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51
3Traditional Indian
Functional Foods
Krishnapura Srinivasan
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The curative effect of food has been a traditionally established belief for many gen-
erations in India. The current view that food can have an expanded role that goes
well beyond providing a source of nutrients truly applies to many traditional Indian
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................51
3.2 History of Indian Food Culture and Traditional Foods .................................. 52
3.3 Basis of Evolution of Traditional Functional Foods in India ..........................54
3.4 Traditional Functional Foods ..........................................................................55
3.4.1 Traditional Foods Based on Whole Grain Cereals and Legumes ......55
3.4.2 Dahi and Ghee: The Two Classical Milk-Based Traditional
Health Foods of India .........................................................................58
3.4.3 Traditional Food Adjuncts from Legumes and Spices .......................60
3.4.4 Indian Acidulant Fruits with Functional Properties ........................... 62
3.4.5 Functional Oil Seeds...........................................................................64
3.4.6 Betel Leaves ........................................................................................65
3.4.7 Traditional Indian foods as Abundant Providers of Dietary Fiber ....... 65
3.4.8 Traditional Indian Foods as Providers of Polyphenols .......................66
3.5 Spices as Functional Food Adjuncts with Multiple Health Effects ................66
3.5.1 Digestive Stimulant Action .................................................................68
3.5.2 Antidiabetic Potential .........................................................................69
3.5.3 Cardioprotective Effect .......................................................................70
3.5.3.1 Hypolipidemic Inuence ......................................................70
3.5.3.2 Antithrombotic Properties ...................................................71
3.5.3.3 Suppression of LDL Oxidation ............................................ 71
3.5.3.4 Thermogenic Inuence ........................................................71
3.5.4 Antilithogenic Effect ..........................................................................71
3.5.5 Anti-Inammatory Properties ............................................................72
3.5.6 Antimutagenicity and Anticancer Effects ..........................................73
3.5.7 Antioxidant Activity ........................................................................... 75
3.6 Summary ........................................................................................................77
References ................................................................................................................79
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52 Functional Foods of the East
foods. In fact, the traditional Indian diet is “functional” as it contains high amounts
of dietary ber (whole grains and vegetables), antioxidants (spices, fruits, and vege-
tables), and probiotics (curds and fermented batter products), which are wise choices
for health promotion. Many Indian traditional foods impart benecial effects on
human physiology beyond providing adequate nutrition. The health benets thus
derived may range from ensuring normal physiological functions in the body such as
improving gastrointestinal health, enhancing the immune system, weight manage-
ment, and providing better skeletal health, among others, in order to reduce blood
cholesterol, oxidative stress, the risk of cardiovascular diseases, inammatory dis-
eases, various types of cancers, and possible prevention of diabetes, and neurodegen-
erative diseases. A dietary ingredient that affects its host in a targeted manner so as
to exert positive effects on health can be classied as a “functional” ingredient. The
functional components present in Indian traditional foods may be chemical or bio-
logical in nature and play a key role in imparting benecial physiological effects for
improved health. Some of the ingredients that make Indian traditional foods func-
tional include dietary ber, vitamins and minerals, oligosaccharides, lignins, essen-
tial fatty acids, avonoids, miscellaneous phytochemicals, and lactic acid bacterial
cultures. These functional ingredients are abundantly available in foods such as
fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes, nuts, and milk and milk-based products.
3.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN FOOD CULTURE AND
TRADITIONAL FOODS
Indian heritage foods are of considerable antiquity and not much is known about
their origin. There are a number of regional heritage foods that evolved locally,
depending on the availability of raw ingredients. Heritage foods in India are an inte-
gral part of Indian culture. Traditional foods started with the inception of tradition,
which dates back to Aryan civilization (3000 ) followed by Harappan (2000 ),
Vedic (1500 ), and later the Hindu culture as inuenced by other cultures, and
Indian food habits followed the changing cultural patterns. With a history of
3000 years or more, the Indian civilization has given food a prominent place in the
social and cultural lives of its people. India has had several philosophies and reli-
gions which grew from within, such as pre-Buddhist Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
and post-Buddhist Hinduism. These philosophies interacted with each other and
made their impact felt on Indian traditional food cultures (Achaya, 1994).
The cereal grain barley was the major grain eaten by the Aryans, followed by
Apupa, Lajah, Soma juice, and rice. Wheat was introduced during the Vedic period.
Cattle were an integral part of the Vedic culture, and the literature before 800 is
full of references to the milk of the cow and other cattle. Vedic literature also refers
to curdling of milk with starter from an earlier run. Curds thus prepared were eaten
with rice, barley, or Soma juice. Ghee (Ghrita) was prepared by melting down and
desiccating butter and was considered a commodity of prestige. Ghee was also used
in Vedic rituals (as offerings to God), for frying, and for dipping to add relish to other
foods, and for mixing with Soma juice. According to the sage Sushruta (600 ), the
profounder of Ayurveda, the indigenous system of medicine in India, cow’s milk had
a stabilizing effect on body secretions, while the fat-rich buffalo’s milk was more
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 53
healing. It is also mentioned by Sushruta that cream of milk called Santanika had
many benecial effects on health. Curds were distinguished as sweet, slightly acidic,
and strongly acidic for consumption regionwise. Ghee prepared and stored for
10–100 years in a vessel was called “Kumbha ghrita” and ghee stored for more than
a century was termed “Maha ghrita.” Such aged ghee preparations are of much value
in the Ayurvedic system of medicine.
Diets were created by our ancestors originally to meet their survival needs. People
of various Indian cultures gradually enriched them through long empirical experi-
ence using combinations of a variety of primary food materials, especially the locally
available food grains and vegetables that nutritionally complement and supplement
each other. This has contributed to better health protection, improvement of digest-
ibility, resistance to health disorders, and increased human longevity. India has a
heritage of many indigenous ethnic cultures, and thousands of delicious and func-
tional diets have been developed over millennia. The foods of nearly 50 major Indian
cultures and many minor cultures have created more than 5000 dietary preparations,
which include many items for daily consumption to protect and sustain human health.
People of these cultures have been brought together by several historic circum-
stances. One such occasion was the Empire of Ashoka (300–260 ), which held
almost the whole of India as one country and promoted Buddhism. Philosophies of
both Buddhism and Jainism, which preached vegetarianism and reverence for all
forms of life, had a signicant impact on peoples’ outlook on life and consequently
on their foods. The Mughal Empire (1250–1650 ) that ruled most of India for
400 years also brought many traditional cultures together and made them interact
meaningfully. The British colonial rule (nineteenth to twentieth century) in greater
India tremendously contributed to people with different ethnicities coming together
and sharing their wider variety of heritage foods (Parpia, 2006).
Indian heritage foods, many of which are incidentally functional foods too, have
developed over a long period and include cereal-based items such as rice or wheat
specialties, meal adjuncts such as pickles, chutneys, papads, and similar items,
medium of cooking—ghee, butter, or vegetable oils, a variety of fermented batter
foods (steam cooked or lightly fried), milk and non-milk-based sweets, and an innu-
merable variety of snack foods. The traditional food pattern in India is comprised of
ber-rich menus, with moderate fat, selective carbohydrate sources, and curds. They
cover the functional components, imparting wider health benets, and such system-
atic food habits are an excellent preventive measure to ward off many diseases. Indian
traditional meals, which are mainly based on plant products such as grains, vegeta-
bles, and fruits, are very rich in natural dietary ber. Fiber-rich and low-fat traditional
foods reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Traditional plant foods specically
based on fruits and vegetables provide functional components such as β-carotene,
vitamin C, vitamin E, folates, and antioxidant phytochemicals. Cereals, which are the
staple of Indian traditional foods, provide thiamine, tocopherols, selective starches,
and minerals that play a role in regulating metabolic functions in the body.
The traditional food habits of each specic region of India are primarily a com-
ponent of its culture, and India’s cultural diversity is reected in the numerous tradi-
tional food preparations. Indian traditional dietary patterns have basically evolved
from the combination of locally available crops. Every region of this vast country
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54 Functional Foods of the East
uses a different choice of ingredients with its own unique food. The cereals wheat
and rice form the staple in Indian traditional food, followed by the coarse grains
sorghum and nger millet. The whole meal our from these grains is consumed
traditionally in the form of roti (a wheat-based food) and as dumpling, or muddle.
Traditionally, a typical North Indian meal consists of unleavened breads, chapati or
paratha made of whole wheat our, and an assortment of side dishes such as soups,
fried vegetables, curries, chutney, pickles, and curd (dahi). South Indian food, which
is largely nongreasy, consists of cooked rice usually served with sambar (seasoned
lentil broth), rasam (a thin soup), dry and curried vegetables, a curd preparation
called pachadi, and curd. Vegetables in Indian dishes are generally stir-fried,
steamed, braised, or curried to create various textures and avors. Commonly con-
sumed vegetables include leafy greens, radish, yam, beans, bamboo shoots, ladies
nger, and cabbage. The use of pickles and chutneys is predominant in arid regions
of India due to the low availability of fresh vegetables in these hot and dry regions.
South Indian breakfast items are most commonly pancakes made from a rice bat-
ter known as dosa, steamed rice cakes known as idli, deep-fried doughnuts made
from a batter of lentils known as vada, rice pancakes known as appam, upma (cooked
semolina seasoned in oil with mustard, pepper, cumin, and dry lentils), and pongal
(a mash of rice and lentils boiled together and seasoned with ghee, cashew nuts, pep-
per, and cumin). Coconut is an important ingredient in South Indian food. Coconut
milk and desiccated coconut are important avorings in South Indian cuisines. The
presence of coconut mellows out the hot curries and chutneys, and is used as a top-
ping for vegetables.
To neutralize the pungency of red chilli and soothen the stomach, curd is used in
a variety of South Indian dishes. Curd sambhar, thambli (fenugreek or other seeds in
curd), fried black gram powder in butter milk with seasonings known as uddinettu,
thin soup prepared from Garcinia indica known as punar puli rasam, thin soup
prepared from cumin (Cuminum cyminum) and black pepper seed (Piper nigrum)
powders known as jeerige menasu rasam, kosambari (salads from dehusked gram
sprouts mixed with fresh coconut kernel, green chillies, and seasonings), and watery
buttermilk garnished with ginger, asafetida, coriander leaves, curry leaves, and salt
are among the traditional functional foods commonly consumed. Thus a perfect
combination of protein from legumes and coconut, carbohydrates from rice, fat both
visible and invisible from curry and fried savory items, vitamins and minerals from
sprouted grams of kosambari (salads from sprouted legumes), and vitamins from
curd and vegetables are obtained through this combination. The regular use of curd
and watery buttermilk with accompaniments aid in digestion and provide consider-
able health benets.
3.3 BASIS OF EVOLUTION OF TRADITIONAL FUNCTIONAL
FOODS IN INDIA
Ancient India seems to have realized the importance of health and wellness much
ahead of its time. The Indian dietary pattern and the traditional foods evolved are
based on the indigenous Ayurvedic system of medicine, which professes natural
ways of achieving physical and mental wellness. A balanced meal recommended by
Q1
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 55
Ayurveda takes into account the properties of the food (gunas), the characteristics of
the individual (dosha), and the assimilation by the body (sadhana). Traditional
Indian food formulations show ingenuity in the choice of ingredients and additives
with critical attention to wholesome nutrition beyond taste. Indian cuisines have
great aromas and in-depth taste proles, which are derived from a complex combina-
tion of spices and preparation techniques. The well-balanced Indian meal contains
all the six dened tastes, namely sweet, sour, salty, spicy, bitter, and astringent.
Indian cooking principles go beyond the balancing of tastes, however. Every meal
aims to achieve a good balance between these sensations to promote digestion and
well-being. Side dishes and condiments contribute to the overall avor and texture of
an Indian meal. The hot, sour, and crunchy side dishes and condiments, whether
chutneys, curries, or soups, enhance and provide balance to the overall avor and
texture of the main staple. Inclusion of natural antimicrobials and antioxidants in the
form of spices and condiments also improves the shelf-life of prepared foods against
spoilage. Ayurveda has elaborated the curative and therapeutic functions of herbs
and spices. This is manifested in the commonality among heritage foods from differ-
ent parts of India, in that almost all of them are rich in spices.
Traditional Indian food formulations show ingenuity in the choice of ingredients
and additives with adequate attention to wholesome nutrition and tastes. Another
feature of traditional Indian foods is the effective utilization of natural resources and
minimization of waste. Historically, cooking techniques have been developed for the
protection, storage, and preparation of diets, the ingredients of which mutually sup-
plement and complement each other to provide nutritionally balanced and also deli-
cious diets. Indian traditional foods are noteworthy not only for their food quality but
also from the food safety perspective. Since some of them are steam-cooked, they
are generally free from microorganisms. Others are boiled to the desired tempera-
tures. As a general rule, they have to be consumed fresh and hot. Generally, Indian
traditional foods, once cooked, are not preserved for future use.
Indian traditional foods can be classied into eight broad categories (Table 3.1):
(1) processed grain products, (2) fermented foods, (3) dehydrated products, (4) pick-
les, chutneys, sauces, and relishes, (5) ground spice and spice mixtures, (6) fried food
products, (7) dairy products, and (8) confections and sweets. The functionality of the
majority of these categories of Indian traditional foods is delineated in the later para-
graphs of this chapter.
3.4 TRADITIONAL FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Various Indian traditional foods with bioactive substances provide additional health
benets over and above the physiological roles of the nutrients present in such foods.
Sprouting, malting, and fermentation are processes that enhance the functional prop-
erties of food and are widely used in the daily diet of Indians.
3.4.1 Tr a d i T i o n a l Fo o d s Ba s e d o n Wh o l e Gr a i n Ce r e a l s a n d le G u m e s
The staples of Indian cuisine are rice, whole wheat our, sorghum, nger millet, and
a variety of pulses. Pulses are the main source of protein supplement for a large
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56 Functional Foods of the East
majority of the cereal-based ethnic diets because they are easy to cook and t well
into the traditional diets. A large variety of savory and sweet processed products are
made from them. Each Indian ethnic culture has developed its own diets based on the
variety of pulses that they grow. While pulses may be used whole, dehusked, or split,
most of the grain legume-based or mixed grain preparations are made by using
dehusked or split pulses. The most important pulses are red lentil (masoor), chickpea
(Bengal gram), red gram (pigeon pea), black gram (urad), and green gram (mung).
Some of the pulses, like chickpea and green gram, are also processed into our.
Pulses, commonly used in Indian cuisines, are fried, roasted, or boiled with spices
and herbs for making fermented breads, soups, chutneys, snacks, purees, and sweets.
Chickpea is used raw in chutneys, roasted whole for spicy snacks, and ground for
sweets, or is used whole with vegetables. Black gram is popular in southern India,
where it is fermented with rice and mixed with spices to make dosa, steamed idli,
and snacks such as vada or papad. Red gram, which exhibits a thick and more gelati-
nous consistency, is combined with chickpea, spices, and red chilli for making the
TABLE 3.1
Categories of Typical Traditional Foods of India
Raw Material Traditional Products Food Category
Cereals and grains Rice-based: parboiled rice, hand-pounded rice, aked
rice, puffed rice
Processed grain products
Wheat-based products like chapati, puri, bread, naan,
biscuit
Extruded products like rice noodles, vermicelli, snack
items—murukku
Fermented products like idli, dosa, vada Fermented foods
Coarse cereals Puffed sorghum, maize, nger millet, pearl millet Processed grain products
Legumes Pulses (split legumes without husk), puffed legumes,
sprouted legumes, legume ours (e.g., Bengal gram,
soy), papads
Processed grain products
Gram our, sugar/
jaggery
Jilebi, laddu, chikki, Mysore pak Confections and sweets
Milk Peda, bur, rasgolla, jamun, sandesh, kheer, halwa Confections and sweets
khoa, rabri Dehydrated dairy products
Chhana, paneer Coagulated dairy products
Dahi (curd), butter milk, lassi, butter Fermented dairy products
Ghee, malai, makkhan Fat-rich dairy products
Fruits/vegetables Fruit leather, dried fruits, dehydrated vegetables Dehydrated products
Pickles, chutneys, murabbas, petha, candied fruits,
amchur, and pickled vegetables
Pickles, chutneys, sauces
Spices and
Condiments
Spice powders, spice mixes (e.g., garam masala,
sambar powder, rasam powder)
Ground spices and spice
mixes
Drinks and
beverages
Neera, toddy, arrack, khanasari, rice beer, Indian beer,
honey, vinegar, jaggery
Beverages (alcoholic/
nonalcoholic)
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 57
lentil broth sambhar. The use of whole grain cereals and legumes in these traditional
foods ensures provision of the highly desirable dietary ber and also the polyphenols
and the micronutrients, vitamins, and minerals associated with the bran portion of
the grain.
Unleavened breads from whole grain: Chapati and paratha are processed from
whole wheat; hence they contain all the natural components (bran, endosperm, and
germ) of wheat. Chapati is unleavened bread baked on a griddle while paratha is
unleavened bread fried on a griddle. Parathas are rich in crude ber (1.3–5.8%) and
protein content (8.5–12.6%) and low in fat (7.5–12.8%). The assorted paratha formu-
lations that contain soy protein isolate are supposed to contain all the essential amino
acids. As these are made out of whole wheat, they provide the full complements of
ber, minerals, and polyphenols associated with the bran portion of the grain.
Unleavened breads baked on a griddle made out of the coarse cereals sorghum and
nger millet are also widely consumed by sections of the Indian population. The use
of whole grain cereals in these traditional staple foods ensures provision of the highly
desirable dietary ber and also the polyphenols and micronutrient vitamins and min-
erals associated with the bran portion of the grain.
Finger millet dumpling: Finger millet dumpling is a common traditional food in
southern India. Finger millet, although a minor cereal, has a major impact on health
with functionalities of high dietary ber and 20% resistance starch with a 30–40%
slowly digestible starch fraction, a rich calcium content of 400 mg%, and an iron
content of 17–20 mg%. Malted nger millet is traditionally consumed as a healthy
beverage and is used in the preparation of weaning and geriatric foods.
Sprouted legumes as salads: Green gram and chickpea are commonly germi-
nated prior to use in the preparation of specic traditional salad dishes, especially in
southern India. Germination and malting have been found to enhance iron absorp-
tion due to elevated vitamin C content or reduced tannin or phytic acid content, or
both (Tontisirin et al., 2002). These processes are known to activate endogenous
phytases, which in turn hydrolyze phytate, rendering iron and zinc more available.
During germination, endogenous phytase activity in cereals and legumes increases
as a result of de novo synthesis and/or activation, resulting in reductions in the inosi-
tol phosphates (Lorenz, 1980; Chavan and Kadam, 1989; Reddy et al., 1989).
Sprouting of legumes, green gram, chickpea, and nger millet is associated with
signicantly improved bioaccessibility of iron, which is due to a reduction in tannin
content (Hemalatha et al., 2007; Prabhavathi and Rao, 1979). Studies in vitro on iron
bioavailability have shown a twofold increase on germination and a ve- to tenfold
increase upon malting of the minor millets (De Maeyer et al., 1989).
Fermented batter foods from cereals and legumes (Figure 3.1): Fermented batter
foods from cereals and legumes are the most common and nutritious Indian tradi-
tional breakfast items in the southern states of India. These include dosa (a pancake
made from a fermented batter of rice and black gram (3:1), idli (steamed rice cakes
made from a fermented batter of rice and black gram (2:1), and vada (a deep-fried
doughnut made from a batter of lentils, usually black gram). Traditionally, for mak-
ing these products, the mixtures of grains are soaked for 6–8 h and then ground.
After grinding, the batter is allowed to undergo fermentation overnight, which makes
use of the naturally occurring microorganism Leuconostoc mesenteroides present in
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58 Functional Foods of the East
the batter. The microorganisms ferment the mixed batter and generate a unique a-
vor and texture. The fermented batter has an excellent foam-holding capacity to give
the steamed/fried product an appetizing spongy texture. In the case of idli, the fer-
mented batter is put into the cups of a special steaming vessel in the form of dump-
lings, after which it is consumed with a variety of garnishes (chutney) prepared from
various natural avorful ingredients such as coriander leaves, green chillies, and
freshly ground coconut kernel, or with a thick soup (sambhar) made from legumes
and vegetables avored with spices. Dosas prepared by baking the batter with oil on
a pan are often consumed with rolled-in or avored vegetables.
These two fermented batter preparations are a rich source of good nutrients such
as the essential amino acids methionine from rice and lysine from pulses as well as
vitamins and minerals from the parboiled rice, vegetables, and nutrients generated
by the fermentation of the batter. The products are also low in fat and rich in dietary
ber. Fermentation of the batter of cereal–pulse combinations in the preparation of
idli and dosa is known to enhance the bioaccessibility of the micronutrients zinc and
iron (Hemalatha et al., 2007). Fermentation of cereal–legume combinations of the
idli and dosa batter signicantly reduces both the phytate and tannins associated
with the legumes. Food processing by fermentation is known to improve mineral
bioavailability by reducing their absorption inhibitors such as the phytic acid present
in the grains (Gibson and Hotz, 2001; Kaur and Kawatra, 2002). Besides reducing
such factors, fermentation could also improve mineral bioavailability by virtue of the
formation of organic acids, which form soluble ligands with the minerals, thereby
preventing the formation of insoluble complexes with phytate (Tontisirin et al., 2002).
A reduction in the pH by 1.5 units as a result of fermentation of the idli and dosa
batters has been observed, which is attributable to the synthesis of organic acids dur-
ing fermentation (Hemalatha et al., 2007). Idli can also be made using parboiled rice
(which helps preserve vitamins, unlike regular rice) along with black gram, taken in
the right combinations, and then fermented and steamed to deliver a profoundly
nutritious, balanced, and tasty meal.
3.4.2 Da h i a n d Gh e e : Th e TW o Cl a s s i C a l mi l k -Ba s e d Tr a d i T i o n a l
he a l T h Fo o d s o F in d i a (Fi G u r e 3.2)
Traditional Indian foods make use of dairy products such as curds (yogurt), cheese,
buttermilk, and ghee. Ghee (claried butter) and dahi (curd) are the two most
FIGURE 3.1 Fermented batter foods from grains: (a) dosa, (b) idli, (c) vada.
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 59
important age-old traditional milk products consumed in India. Ghee is a fat-rich
dairy product whereas dahi is a fermented milk product. Both these milk products have
higher keeping qualities than the other traditional dairy products. Several studies
have been conducted on ghee and dahi by many investigators, and numerous claims
have been made about their different nutritional and therapeutic values. Ghee is used
as a cooking oil and for avoring, especially in vegetarian cuisines. Fresh cheeses are
added to vegetable curries or desserts, and are often mixed with sugar, milk, carda-
mom, and fruits for savory applications and desserts. In North India, yogurt and but-
termilk are consumed as beverages. Yogurt provides consistency and avor to Indian
curries. Yogurt is also used in salads with cucumbers, onions, and tomatoes.
The gastrointestinal microora in humans plays a key role in nutrition and health.
A portion of the consumed food unabsorbed in the small intestine gets fermented in
the large intestine. These foods, which are known as colonic foods, are metabolized
through anaerobic fermentation by the gut microora and the end products are usu-
ally short-chain fatty acids that are absorbed in the colon. Such foods are credited
with protection from colon cancer, immune modulatory action, systemic effects on
blood lipids, and a reduction of pathogens. Fermented milk products such as dahi are
probiotics and are associated with positive effects such as reductions in cholesterol
and triacylglycerols, protection against gastroenteritis, improved lactose intolerance,
and stimulation of the immune system.
Dahi is traditionally consumed by Indians either as a part of their daily diet or as
a refreshing beverage. It is characterized by its rm curd and delicate avor.
Investigations by various researchers have shown that regular consumption of dahi
has many benecial effects such as improvements in appetite and vitality, curing of
dyspepsia, dysentery, and other intestinal disorders; removal of adverse effects of
drugs, encouragement of thiamine synthesis, lowering the cholesterol level of blood,
controlling cancer, easy digestion by lactose-intolerant persons, and so on. In addi-
tion, dahi has a high nutritive value due to the presence of all milk constituents and
the various health-promoting lactic acid bacteria in it.
FIGURE 3.2 Dahi (curd) and ghee (dehydrated butter).
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60 Functional Foods of the East
Dahi is considered as a functional food ingredient by virtue of its health-promot-
ing probiotic effects. Probiotics fall within the realm of functional foods containing
certain biologically active components that benecially contribute to human health
beyond basic nutrition. While earlier reports on the health-promoting effects of pro-
biotics were largely limited to yogurt and other fermented dairy products containing
lactobacilli, many reports since have shown that gut organisms such as bidobacte-
ria and other lactobacilli also benecially affect the host through the development of
resistance factors against diseases, the protective effect of the ora, and the produc-
tion of microbial products. Several workers have corroborated the protective effect
of gut ora and have shown that germ-free animals are more prone to diseases than
their peers carrying a complete gut ora (Pollman et al., 1980; Saavendra, 1995).
The documented benecial effects of probiotics include their use in the treatment
of various kinds of diarrhea, the alleviation of the gastrointestinal side effects of
anti biotic treatment, the alleviation of lactose intolerance, relief during constipation,
and the general balancing and stabilizing of the host’s intestinal microbial integrity.
Ghee constitutes an important part of Indian life. Ghee is chiey used in India as
a part of the diet and as a cooking medium. It is valued for its pleasant cooked, cara-
melized avor and granular texture. Ghee is made up mainly of fat, which gives
energy to the body and forms an integral part of the body’s cells. It helps to maintain
the body’s temperature. Recent studies have indicated that milk fat contains some
anticarcinogenic substances such as conjugated linoleic acid, butyric acid, and vita-
mins, among others. Formerly, intake of ghee was presumed as one of the causes for
the high incidence of heart ailments. However, paradoxically, later it was found that
consumption of ghee has a hypocholesterolemic effect. Moreover, in the indigenous
Ayurvedic medical treatments ghee is used for heart patients. Ghee contains the fat-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The Indian Ayurvedic medical literature mentions
various types of medicated ghee that can be used for the treatment of many diseases
such as asthma, antiaging, cough, dermatitis, digestive problems, heart, hysteria,
leprosy, leucoderma, and piles. Medicated ghee is used for either internal or external
applications. Sometimes, various herbs are used along with ghee to enhance its ther-
apeutic efciency.
3.4.3 Tr a d i T i o n a l Fo o d ad j u n C T s F r o m le G u m e s a n d sp i C e s
Food adjuncts include an assortment of items that are consumed as side dishes to
staple foods. They add variety, spice, and crunch to the common menu with standard
items. Traditional Indian food adjuncts may broadly be classied as pickles, chut-
neys, preserves, and dried vegetable products such as sandige and dry semiprocessed
adjuncts such as papad (which are consumed after frying) (Table 3.2). Although
consumed in small portions, adjuncts play an important role in nutrition and health.
The wide range of ingredients used in the various types of adjuncts makes it difcult
to generalize their nutritional importance.
Pickles are a good source of vitamin C, in spite of the fact that part of it is lost dur-
ing processing and storage. Pickles and chutneys provide other valuable nutrients such
as minerals, carotenoids, isoavones, and antioxidants. Pickles and chutneys may thus
Q2
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 61
extend the supply of nutrients from seasonal perishable items into the lean period.
Mango pickle is the most widely consumed variety among pickles followed by lemon,
emblica, swallow root, and mixed pickles. Chutneys usually accompany any tradi-
tional Indian meal. There are diverse varieties among chutneys; green chutneys are
rich sources of nutraceuticals in the Indian meal. They can be served with assorted
parathas to complement the nutritional requirement. Coriander chutney, mint chut-
ney, and drumstick-curry leaf chutney are other chutneys whose ingredient herbs are
good sources of vitamins and minerals. Chutneys generally contain pulses and
oilseeds (e.g., black gram, chickpea, sesame seed, peanut, and coconut, among others)
and are an excellent supplement to the cereal-based vegetarian staple diet by improv-
ing the protein quality. Papads are high-protein foods made from different pulses and
certain cereals; they are at, thin, round circular products that can be roasted or fried
instantly. Legumes being the main ingredients, papads provide 7–15% protein.
Legume-based papad and wadi add to the protein value of staple diet, and can act as
a replacement for vegetables and legumes during the lean season. Fermentation in
TABLE 3.2
Common Indian Traditional Food Adjuncts
Food Adjunct Ingredients Description of Preparation
Papads Pulse ours (black gram/green
gram)
Pulse our is made into a dough with spices;
small dough balls are rolled and dried
Starchy materials (rice our/wheat
starch/sorghum/minor millets/sago)
Salt, spices, leavening agent
Starchy ours are mixed with water to a slurry;
allowed to ferment; cooked and spread as thin
sheets. The cooked slurry may also be extruded
to a noodle-like structure, dried, and stored.
Papads may be roasted or fried prior to
consumption
Wadis Legumes (green gram/black gram/
Bengal gram)
Rice, millets, vegetables (ash gourd,
okhra, etc.)
Pulses are soaked and coarsely ground after
draining excess water; mixed with shredded
vegetables and allowed to ferment overnight;
cooked and mixed with salt and spices;
deposited as small masses or balls; dried.
They are consumed after frying
Chutneys Fruits, spices, jaggery, coconut, salt The fruit pulp is mixed with jaggery, salt, spices,
acidulants, and coconut, cooked to a viscous
consistency, and seasoned
Dry chutney
powders
Oil seeds (peanut, gingely, dry
coconut)
Legumes (Bengal gram/black gram)
Salt, curry leaves, spices and
condiments
Oil seeds and pulses are roasted and powdered
with salt, spices, and condiments. Stable for
6 months. They are consumed as such or mixed
with oil, and freshly cut vegetables
Pickles Acidic fruits, salt, spices (especially
chillies), condiments, optionally
vegetable oil and vinegar
Acidic fruits are cut into small pieces; mixed
with salt and spices fried in oil
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62 Functional Foods of the East
some papad and wadi products improves their digestibility and reduces antinutri-
tional factors. Roasted papad is a healthy alternative to fried papad.
3.4.4 in d i a n aC i d u l a n T Fr u i T s W i T h Fu n C T i o n a l pr o p e r T i e s (Fi G u r e 3.3)
Food acidulants such as lime, emblica, tamarind, kokum, and amchur are commonly
used in traditional Indian culinary to impart a desirable sour taste to certain food
preparations. Organic acids are known to promote the absorption of iron from plant
foods (Gillooly et al., 1983). The food acidulants amchur and lime have been reported
to signicantly enhance the bioaccessibility (in vitro bioavailability) of zinc and iron
from the food grains consumed in India (Hemalatha et al., 2005) and of β-carotene
from green leafy or yellow-orange vegetables (Veda et al., 2008). This positive inu-
ence of food acidulants on the bioaccessibility of micronutrients from food grains or
vegetables has been seen in both raw and cooked forms.
Emblica fruit (Emblica ofcinalis), commonly known as amla or Indian goose-
berry, is one of the important subtropical fruits belonging to the family Euphorbaceae.
Dried shreds of amla fruits are used as a food acidulant in Indian traditional foods.
The fruits of Emblica are widely consumed raw, cooked, or pickled, but they are also
principal constituents of many medicinal preparations in the indigenous system of
FIGURE 3.3 Food acidulants: (a) emblica fruit, (b) kokum, (c) amchur, and (d) tamarind.
71920_C003.indd 62 5/14/2010 3:00:48 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 63
medicine in India. Emblica occupies an important place in the preserve industry.
Amla preserves, candy, squash, and bur are some major traditional products of
amla, which are widely used as health foods and as natural sources of vitamin C.
Emblica fruits are highly nutritious and are very rich in vitamin C. These fruits have
an ascorbic acid content of up to 950 mg/100 g, which is the second highest among
all fruits, next only to Barbados cherry. The fruit contains considerable amounts of
polyphenols that retard the oxidation of ascorbic acid. Emblica fruits are well known
for their medicinal properties. These fruits, possessing rich antioxidant potency by
virtue of both vitamin C and polyphenols, are used for curing chronic dysentery,
bronchitis, diabetes, liver ailment, diarrhea, jaundice, and dyspepsia. Emblica fruits
are valued highly among indigenous medicines in India and form the major ingredi-
ent in Ayurvedic preparations such as Chavanprash and Trifala.
Emblica fruit extract has been reported to have hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, and
anti-inammatory activity, and to inhibit retroviruses such as HIV-1, tumor develop-
ment, and gastric ulcer (Sabu and Kuttan, 2002). Emblica fruit extract exhibits anti-
oxidant properties, its aqueous extract being a potent inhibitor of lipid peroxidation
and a scavenger of hydroxyl and superoxide radicals in vitro (Scartezzini and Speroni,
2000). Emblica fruit extract inhibits micronuclei formation, sister chromatid
exchanges, clastogenesity, and mutagenesity induced by metals; it protects against
radiations (Scartezzini and Speroni, 2000), inhibits clastogenesity of benzopyrene
and cyclophosphamide (Sharma et al., 2000), and is gastroprotective (Al-Rehaily
et al., 2002), cytoprotective, and immunomodulating (Sairam et al., 2002). Emblica
fruits have been reported to protect against oxidative stress in ischemic reperfusion
injury (Rajak et al., 2004), show antivenom capacity (Alam and Gomes, 2003), ame-
liorate hyperthyroidism and hepatic lipid peroxidation, display antiproliferative
activity in breast cancer cell lines, show antitussive activity, and induce apoptosis in
lymphoma ascites (Rajeshkumar et al., 2003).
The dried fruit rinds of kokum (Garcinia indica), commonly known as “Malabar
tamarind,” are liberally used in the coastal regions of India as a traditional food
acidulant in culinary practices. The dark red fruit of Garcinia indica is valued for
its nutritive value and outstanding medicinal properties. This fruit is known to
reduce obesity and to benecially regulate blood cholesterol levels. The antiobe-
sity inuence of kokum fruits is attributable to its organic acid constituent, hydroxy-
citric acid, present at a level of 22%. Hydroxycitric acid is a potent competitive
inhibitor of ATP citrate lyase, the enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of citrate to
acetyl coenzyme A and oxaloacetate (Watson et al., 1969). As a consequence of
this inhibition, a reduction in the rates of the de novo synthesis of fatty acids and
cholesterol has been demonstrated in animal systems (Lowenstein, 1971; Sullivan
et al., 1972). Kokum is also a source of pectin (6%) and fat (10%). Fresh fruits are
cut into halves and the eshy portion containing the seed is removed. The rind
constitutes about 50–55% of the fruit and is generally sun-dried for future use. The
kokum rind is used to make an attractive, red, pleasantly avored extract for use as
a beverage. Syrup from the fruit as traditionally prepared is popularly known as
“Amrit kokum.” Kokum seed is a good source of fat called “Kokum butter.” The
rind of fully ripe kokum contains 2–3% anthocyanin pigments and thus is a prom-
ising source of natural color.
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64 Functional Foods of the East
Tamarind is the most common food acidulant used in southern India. The fruit
rinds of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) have a fruity and sweet-and-sour taste and
are used in sweetened drinks, curries, stews, or soups of South India. The food acid-
ulants amchur and lime generally enhance the bioaccessibility of zinc and iron from
the food grains (Hemalatha et al., 2005). This positive inuence of acidulants on zinc
bioaccessibility from food grains is seen in both the raw and cooked form. Tamarind
is regarded as a refrigerant, digestive, carminative, and laxative. It is useful in dis-
eases supposed to be caused by deranged bile (The Wealth of India, 1976). Tamarind
has been shown to increase bile secretion with enhanced bile acid concentration
(Sambaiah and Srinivasan, 1991).
3.4.5 Fu n C T i o n a l oi l se e d s
Vegetable oil is an important part of Indian culinary; mustard oil is most commonly
used in northern India while sesame and coconut oils are used abundantly in the
south. Most Indian curries are fried in vegetable oil. Sesame oil is an edible vegeta-
ble oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as cooking oil in South India,
it is often used as a avor enhancer in Indian cuisine. Sesame seeds were one of the
rst crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. Sesame oil is
considered to be more stable than most vegetable oils due to the antioxidants con-
tained in the oil. Sesame oil is least prone, among the cooking oils, to turn rancid.
Because it has a very high boiling point, sesame oil retains its natural structure and
does not break down even when heated to a very high temperature.
Sesame oil is a source of vitamin E, an antioxidant that protects low-density lipo-
proteins from oxidation. As with most plant-based condiments, sesame oil contains
magnesium, copper, calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamin B6. Copper provides relief for
rheumatoid arthritis. Magnesium supports vascular and respiratory health. Calcium
helps prevent colon cancer, osteoporosis, migraine, and postmenopausal syndrome.
Zinc promotes bone health. It is suggested that due to the presence of high levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids in sesame oil, it may help to control blood pressure.
Sesame oil is unique in that it has one of the highest concentrations of ω-6 fatty acids.
At the same time, the oil contains two naturally occurring preservatives, sesamol and
sesamin. The effect of this oil on blood pressure may be due to polyunsaturated fatty
acids and the compound sesamin, a lignan present in sesame oil. There is evidence
suggesting that both compounds reduce blood pressure in hypertensive rats and in
humans (Matsumura et al., 1998; Miyawaki et al., 2009). Sesame lignans also inhibit
the synthesis and absorption of cholesterol in these rats. Various constituents present
in sesame oil have antioxidant and antidepressant properties. Hence its use may help
ght senile changes and bring about a sense of well-being. It is suggested that regular
topical application and/or consumption of sesame oil should mitigate the effects of
anxiety, nerve and bone disorders, poor circulation, lowered immunity, and bowel
problems. It is suggested that such use would also relieve lethargy, fatigue, and insom-
nia, while promoting strength and vitality, and enhancing blood circulation. There are
claims that its use has relaxing properties, which eases pain and muscle spasm, such
as sciatica, dysmenorrhea, colic, backache, and joint pain. There are claims similar to
those for other therapeutic medicines that its having antioxidants explains the beliefs
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 65
that it slows the aging process and promotes longevity. It is suggested that sesame oil
could be used for the reduction of cholesterol levels (due to the presence of lignans,
which are phytoestrogens), antibacterial effects, and even slowing down certain types
of cancer (due to the antioxidant properties of the lignans).
Mustard seeds, a source of edible oil, are also a main ingredient of seasonings in
Indian cuisine and a component of curry powders. Mustard possesses vermicidal,
antihelminthic, and appetite-improving properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Mustard
belongs to the cruciferous family, whose members include cabbage, broccoli, and
cauliower. All the above vegetable extracts have the property of inactivating the
mutagenicity of food mutagens such as tryptophan pyrolysate. The active principle of
mustard, namely dithiolthione, is also used as an antischistosomal drug. From epide-
miological studies, it has been established that the regular consumption of cruciferous
vegetables is associated with reduced cancer risk. Mustard seeds are rich in sulfur-
containing compounds (dithiolthiones), which have a protective effect against liver
toxicity induced by some chemicals and aatoxins, potent toxic compounds present in
fungal-contaminated peanuts. A concentration of 0.05% of dithiolthiones in the diet
was found to stimulate the activity of protective enzymes. The mutagenic effects of
mustard seed powder have been assessed in experimental animals treated with potent
carcinogens. These experiments suggested that mustard, like turmeric, has excellent
antimutagenic properties (NIN Annual Report, 1993–94).
3.4.6 Be T e l le a v e s
Fresh green leaves of the betel vine (Piper betle), locally known as paan, are tradi-
tionally chewed, especially after meals, along with areca nut and lime, or with many
other additional ingredients, mainly for mouth-freshening and digestive-stimulating
effects. Betel leaf is aromatic and carminative. It is also an aphrodisiac and antisep-
tic. The habit of chewing betel leaves is claimed to be responsible for preventing
osteoporosis among the economically weaker sections of the population in India.
3.4.7 Tr a d i T i o n a l in d i a n F o o d s a s aB u n d a n T pr o v i d e r s o F di e T a r y Fi B e r
Traditional Indian cuisines are providers of liberal amounts of dietary ber due to the
extensive use of whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. For example, ash gourd ber has
a soluble ber content of 22% while radish ber has 16% and pea peels have 8–10%,
with a total dietary ber of 65–80%. Dietary ber comprises a diverse group of com-
pounds: insoluble cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignins, and soluble gums and muci-
lages. These substances are exceedingly complex both chemically and morphologically
and are resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes in the human gut. The physiologi-
cal roles of ber in the diet are (1) lling the diet without adding calories, (2) increas-
ing intestinal motility, (3) helping to reduce obesity, (4) preventing the absorption of
cholesterol, (5) reducing the postprandial rise in blood glucose, (6) preventing diver-
ticular diseases, and (7) softening of stools through absorption of water (preventing
hemorrhoids) and promoting the growth of bidobacteria in the gut.
A considerable body of evidence is available to show that dietary ber improves
glucose tolerance; soluble ber has been especially effective in retarding postprandial
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66 Functional Foods of the East
glucose uptake in the intestine, thus reducing the insulin requirement. Soluble ber
has also been shown to enhance insulin receptor binding and improve glycemic
response (i.e., increasing peripheral tissue insulin sensitivity). Ingestion of ber sup-
presses energy intake by inducing satiety (by virtue of their bulking and viscosity-
producing capabilities). Dietary ber that forms viscous dispersions when hydrated
affects every aspect of gastrointestinal function, gastric emptying, intestinal transit
time, and absorption of digested products of fat and carbohydrates. Increased fecal
bulk from dietary ber is mainly due to the insoluble ber fraction (cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, and lignins), increased fecal water, and an increase in bacterial mass caused
by soluble ber (gums, mucilages, and pectins) fermentation. Dietary ber has been
shown to protect against colon cancer. Carcinogenic substances, either ingested as
such or more likely produced by metabolic activation in the gut, are thought to induce
malignant changes in mucosal cells. The protective effect of dietary ber is thought
to be due to its ability to increase stool bulk (dilution of toxic substances), increased
transit duration (decreasing exposure duration), and altered fecal bacterial ora.
3.4.8 Tr a d i T i o n a l in d i a n Fo o d s a s pr o v i d e r s o F po l y p h e n o l s
Traditional Indian cuisines also provide liberal amounts of polyphenols due to the
extensive use of vegetables and fruits. Phenolic compounds are plant secondary
metabolites, with a large variety of chemical structure. Phenols occurring in nature
are of interest for many reasons, such as antioxidants, astringents, bitterness, brown-
ing reactions, color, and oxidation substrates, among others. They include simple
phenols, hydroxycinnamates, and avonoids. Phenols are responsible for the major-
ity of the oxygen-utilizing capacity in most plant-derived products. With the excep-
tion of carotenes, the antioxidants in foods are phenolic compounds. Among those
added to prevent oxidative rancidity in fats are the monophenols. Phenolic com-
pounds have a wide range of biological properties. Of particular note are their anti-
platelet aggregation property, anti-inammatory potential, and antioxidant,
antitumoral, and estrogenic activities, and hence they can potentially prevent coro-
nary heart disease and cancer. Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds that include
avonols, avones, isoavones, and anthocyanins, which have been suggested to
play a dominant role in the prevention of cancer and heart diseases. Over 4000
avonoids have been identied, many of which occur in fruits, vegetables, and bever-
ages (tea, coffee, beer, wine, and fruit drinks). Epidemiological data indicate that
high fruit and vegetable consumption has health benets in the prevention of chronic
diseases, including cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer. Phytic acid
present in legumes, oil seeds, and cereal bran is known to reduce blood glucose
response to starchy foods. It is also known to lower blood cholesterol.
3.5 SPICES AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD ADJUNCTS WITH
MULTIPLE HEALTH EFFECTS
Spices, which are used to enhance the avor of a dish, form a vital part of Indian
traditional food preparation. A correct blend of aromatic spices is crucial to every
Indian cuisine. The most commonly used spices in Indian cuisine are black pepper,
71920_C003.indd 66 5/14/2010 3:00:48 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 67
chilli pepper, mustard seed, cumin, turmeric, fenugreek seed, ginger, coriander,
asafetida, curry leaves, and garlic (Figure 3.4). Popular spice mixes are garam
masala (which is usually a powder of ve or more dried spices, commonly com-
prised of cardamom, cinnamon, and clove) and sambar masala powder (a popular
spice mix in South India). The common use of curry leaves is typical of all Indian
cuisine. In sweet dishes, cardamom, nutmeg, and saffron are used. The essential
oils from spices and condiments enhance salivation and stimulate the digestion pro-
cess. The abundance and variety of Asian spices and other avorings creates a fresh
taste found in no other cuisine. Spices in Indian cuisines create hot, sweet, sour,
savory, and aromatic sensations all in one meal. Ginger, cumin, cassia, coriander,
star anise, chilli peppers, coriander leaf, spearmint, turmeric, clove, and garlic are
commonly used in Indian cooking. A few spices are pickled when fresh, such as
ginger, mango ginger, and chilli peppers. Seasonings are a must for avoring foods
in India. Spice ingredients such as garlic, ginger, turmeric, chilli, and fenugreek
seeds are known to contain functional constituents such as curcumin, capsaicin,
avonoids, and essential oils.
Besides contributing avor, color, and aroma to the diet, spices have also long
been recognized to possess physiological effects supposed to be benecial to human
health. They act as stimuli to the digestive system and relieve digestive disorders,
and some are of antiseptic value. Their attributes such as tonic, carminative, sto-
machic, diuretic, and antispasmodic, largely empirical nevertheless efcacious,
have earned them pharmacological applications in the indigenous systems of medi-
cine in India and other countries (Table 3.3). With a long history of the use of spices
and herbs dating back to 5000 years , and spices signicantly contributing to
human health by providing bioactives, they may be considered as one of the rst
FIGURE 3.4 Spices as components of masala powders (spice mixes).
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68 Functional Foods of the East
ever recorded functional foods. Spices may also act synergistically to enhance the
health-related properties of other food ingredients. Spices make foods palatable
without salt, and hence may assist in meeting the recommended reduced daily
intake of sodium. Similarly, they make foods palatable without fat, thus assisting in
meeting the guidelines for healthy fat intake levels. During the last three decades,
the benecial effects of spices have been experimentally documented, which sug-
gests that the use of these food adjuncts extends beyond taste and avor (Srinivasan,
2005a, 2005b). The emerging research literature suggests that specic spices may
confer unique health benets. Although human studies are limited, considerable
attention to this has been drawn because of the positive results from in vitro and in
vivo animal studies.
3.5.1 di G e s T i v e sT i m u l a n T aC T i o n
The digestive stimulant action of spices is probably the most common experience.
Several spices such as ginger, mint, ajowan, cumin, fennel, coriander, and garlic are
common remedies used in traditional medicines or ingredients of pharmacological
preparations to cure digestive disorders. The mechanism for the digestive stimulant
action of spices has recently been understood through extensive animal studies
(Platel and Srinivasan, 2004) (Figure 3.5). It has been shown that many commonly
consumed spices (curcumin, capsaicin, ginger, fenugreek, mustard, cumin, corian-
der, ajowan, tamarind, and onion) stimulate bile acid production by the liver and its
secretion into the bile (Sambaiah and Srinivasan, 1991; Platel and Srinivasan,
2000a). Bile acids play a major role in fat digestion and absorption. Several spices
have also been shown to stimulate the activity of digestive enzymes from the pan-
creas, particularly lipase, and the terminal digestive enzymes from the small intes-
tinal mucosa (Platel and Srinivasan, 1996, 2000b, 2001a). As a result of increased
digestive capability, the spice-fed animals showed a reduced food transit time (Platel
and Srinivasan, 2001b).
TABLE 3.3
Medicinal Properties of Spice Ingredients Recognized for a Long Time
Spice Medicinal Properties
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Anti-inammatory, diuretic, laxative, good for affections of
the liver, jaundice, diseases of blood
Red pepper (Capsicum annuum) Anti-inammatory, for pain relief (rheumatism/neuralgia);
useful in indigestion, rubefacient
Garlic (Allium sativum) Antidyspeptic, antiatulent, for ear infection, duodenal
ulcers, as rubefacient in skin diseases
Onion (Allium cepa) Diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, for bleeding piles
Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-graecum) Diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, useful in heart diseases
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) Antispasmodic, carminative, digestive stimulant
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) Antidyspeptic
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 69
3.5.2 an T i d i a B e T i C po T e n T i a l
Diet has been recognized as a corner stone in the management of diabetes mellitus.
Among spices, the natural food adjuncts that have been evaluated in this context,
fenugreek seeds, garlic and onion, and their sulfur compounds, turmeric and its yel-
low principle, curcumin, have been found to be effective in improving the glycemic
status and glucose tolerance in diabetic animals and type 2 diabetic patients
(Srinivasan, 2005c). Animal studies and clinical trials on antidiabetic properties of
fenugreek and onion have been particularly extensive, while human studies are lim-
ited in the case of garlic and turmeric. Studies have unequivocally demonstrated the
antidiabetic potential of fenugreek in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The addition
of fenugreek seeds to the diets of diabetic patients or animals resulted in a fall in
blood glucose and improvement in glucose tolerance (Sharma, 1986a, 1986b; Sharma
et al., 1996; Srinivasan, 2005c). The hypoglycemic effect is attributed to the ber and
gum, which constitute as much as 52% of the seeds. The ber-rich fenugreek is
believed to delay gastric emptying by direct interference with glucose absorption.
Garlic and onion are two other spices that have been widely tested for their antidi-
abetic potential. Both these spices have been shown to be hypoglycemic in different
diabetic animal models and in limited human trials (Srinivasan, 2005c). The hypo-
glycemic potencies of garlic and onion are attributed to the disulde compounds
present in them, di(2-propenyl) disulde and 2-propenylpropyl disulde, respec-
tively, which cause direct or indirect stimulation of insulin secretion by the pancreas
(Kumudkumari et al., 1995; Augusti and Sheela, 1996). In addition, they may also
have insulin-sparing action by protecting against sulfhydryl inactivation by reacting
with endogenous thiol-containing molecules such as cysteine, glutathione, and serum
albumin. Nephropathy is a common complication in chronic diabetes.
Turmeric is another spice that is claimed to possess benecial hypoglycemic
effects and to improve glucose tolerance in a limited number of studies (Tank et al.,
1990). Nephropathy is a common complication in chronic diabetes. High blood cho-
lesterol is an added risk factor that determines the rate of decline of kidney function
Q3
Spices Food
++ Mouth
Pancreas StomachLiver
Pancreatic juiceBile juice
++
Small intestine
Large intestine
Spices
FIGURE 3.5 Digestive stimulant action of spice ingredients.
71920_C003.indd 69 5/14/2010 3:00:49 PM
70 Functional Foods of the East
in a diabetic situation. Dietary curcumin (of turmeric) and onion have been found to
have a promising ameliorating inuence on the severity of renal lesions in streptozo-
tocin diabetic rats (Babu and Srinivasan, 1998, 1999). The hypocholesterolemic
effect of these spices as well as their ability to lower lipid peroxidation under diabetic
conditions is implicated in the amelioration of renal lesions. Capsaicin, the pungent
principle of red pepper, has been shown to be useful in diabetic neuropathy (The
Capsaicin Study Group, 1992).
3.5.3 Ca r d i o p r o T e C T i v e eF F e C T
Specic spices exert cardioprotective inuence through one or more of the following
attributes: (1) hypolipidemic inuence, (2) antithrombotic properties, (3) suppression
of LDL oxidation, and (4) thermogenic inuence (Srinivasan, 2008).
3.5.3.1 Hypolipidemic Influence
The importance of high blood cholesterol levels in relation to atherosclerosis and
coronary heart disease is well known. Several spices consumed in India have been
evaluated for their possible cholesterol-lowering effect in a variety of experimental
situations with both animals and humans (Srinivasan et al., 2004). Garlic, onion,
fenugreek, turmeric, and red pepper are found to be effective as hypocholesterolemic
agents under various conditions of experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia or
hyperlipidemia. Garlic, fenugreek, and onion are effective in humans with hyperlipi-
demic condition.
The consumption of garlic or garlic oil has been associated with a reduction in
total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triacylglycerol levels.
There have been more than 25 clinical research publications concerning garlic and
its preparations (Kleijnen et al., 1989). With the introduction of dehydrated garlic
powder containing a standardized level of the parent sulfur compound alliin, effec-
tive clinical work could be undertaken with a relatively low and acceptable daily
dosage of 300–900 mg (equivalent to 1 clove of garlic). Many clinical studies have
indicated that consuming one clove of garlic (or equivalent) daily will have a
cholesterol-lowering effect of up to 10% (Warshafsky et al., 1993; Gore and Dalen,
1994). This is consistent with a recent trial involving 780 patients taking 600–900 mg
standardized garlic extract per day as a supplement that evidenced a modest
0.41 mmol/L decrease in serum cholesterol (Stevinson et al., 2000). Dietary supple-
mentation with aged garlic extract showed better benecial effects than fresh garlic
on the lipid prole and blood pressure of moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects
(Steiner et al., 1996). While garlic supplementation signicantly decreased both total
and LDL-cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects, coadministration of garlic
with sh oil had a more benecial effect on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentra-
tions by providing a combined lowering of total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and
triacylglycerol concentration as well as on the ratios of total cholesterol to HDL-
cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol (Adler and Holub, 1997).
Fenugreek seeds were hypocholesterolemic in rats with hyperlipidemia induced by
either high fat (Singhal et al., 1982) or a high cholesterol diet (Sharma, 1984, 1986).
Defatted fenugreek seed was effective in treating diabetic hypercholesterolemia in
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Traditional Indian Functional Foods 71
dogs (Valette et al., 1984) and in humans (Sharma, 1986a, 1986b). The hypolipidemic
effectiveness of turmeric and curcumin (Srimal, 1997), red pepper, and capsaicin
(Suzuki and Iwai, 1984; Govindarajan and Satyanarayana, 1991; Surh and Lee, 1995)
and of onion and garlic (Fenwick and Hanley, 1985; Carson, 1987; Jain and Apitz-
Castro, 1994) has been periodically reviewed in recent years by different authors. The
spice compounds curcumin and capsaicin have been associated with a reduction in
LDL-cholesterol and an increase in HDL-cholesterol levels, but these results have
been limited to animal studies.
3.5.3.2 Antithrombotic Properties
Besides the benecial effect on serum lipid proles (lowering of LDL-cholesterol
and triglyceride levels), the antiplatelet aggregation and antiplatelet adhesion proper-
ties of several spices also contribute to cardiovascular protection. The spices or spice
compounds thus far documented that have inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation
are garlic, onion, curcumin, cuminaldehyde, eugenol, and zingerone. Garlic in par-
ticular exhibits antithrombotic and hypotensive properties, both of which also con-
tribute to cardiovascular protection in addition to their hypolipidemic properties.
Aged garlic extract (7.2 g) has been associated with anticlotting as well as modest
reductions in blood pressure (an approximately 5.5% decrease in systolic blood pres-
sure) (National Centre of Excellence, 2006). According to Lin (1994), the antiplatelet
aggregation, antiplatelet adhesion, and antiproliferation properties of aged garlic
extracts appear to contribute more to cardiovascular protection than the hypolipi-
demic properties.
3.5.3.3 Suppression of LDL Oxidation
The antioxidant properties of spices are of particular interest in view of the impact
of oxidative modication of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol in the develop-
ment of atherosclerosis. In recent years, a substantial body of evidence has indicated
that free radicals contribute to cardiovascular disease. Oxidative modication of
LDL is hypothesized to play a key role during the development of atherosclerosis.
Since spices have high antioxidant concentrations that have the potential to inhibit
the oxidation of LDL, the use of antioxidant spices is a promising proposition.
3.5.3.4 Thermogenic Influence
Obesity-related insulin resistance has emerged as a potent risk factor for cardio-
vascular disease. Dietary factors that affect satiety and thermogenesis could play an
important role in determining the prevalence and severity of this problem. Among
spices that may have a role to play in this regard, red pepper (or its pungent principle
capsaicin) (Kawada et al., 1986) and garlic are promising, although more data are
required to substantiate the benets. The use of spices to displace fats and salt in the
diet may reduce cardiovascular risk.
3.5.4 an T i l i T h o G e n i C eF F e C T
A persistent lithogenic diet leads to cholesterol saturation in the bile, resulting in the
formation of cholesterol crystals, that is, gallstones, in the gall bladder. The inhibitory
71920_C003.indd 71 5/14/2010 3:00:49 PM
72 Functional Foods of the East
effect of a curcuma m ixture (Temoe Lawak Singer) on lithogenesis in rabbits has been
reported (Beynen et al., 1987). Studies on the experimental induction of cholesterol
gallstones in mice and hamsters by feeding a lithogenic diet have revealed that the
incidence of gallstones is 40–50% lower when the animals are maintained on 0.5%
curcumin or 0.015% capsaicin-containing diets (Hussain and Chandrasekhara, 1992,
1993). Animal studies have also revealed signicant regression of preformed choles-
terol gallstones by these spice principles in a 10-week feeding trial (Hussain and
Chandrasekhara, 1994a). The antilithogenic potential of other known hypocholester-
olemic spices (garlic, onion, and fenugreek seeds) has also been recently demonstrated
in animal studies (Reddy and Srinivasan, 2009a, 2009b; Vidyashankar et al., 2009a,
2009b). The antilithogenicity of these spices is considered to be due to the lowering of
cholesterol concentration and the enhancing of bile acid concentration, both of which
contribute to lowering of the cholesterol saturation index and hence its crystallization.
In addition to their ability to lower the cholesterol saturation index, the antilitho-
genecity of these spice principles may also be due to their inuence on biliary proteins
(Hussain and Chandrasekhara, 1994b).
3.5.5 an T i -in F l a m m a T o r y pr o p e r T i e s
Turmeric happens to be the earliest anti-inammatory drug known in the indigenous
system of medicine in India. Turmeric extract, curcuminoids, and volatile oil of
turmeric have been found to be effective as anti-inammatories in several studies
involving mice, rats, rabbits, and pigeons. The efcacy of curcuminoids was also
established in carrageenan-induced foot paw edema in mice and rats, and in cotton
pellet granuloma pouch tests in rats (Srimal, 1997). Curcumin was considered to be
advantageous over aspirin because it selectively inhibits the synthesis of the anti-
inammatory prostaglandin TxA2 without affecting the synthesis of the prostacyclin
(PgI2), which is an important factor preventing vascular thrombosis (Srivastava,
1986). Both in vitro and in vivo animal studies have documented the anti- inammatory
potential of the spice principles curcumin (of turmeric), capsaicin (of red pepper),
and eugenol (of clove). Animal studies have revealed that curcumin and capsaicin
also lower the incidence and severity of arthritis and delay the onset of adjuvant-
induced arthritis. These spice principles also inhibited the formation of arachidonate
metabolites (PgE2, leukotrienes).
The anti-inammatory effects of curcumin (400 mg) in patients undergoing sur-
gery for hernia or hydrocele were found to be comparable to those of phenylbutazone
(100 mg) (Satoskar et al., 1986). In rheumatoid arthritis patients, administration of
curcumin (1.2 g/day) produced a signicant improvement similar to phenylbutazone
(Deodhar et al., 1980). Recently, capsaicin has received considerable attention as a
pain reliever. In two trials with 70 and 21 patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid
arthritis, topical application of creams containing 0.025% or 0.075% capsaicin was
an effective and safe alternative to analgesics employed in systemic medications,
which are often associated with potential side effects (Deal, 1991; McCarthy and
McCarthy, 1991). Capsaicin has been suggested for the initial management of neu-
ralgia consequent to herpes infections (Bernstein, 1989). There is also evidence for
the benet of ginger in ameliorating arthritic knee pain, although the effectiveness is
71920_C003.indd 72 5/14/2010 3:00:49 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 73
lesser than that of ibuprofen. Ginger doses of 0.5–1.0 g per day have been found to
be efcacious in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Experimental studies have
shown that ginger constituents inhibit arachidonic acid metabolism, which is involved
in the inammation process (a key pathway in inammation).
Natural anti-inammatory compounds of spices (curcumin, capsaicin, gingerol)
appear to operate by inhibiting one or more of the steps linking proinammatory
stimuli with cyclooxygenase activation, such as the blocking by curcumin of NFκB
translocation into the nucleus. It has recently been shown that the natural anti-
inammatory compounds such as curcumin were as effective as indomethacin
(a nonsteroidal anti-inammatory drug) in inhibiting aberrant crypt foci in the rat.
3.5.6 an T i m u T a G e n i C i T y a n d an T i C a n C e r eF F e C T s
Considerable attention has currently been paid to identifying naturally occurring
chemopreventive substances capable of inhibiting, retarding, or reversing multi-
stage carcinogenesis. A wide array of phenolic substances, some of those present in
spices, have been reported to possess substantial anticarcinogenic activities (Milner,
1994; Coney et al., 1997; Guhr and LaChance, 1997). The majority of these natu-
rally occurring phenolics possess antioxidative and anti-inammatory properties,
which appear to contribute to their chemopreventive or chemoprotective activity
(Surh, 2002).
There are a number of in vitro and in vivo studies on rodents suggesting that
spices may have a chemopreventive effect against the early initiating stages of can-
cer. Spices may act through several mechanisms to provide protection against cancer
(Figure 3.6). Certain phytochemicals from spices have been shown to inhibit one or
Free radical
scavenging
Induction of
phase-II enzymes
Anticancer
property
Suppression of
lipid peroxidation
Inhibition of
phase-I enzymes
Downregulation of anti-
apoptotic gene products
Activation of
caspases
Induction of
tumor suppressor genes
Anti-inflammatory activity Inhibition of reactive oxygen
generating enzymes
FIGURE 3.6 Mechanism of the anti-initiation, antipromotion, antiprogression, and anti-
metastasis potential of cancer-preventive spice ingredients.
71920_C003.indd 73 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
74 Functional Foods of the East
more of the stages of the cancer process (initiation, promotion, growth, and
metastasis). Inhibition of phase I metabolic enzymes (involved in procarcinogen
activation) and induction of phase II metabolic enzymes (involved in carcinogen
deactivation) may account for the chemopreventive effects of spices. Spices may also
protect against oxidative stress and inammation, both of which are risk factors for
cancer initiation and promotion (as well as other pathological conditions). Spices
contain several natural lipid-soluble antioxidant biomolecules that may protect
against the generation of genotoxic lipid peroxidation products.
Spices that have antioxidant properties can function as antimutagens. Since muta-
genesis has a direct bearing on cancer initiation, antimutagenic spices can probably
be anticarcinogenic. Turmeric or its bioactive compound curcumin, and garlic or its
sulfur compounds have been shown to be antimutagenic in several experimental
systems. Turmeric and curcumin were effective against benzo(α)pyrene and dime-
thyl benzanthracene in the Ames test (Nagabushan and Bhide, 1986). In vivo studies
on experimental animals suggest that turmeric and curcumin inhibit the formation of
mutagens. Mice and rats maintained on turmeric or curcumin-containing diet
excreted lower levels of mutagenic metabolites as well as of carcinogens than the
controls (Usha, 1994; Polasa et al., 1991). Turmeric and curcumin also inhibited the
mutagenicity of cigarette and beedi smoke condensates as well as that of a tobacco-
based dentifrice (Nagabushan et al., 1987). Further, curcumin was found to inhibit
nitrosation of methylurea in vitro (Nagabushan et al., 1988). Studies on smokers
revealed that administration of curcumin (1.5 g/day) for 30 days resulted in a signi-
cant reduction in the urinary excretion of mutagens (Polasa et al., 1992). Turmeric
protected DNA against lipid peroxide-induced damage and against fuel smoke
condensate-induced damage (Shalini and Srinivas, 1990). Eugenol (the avour
constituent of cloves) and mustard seeds (that contain dithiolthione) also produced
antimutagenic effects by protecting the cells from damage to their DNA (NIN
Annual Report, 1993–94). Dithiolthiones have been documented to have protective
effects against liver toxicity induced by some chemicals and fungal aatoxin (Ansher
et al., 1986).
Spices (or their extracts and constituents) with known anticarcinogenic effects in
animal models of cancer include turmeric, garlic, and ginger. Turmeric has been
found to have chemopreventive effects against cancers of the skin, forestomach,
liver, and colon, and oral cancer in mice. The anticancer potential of curcumin as
evidenced by both preclinical and clinical studies has been exhaustively reviewed
(Aggarwal et al., 2003). Animal studies involving experimental induction of tumors
in specic tissues with potent carcinogens (such as benz(α)pyrene, 7,12-dimethyl-
benzanthracene, 3-methylcholanthrene, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, and
1,2-dimethylhydrazine) have revealed signicant reductions in the incidence of
tumors by curcumin treatment. Several studies indicate that curcumin can suppress
both tumor initiation and tumor promotion. Some of these studies, especially studies
of skin tumorigenesis, have also employed topical application of curcumin (Aggarwal
et al., 2003). It has been shown that the inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism,
modulation of cellular signal transduction pathways, and inhibition of hormones,
growth factor, and oncogene activity are some of the mechanisms by which cur-
cumin causes tumor suppression (Gescher et al., 1998). Chemopreventive activity of
Q4
71920_C003.indd 74 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 75
curcumin is observed when administered prior to, during, and after carcinogen
treatment as well as when it is given only during the promotion or progression phase
of colon carcinogenesis in rats (Kawamori et al., 1999). Curcumin is a powerful
inhibitor of the proliferation of several tumor cells (Chuang et al., 2000a, 2000b;
Dorai et al., 2001). With much evidence suggesting that curcumin can suppress tumor
initiation, promotion, and metastasis, and with proven safety of its consumption (up
to 10 g/day), curcumin offers enormous potential in the prevention and therapy of
cancer (Aggarwal et al., 2003).
The cancer-preventive ability of garlic has been indicated by etiological studies
wherein higher intakes of Allium products are associated with reduced risks of sev-
eral types of cancer, especially stomach and colorectal (Fleischauer and Arab, 2001).
Garlic is effective in the detoxication of carcinogens through its effects on phase I
and phase II enzymes. The diallyl disulde of garlic is an efcient inhibitor of the
phase I enzyme cytochrome P-450 and signicantly enhances a variety of phase II
enzymes, including glutathione-S-transferase, quinone reductase, and UDP-
glucuronyl transferase, which are responsible for the detoxication of carcinogens.
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cancer-preventive effects of
garlic and its organosulfur compounds, as has been recently reviewed (Sengupta
et al., 2004). These include inhibition of mutagenesis, modulation of enzyme activi-
ties thus suppressing bioactivation of carcinogen molecules, inhibition of carcino-
gen–DNA adduct formation, free radical scavenging, inhibitory effects on cell
proliferation and tumor growth, and induction of apoptosis.
Pungent vanilloids, especially [6]-gingerol present in ginger (Zingiber ofcinale),
have been found to possess potential chemopreventive activities. Prior topical appli-
cations of [6]-gingerol signicantly suppressed the tumor promoter (phorbol ester)-
stimulated skin inammation initiated by 7,12-dimethylbenz [α] anthracene in mice
(Surh et al., 1999). Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as nitric oxide (NO) have
been proposed as being able to inuence signal transduction and cause DNA dam-
age, contributing to the carcinogenic processes. The pungent phenolic compound
[6]-gingerol present in ginger has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of NO synthe-
sis and also an effective protector against peroxynitrite-mediated damage in mac-
rophages (Ippoushi et al., 2003). Dietary ginger constituents, galanals A and B, are
potent apoptosis inducers in human T lymphoma cells (Miyoshi et al., 2003).
Myristicin, a major volatile constituent of parsley, has been shown to strongly induce
GSH-transferase in the liver and small intestinal mucosa of mice. This compound
has been shown to lead to a 65% inhibition of tumor multiplicity in a rodent lung
cancer model (Zheng et al., 1992a, 1992b).
3.5.7 an T i o x i d a n T aCT i v i T y
The generation of reactive oxygen species and other free radicals during metabolism
is a normal process that is ideally compensated for by an elaborate endogenous anti-
oxidant defense system. Excessive free radical generation overbalancing the rate of
their removal leads to oxidative stress. Oxidative damage has been implicated in the
etiology of disease processes such as cardiovascular disease, inammatory disease,
cancer, neurodegenerative disease, and other degenerative diseases. Antioxidants are
Q4
Q5
71920_C003.indd 75 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
76 Functional Foods of the East
compounds that hinder the oxidative processes and thereby delay or suppress oxida-
tive stress. There is a growing interest in the natural antioxidants found in herbs and
spices. The bioactive compounds present in spices that possess potent antiatherogenic,
anti-inammatory, antimutagenic, and cancer-preventive activities are in fact antioxi-
dants that have been experimentally shown to control cellular oxidative stress and
thereby exert a benecial role in preventing oxidative stress-mediated diseases.
Most of the health effects of spices on cancer, cardiovascular disease, inamma-
tory disease, and neurodegenerative disease may be mediated through their potent
antioxidant effects. The antioxidant properties of spices are of particular interest in
view of the impact of oxidative modications of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
in the development of atherosclerosis. Suppression of oxidative stress and inamma-
tion by spices is important in their cancer-preventive role, since both oxidative stress
and inammation are risk factors for cancer initiation and promotion (as well as
other pathological conditions). Spices contain several natural antioxidant biomole-
cules: either water-soluble that can scavenge reactive oxygen species or lipid-soluble
that may protect against the generation of genotoxic lipid peroxidation peroxides.
The antioxidative effects of curcumin, eugenol, capsaicin, piperine, gingerol,
garlic, onion, and fenugreek have been experimentally evidenced (Srinivasan, 2009).
The studies on this effect are exhaustive and experimental evidences are many in the
case of curcumin of turmeric and eugenol of clove. Studies with several in vitro sys-
tems as well as in vivo animal studies have shown that the spice principles curcumin,
eugenol, and capsaicin have benecial antioxidant properties by quenching oxygen
free radicals, by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen radicals, and by enhanc-
ing antioxidant enzyme activities.
The antioxidant activities of spice compounds in mammalian systems involve one
or more of the following: (1) free radical scavenging, (2) suppressing lipid peroxida-
tion, (3) enhancing antioxidant molecules in tissues, (4) stimulating the activities of
endogenous antioxidant enzymes, (5) inhibiting the activity of inducible nitric oxide
synthase, (6) inhibiting LDL oxidation, and (6) inhibiting enzymes of arachidonate
metabolism—5-lipoxygenase and 2-cyclooxygenase. By virtue of its antioxidant
activity, curcumin has been documented to be anti-inammatory, antimutagenic and
cancer preventive, antiatherogenic and cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuropro-
tective, anticataractogenic, and an effective wound healant (Figure 3.7).
Thus, the multiple health benecial attributes of these common food adjuncts
include digestive stimulant action, cardioprotective potential, antilithogenic pro-
perties, protective effect on erythrocyte integrity, antidiabetic inuence, anti-
inammatory properties, and cancer-preventive potential (Figure 3.8). The antioxidant
and hypolipidemic properties of spices have far-reaching nutraceutical values. The
antioxidant properties of the bioactive compounds present in spices are of particular
interest in view of the impact of suppression of oxidative stress in the development of
degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease,
inammatory disease, and cancer. In addition, by making the food attractive and
palatable through avor, aroma, and color, spices can reduce the need to use other
less healthy ingredients such as salt, fat, or sugar. Spices thus deserve to be consid-
ered as a natural and necessary component of our daily nutrition, beyond their role
in imparting taste and avor to our food. It is presumed that the additive and
71920_C003.indd 76 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 77
synergistic effects of the complex mixture of phytochemicals present in vegetables,
fruits, herbs, and spices are largely responsible for the health effects offered by those
traditional Indian diets that are generally associated with lower incidence rates of
some of the chronic diseases of aging, including cardiovascular disease and certain
forms of cancer. The liberal consumption of spices is proved to be safe to derive their
benecial effects. Since each of the spices possesses more than one health benecial
property and there is also a possibility of synergy among them in their action when
consumed in combination, a spiced diet is likely to make life not only more “spicy”
but also more healthy.
3.6 SUMMARY
There is an abundance of scientic evidence which indicates that certain naturally
occurring nonnutritive and some nutritive substances of spices, whole grain cereals
and legumes, vegetables, fruits, sprouted grains, fermented grain products, and
fermented milk products may prevent or reduce the risk of some chronic diseases
Antioxidant activity
of curcumin of turmeric
Antiatherogenic
and cardioprotective
Protection to nicotine-
induced lung toxicity
Ameliorates oxidative
stress in diabetes Renal protective
Neuroprotective
Anti-inflammatory Effective wound healant
Antimutagenic and
cancer preventive
Protection to radiation-
induced toxicity
Anticataractogenic Hepatoprotective
FIGURE 3.7 Health implications of the antioxidant property of spice ingredients.
71920_C003.indd 77 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
78 Functional Foods of the East
Digestive
stimulant
(many spices)
Antimicrobial
(turmeric, asafetida,
garlic)
Antidiabetic
(fenugreek, garlic,
onion, turmeric)
Antilithogenic
(turmeric, garlic, onion,
chilli, fenugreek)
Cholesterol
lowering
(garlic, onion, fenu-
greek, turmeric, chilli)
Spices
Antimutagenic
anticancer
(turmeric, garlic, ginger)
Anti-inflammatory
(turmeric, chilli, garlic)
Antioxidant
(turmeric, clove,
garlic, onion, chilli)
FIGURE 3.8 Summary of the multiple health effects of spices that are widely used in Indian
traditional foods.
Abundant dietary fiber in
whole grains (cereals and
legumes), vegetables, fruits,
and specific spices
Polyphenols and other phyto-
chemicals in whole grains,
vegetables, and fruits
Spices and their
compounds in curries, soups,
pickles, and chutneys
Functional ingredients of
Indian traditional foods
Food acidulants—kokum,
amla, amchur, tamarind
Oil seeds such as sesame
and mustard
Fermented milk products
as probiotics
FIGURE 3.9 Functional ingredients of Indian traditional foods.
71920_C003.indd 78 5/14/2010 3:00:50 PM
Traditional Indian Functional Foods 79
such as various cancers and cardiovascular disease. The health benets of Indian
heritage foods containing liberal quantities of these components may range from
ensuring normal physiological functions in the body such as improving gastrointes-
tinal health, enhancing the immune system, weight management, providing better
skeletal health, and so on, to reduction of blood cholesterol, reduction of oxidative
stress, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, inammatory diseases, and vari-
ous types of cancers, and possible prevention of diabetes, neurodegenerative dis-
eases, and so on. A perfect combination of protein from legumes, carbohydrates
from rice, fat both visible and invisible from curry and fried savory items, vitamins
and minerals from sprouted grains, and vitamins from curds and vegetables is
obtained through typical Indian traditional meals (Figure 3.9).
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