn.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-90077-2.
1

2EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
because they are so much at the core of psychological theorizing. Considered
in a different light, being able to recall examples of oneself behaving in ways
that t current self-descriptions may equally be evidence of the malleability
of self—one can come up with supporting evidence for almost any possi-
ble identity or self-description. Indeed, the empirical evidence for either the
belief that the self is stable or that it predicts behavior is surprisingly scarce
(for a review, Oyserman, Elmore, & Smith, 2012).
Identity-based motivation (IBM) theory focuses on this seeming con-
tradiction between the experienced reasonableness of a relatively strong
identity-to-behavior link and the paucity of empirical evidence for such
a link. To do so, IBM builds on modern theories of social, situated and
grounded cognition, which start with the premise that thinking is inuenced
by the context in which it occurs (e.g., Smith & Collins, 2010). People include
accessible information as part of their representation of constructs unless
they have reason to exclude it as irrelevant or to use it as a comparison
standard (Bless & Schwarz, 2010). Synthesizing across research, a situated
approach can be delineated as follows (Bless & Schwarz, 2010; Fiske, 1992;
Schwarz, Bless, Wänke, & Winkielman, 2003; Wyer & Srull, 1989). First,
people are sensitive to their immediate environment. Second, “thinking is for
doing,” people process information about their environment as it pertains to
possibilities for action in the moment. Third, people do not use all of what
they know at any moment in time. Instead, they use that subset of all their
knowledge which is accessible in the moment. Features of the environment
inuence what comes to mind—what knowledge is accessible. But the
inuence of the environment does not stop with accessibility of knowledge.
People use implicit demands of the immediate situation to make sense of
what comes to mind. Integrating these three features of situated reasoning,
people act in ways that make sense in light of the interface between what
comes to mind and what that seems to mean in context.
IBM theory builds on these insights to consider how features of the envi-
ronment inuence what comes to mind when people consider who they are
(the self) and the interplay of what comes to mind and features of the envi-
ronment on the inuence of accessible features of the self on motivation.
IBM theory predicts that identity-to-behavior links are difcult to discern
because which identities come to mind and what they mean are both dynam-
ically constructed in context, accessible identities only inuence behavior if
action makes sense in the moment, and people often (mis)construe difculty
working toward a possible identity as implying that it is not really possi-
ble for them. Fortunately, by articulating these three foci, termed dynamic
construction,action-readiness,andinterpretation of difculty, IBM also focuses
attention on the likely circumstances in which (“when”) and the processes

Identity-Based Motivation 3
by which (“how”) identities do matter for behavior (Oyserman, 2007, 2009a,
2009b).
Consider an identity as a “cool” person. Whether being cool comes to
mind, what it means to be cool and what actions are connected with coolness
depend on what is constrained and afforded in a particular situation. “Cool”
could be a personal trait or a social trait that is linked to group membership
(athletes, programmers, the popular crowd, all could be “cool” depending
on context). Associated “cool” behaviors could be asocial and health-risky
(e.g., drinking alcohol or abusing substances, having unprotected sex, smok-
ing cigarettes, not caring about schoolwork), pro-social and health-oriented
(e.g., volunteering, developing shareware, particular kinds of exercise
or eating habits) or anything in between (e.g., using a particular brand of
computer or no technology at all). What happens if cool actions feel difcult?
Does that mean that one is not really cool and should give up trying to be?
IBM theory predicts that contexts cue both a particular identity and what
that identity implies in this situation. Because “thinking is for doing,”
identities that come to mind make a difference, inuencing judgment,
choice, and behavior only if they are experienced as relevant to the current
situation. Because people believe that identity-congruent behavior will feel
right (easy to do), yet taking action is often difcult, requiring both focused
attention and inhibition of the impulse to do something else, interpretation
of experienced difculty matters. If an action feels identity-congruent, then
experienced difculty in engaging in it will reinforce the identity-congruent
interpretation, so that difculty will be interpreted as meaning that
the action is important and meaningful. Conversely, if an action feels
identity-incongruent, then experienced difculty in engaging in it will
reinforce the identity-incongruence interpretation, so that difculty will be
interpreted as meaning that the action is pointless and “not for me” (or if the
incongruence is with a social identity, “not for people like me”).
FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH
Because the identity to behavior link is so foundational, early research
focused on describing content of self-concept with the assumption that
knowing how people described themselves would provide a strong pre-
diction of behavior (e.g., for conceptual models, Baumeister, 1998; Brewer,
1991; Brown, 1998; Carver & Scheier, 1990; Higgins, 1987, 1989; Markus &
Wurf, 1987; Oyserman, Elmore & Smith, 2012). Models differ somewhat
in the extent that they explicitly articulate an underlying goal of having a
sense of self and what that goal is described as being. Core self-goals include
feeling good (self-enhancement), feeling competent (self-improvement),
having control (self-regulation), and making predictions (self-knowledge).

4EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
No matter the particulars, conceptual models of self and identity uniformly
predict an effect on behavior: Selves and identities are predicted to inuence
what people are motivated to do, how they think and make sense of
themselves and others, the actions they take, their feelings and ability to
control or regulate themselves. Models differ in the extent that they focus
on alternative inuences including the consequences for behavior of social
norms and social contexts, with sociological and cultural theories of self
and identity putting more emphasis on the self as part of social structure
(Markus, & Oyserman, 1989; Owens, Robinson, & Smith-Lovin, 2010; Tajfel,
1981).
Although initially self and identity were treated as if there was a single
structure or coherently organized set of structures, the cognitive revolution
in psychology transformed understanding of self and identity. Current
formulations highlight the multiplicity of images, memories, experi-
ences, and sensory inputs into an online or working identity (Conway &
Pleydell-Pearce, 2000; Klein & Gangi, 2010). Although not always explicitly
stated, the common assumption is that situations bring to mind from mem-
ory some, but not other aspects of all that could be self-dening. Behavior is
predicted by those “online” or “working” identities.
Self and identity research was also highly inuenced by social psycholog-
ical formulations of the importance of situations in understanding behav-
ior (for a review, Oyserman, 2001). Self and identity researchers have long
believed that the self is both a product of situations and a shaper of behavior
in situations (Markus & Wurf, 1987). Evidence that the self is a social product
is not hard to come by. A large body of research demonstrates that situa-
tions inuence which identities come to mind. Much of this research comes
from cultural, social identity and self-categorization theorists who posit and
show that whether people think of themselves in terms of personal or social
identities importantly depends on contextual cues (Abrams, 1999; Brewer,
1991; Hogg, 2003, 2006; Oyserman et al., 2012). These research traditions also
demonstrate that people led to see themselves in terms of their social iden-
tities respond differently than people led to see themselves in terms of their
personal identities, providing evidence that the self is a shaper of behavior
in situation. Evidence for working self-concept, the notion that context inu-
ences how people describe themselves also seems plentiful. For example,
just reading a paragraph and circling rst person singular versus plural pro-
nouns has small but signicant effects on the relative proportion of personal
traits and characteristics compared to social roles, relationships, and social
group identities, including gender, race-ethnicity, and social class identities
used to describe oneself (for a meta-analytic review, see Oyserman & Lee,
2008).

Identity-Based Motivation 5
A number of gaps remain to be addressed because research has not yet
demonstrated empirically how online identities are created in the moment,
when identities inuence behavior, and how online experiences of difculty
and ease inuence which identities come to mind and whether behavior is
pursued. It is not clear to what extent identities and their content are drawn
from memory and to what extent identities and identity content are dynam-
ically created in context as would be predicted by IBM theory. While the
assumption of being drawn from long-term memory implies that identities
are relatively xed, this assumption has not been tested. Moreover, modern
theorizing about how thinking works—that it is grounded in situations,
embodied (inuenced by bodily feedback), and pragmatic, implies that
online or working identities are dynamically created in context (Oyserman,
Elmore, & Smith, 2012). This prediction also requires empirical evidence.
CUTTING EDGE RESEARCH
Applying a situated cognition perspective to the specic demands of
understanding how self-concept works, IBM theory makes the follow-
ing specic predictions. First, of the many social and personal identities
a person could have, the ones that will matter are those that come to
mind in context and are experienced as relevant to the situation at hand.
Second, accessible identities that do not seem relevant to the action pos-
sibilities available in the situation will not yield behavior (even if an
outside observer could discern possibilities for action). Third, interpreta-
tion of experienced difculty inuences which identities come to mind
in the rst place. There are two ways in which experienced difculty can
matter. First, people can experience difculty while imagining a future
possible identity. Second, people can experience difculty while engaging
in tasks or behaviors relevant to the identity. If experienced difculty
is interpreted as implying impossibility, then the relevant identity is
unlikely to be accessible. If experienced difculty is interpreted as imply-
ing importance, then the relevant identity is likely to be on one’s mind.
Illustrative examples of research on dynamic construction, action-readiness,
and interpretation of difculty are provided next. As the IBM model
is relatively new, much of this research comes from Oyserman and her
students.
DYNAMIC CONSTRUCTION
To test the prediction that identities are dynamically constructed in context,
Elmore and Oyserman (2012) randomly assigned middle school students to
interpret one of four graphs. The graphs either showed (accurate) census

6EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
information about earnings in their state, or about high school graduation
rates in their state. For half of students, graphs broke down information by
gender. Thus, boys and girls either saw that men succeed (they earn more) or
that women succeed (they graduate high school more), or got information
without a gender comparison. As predicted, the effect of the information
depended on whether it implied that people like oneself succeed. Boys in
the men succeed condition generated more academic and career-oriented
possible identities and were more engaged in school than boys in the other
condition, implying that what being a boy meant for academics depended
on contextual cues.
A number of studies also demonstrate that how an identity is understood
depends on context. For example, British students were more likely to plan
for a healthy reduction of alcohol and salt intake when their British identity
rather than their student identity was accessible at the moment of judgment
(Tarrant & Butler, 2011). They were also more willing to plan for healthy
lifestyle choices if asked to think of themselves as British in the context of
a comparison to Americans (seen as less healthy) than in the context of a
comparison to Japanese (seen as more healthy) (Tarrant & Butler, 2011).
ACTION-READINESS
To test the prediction that accessible identities cue readiness to act in
identity-congruent ways, researchers assigned middle school students to
either read about the cost of college or about nancial aid for college. After
reading about nancial aid, students planned to study more, were more
likely to turn in an extra-credit assignment and predicted that they would
get better grades in school (presumably because they expected to work
hard in school) (Destin & Oyserman, 2009, 2010). These studies showed that
action-readiness cued action in situations in which action seems relevant
or necessary. Other studies have shown that accessible identity does not
inuence action if none seems currently relevant or necessary, for example
when action seems relevant later, or current behavioral options are irrelevant
to accessible identity (for a review, Oyserman, 2015).
INTERPRETATION OF DIFFICULTY
IBM theory predicts that identity-to-behavior links are difcult to discern
because people (mis)interpret difculties they encounter as implying that
currently active identities are impossible to attain so action is irrelevant.
To test this prediction, researchers randomized participants to experi-
ence difculty or not and then asked them about the effectiveness of
healthy life-style habits for them. Participants misinterpreted difculty as

Identity-Based Motivation 7
implying that healthy lifestyle habits, while generally effective, were not
identity-congruent for them and so would be unlikely to work (Oyserman,
Fryberg, & Yoder, 2007). In another set of studies, middle school students
were asked to consider their difculties in school and randomly assigned
to either be provided with an interpretation of their difculties or not (for
a review, Oyserman, 2013, 2015). Students provided an interpretation of
difculty as meaning that schoolwork was important to them generated
more school-focused possible selves than other students. They also worked
harder at school tasks, writing a better quality essay and scoring better on
a difcult cognitive task. The same occurs for college students guided to
recall a time that they interpreted experienced difculty with schoolwork
as meaning that it was important to succeed then led to believe that they
had this interpretation more frequently than others (Smith & Oyserman, in
press). These students reported stronger academic identities, spent more
time and hence scored better on a test of uid intelligence than students
guided to recall a time that experienced difculty with schoolwork meant it
was impossible to succeed.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Assumptions about what the self is and how self and identities matter are
implicated in a broad range of social science theories and in public policies,
including policies related to education, savings and asset accrual, health,
crime and delinquency. IBM theory highlights the importance of contextual
cues in shaping how difculty is interpreted, which identities come to mind,
and whether these identities have action implications. It has been used to
improve academic outcomes among low income children (Oyserman, Bybee,
& Terry, 2006; Oyserman, Terry, & Bybee, 2002). Implications for counseling
intervention, academic attainment and health gaps have all been articulated
and the model is being used to predict how to best formulate savings and
assets policies for low income families (Elliott & Kim, 2013; Oyserman,
2013; Oyserman & Destin, 2010; Oyserman, Smith & Elmore, 2014). A
promise of this research is that IBM can be used with real world populations,
can provide specic predictions, and can be used to leverage behavior
change. The core challenge is in translating specic predictions into robust
interventions, taking seriously that the same attribute can be motivating
or demotivating depending on meaning and interpretation of difculty in
context.
Research to date has focused on the interface between particular social
(gender, race, social class) and personal (academic success, healthy) identities
for particular outcomes (academic success, healthy lifestyle). Other interfaces
are also possible. Future research focusing on other identities, other ways

8EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
in which tensions between the action-demands of identities are resolved,
other outcome measures, and other socio-cultural contexts is needed to
expand generalizability and test for limiting conditions and moderators of
effects.
REFERENCES
Abrams, D. (1999). Social identity and social cognition. In D. Abrams & M. A. Hogg
(Eds.), Social Identity and social cognition (pp. 197–229). Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub-
lishing.
Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske & G. Lindzey (Eds.),
Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 680–740). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Bless, H., & Schwarz, N. (2010). Mental construal and the emergence of assimila-
tion and contrast effects: The inclusion/exclusion model. Advances in Experimental
Social Psychology,42, 319–373.
Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same
time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,17, 475–482.
Brown, J. (1998). The self . Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (1990). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion. In
E. T. Higgins & R. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Founda-
tions of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 3–52). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical
memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review,107(2), 261–288.
Destin, M., & Oyserman, D. (2009). From assets to school outcomes: How nances
shape children’s perceived possibilities and planned effort. Psychological Science,
20, 414–418.
Destin, M., & Oyserman, D. (2010). Incentivizing education: Seeing schoolwork as
an investment, not a chore. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,46, 846–849.
Elmore, K., & Oyserman, D. (2012). If ‘we’ succeed, ‘I’ can too: Identity-based motiva-
tion and gender in the classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology,37, 176–185.
Elliott, W., & Kim, J. S. (2013). The role of identity-based motivation and solution-
focus brief therapy in unifying accounts and nancial education in school-related
CDA programs. Children and Youth Services Review,35, 402–410.
Fiske, S. T.(1992). Thinking is for doing: Portraits of social cognition from daguerreo-
type to laserphoto. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,63, 877–889.
Fivush, R. (2011). The development of autobiographical memory. Annual Review of
Psychology,62, 559–582.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological
Review,94, 319–340.
Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause peo-
ple to suffer? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,22, 93–136.
Hogg, M. A. (2003). Social identity. In M. Leary & J. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self
and identity (pp. 462–479). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social identity theory. In P. J. Burke (Ed.), Contemporary social
psychological theories (pp. 111–136). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Identity-Based Motivation 9
Klein, S. B., & Gangi, C. E. (2010). The multiplicity of self: Neuropsychological evi-
dence and its implications for the self as a construct in psychological research.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,1191(1), 1–15.
Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self.New
York, NY: Plenum Press.
Markus, H., & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept.
In M. Crawford & M. Gentry (Eds.), Gender and thought: Psychological perspectives
(pp. 100–127). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychologi-
cal perspective. Annual Review of Psychology,38, 299–337. doi:10.1146/annurev.
ps.38.020187.001503
Owens, T. J., Robinson, D. T., & Smith-Lovin, L. (2010). Three faces of identity. Annual
Review of Sociology,36, 477–499.
Oyserman, D. (2001). Self-concept and identity. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.),
Blackwell handbook of social psychology (pp. 499–517). Malden, MA: Blackwell Press.
Oyserman, D. (2007). Social identity and self-regulation. In A. Kruglanski &
T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., pp. 432–453). New York,
NY: Guilford Press.
Oyserman, D. (2009a). Identity-based motivation: Implications for action-readiness,
procedural-readiness, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology,19,
250–260.
Oyserman, D. (2009b). Identity-based motivation and consumer behavior. Response
to commentary. Journal of Consumer Psychology,19, 276–279.
Oyserman, D. (2013). Not just any path: Implications of identity-based motivation
for disparities in school outcomes. Economics of Education Review,33, 179–190.
Oyserman, D. (2015). Pathways to success through identity-based motivation.Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., & Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes:
How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psy-
chology,91, 188–204.
Oyserman, D., & Destin, M. (2010). Identity-based motivation: Implications for inter-
vention. The Counseling Psychologist,38, 1001–1043.
Oyserman, D., Fryberg, S., & Yoder, N. (2007). Identity-based motivation and health.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,93, 1011–1027.
Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008). Does culture inuence what and how we
think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin,
134, 311–342.
Oyserman, D., Elmore, K., & Smith, G. (2012). Self, self-concept, and identity. In M.
Leary & J. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (2nd ed., pp. 69–104). NY:
Guilford.
Oyserman, D., Smith, G. C., & Elmore, K. (2014). Identity-based motivation: Impli-
cations for health and health disparities. Journal of Social Issues,70, 206–225.
Oyserman, D., Terry, K., & Bybee, D. (2002). A possible selves intervention to enhance
school involvement. Journal of Adolescence,24, 313–326.

10 EMERGING TRENDS IN THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Wänke, M., & Winkielman, P. (2003). Accessibility revisited.
In G. Baudenhausen & A. Lambert (Eds.), Foundations of social cognition. Mahwah,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Smith, E. R., & Collins, E. C. (2010). Situated cognition. In L. Feldman Barrett, B.
Mesquita & E. R. Smith (Eds.), The mind in context. Guilford: New York, NY.
Smith, G. C., & Oyserman, D. (in press). Just not worth my time? Experienced dif-
culty and time investment. Social Cognition.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social identity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Tarrant, M., & Butler, K. (2011). Effects of self-categorization on orientation towards
health. British Journal of Social Psychology,50, 121–139.
Wyer, R., & Srull, T. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
DAPHNA OYSERMAN SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Daphna Oyserman joined the University of Southern California January
2014 as a Dean’s Professor of Psychology, Professor of Education and
Professor of Communication. She also codirects the USC Dornsife Center
for Mind and Society. Her research examines how small changes in con-
text can shift mindsets, and so the perceived meaning of behaviors and
situations, with large downstream effects on important and consequential
outcomes, including health and academic performance. Her theoretical and
experimental work conceptualizes the underlying processes, which she
then translates into real-world interventions. One line of work focuses on
cultural differences in affect, behavior, and cognition—how people feel,
act, and think about themselves and the world around them. A related
second line of work focuses on racial, ethnic, and social class gaps in school
achievement and health. Throughout, she examines how apparently “xed”
differences between groups may in fact mask highly malleable situated
processes that can be profoundly inuenced through small interventions
that shift mindset. Select publications are available at her personal webpage
http://dornsife.usc.edu/daphna-oyserman
Dr. Oyserman received a PhD in psychology and social work from the
University of Michigan (1987) and served on the faculty of The Hebrew
University, Jerusalem before returning to the University of Michigan, where
she last held appointments as the Edwin J. Thomas Collegiate Professor of
Social Work, Professor of Psychology, and Research Professor in the Institute
for Social Research. She is the recipient of W. T. Grant Faculty Scholar Award,
the Humboldt Scientic Contribution Prize of the German Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation, and a Fellow of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation, Association for Psychological Science, Society for Personality and
Social Psychology, and Society for Experimental Social Psychology.

Identity-Based Motivation 11
RELATED ESSAYS
Learning Across the Life Course (Sociology), Jutta Allmendinger and Marcel
Helbig
Language, Perspective, and Memory (Psychology), Rachel A. Ryskin et al.
Identity Fusion (Psychology), Michael D. Burhmester and William B. Swann
Jr.
Genetics and the Life Course (Sociology), Evan Charney
The Inherence Heuristic: Generating Everyday Explanations (Psychology),
Andrei Cimpian
Misinformation and How to Correct It (Psychology), John Cook et al.
Youth Entrepreneurship (Psychology), William Damon et al.
Resilience (Psychology), Erica D. Diminich and George A. Bonanno
Migrant Networks (Sociology), Filiz Garip and Asad L. Asad
Ambivalence and Inbetweeness (Sociology), Bernhard Giesen
Immigrant Children and the Transition to Adulthood (Sociology), Roberto G.
Gonzales and Benjamin J. Roth
Moral Identity (Psychology), Sam A. Hardy and Gustavo Carlo
Regulatory Focus Theory (Psychology), E. Tory Higgins
Social Aspects of Memory (Psychology), William Hirst and Charles B. Stone
Group Identity and Political Cohesion (Political Science), Leonie Huddy
Motivation Science (Psychology), Arie W. Kruglanski et al.
From Individual Rationality to Socially Embedded Self-Regulation (Sociol-
ogy), Siegwart Lindenberg
Concepts and Semantic Memory (Psychology), Barbara C. Malt
Social Change and Entry to Adulthood (Sociology), Jeylan T. Mortimer
Memory Gaps and Memory Errors (Psychology), Jeffrey S. Neuschatz et al.
Culture as Situated Cognition (Psychology), Daphna Oyserman
Born This Way: Thinking Sociologically about Essentialism (Sociology),
Kristen Schilt
Effortful Control (Psychology), Tracy L. Spinrad and Nancy Eisenberg
Temporal Identity Integration as a Core Developmental Process (Psychology),
Moin Syed and Lauren L. Mitchell
Taking Personality to the Next Level: What Does It Mean to Know a Person?
(Psychology), Simine Vazire and Robert Wilson