ArticlePDF Available

Body Awareness, Mindfulness and Affect: Does the Kind of Physical Activity Make a Difference?

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

The aim of this cross-sectional study is to explore expected differences in the connection between particular physical activities and positive and negative affect, body awareness or mindfulness. Additionally, we describe the so-called tingling phenomenon (i.e. skin-related sensations evoked by focusing on a body part) in terms of prevalence, gender differences and psychological con-comitants. A total of 1,057 individuals (331 male; mean age: 30.6 ± 10.17 years) practicing yoga, Pilates training, kung fu, aerobic, or ballroom dance completed our questionnaire. Analysing data of all sports together, weekly frequency of practice, as opposed to time elapsed since starting practice, was connected to lower levels of negative affect and somatosensory amplification, and to higher levels of positive affect. Advanced yoga and Pilates participants showed higher body awareness; advanced kung fu participants amplified bodily signals the least, and aerobic was related to the highest positive affect. Among beginners, there were no practically relevant difaferences in the assessed constructs. These results might help to clarify the common and different psychological properties that are needed for and/or can be developed by different sports. © 2016 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest.
Content may be subject to copyright.
J. DOLEEL
Benedek T. Tihanyi, andrea Sági, BarBara CSala,
nóra Tolnai & FerenC köTeleS*
BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
Does the Kind of Physical Activity Make a Difference?**
(Received: 12 May 2014; accepted: 8 October 2014)
The aim of this cross-sectional study is to explore expected differences in the connection between
particular physical activities and positive and negative affect, body awareness or mindfulness.
Additionally, we describe the so-called tingling phenomenon (i.e. skin-related sensations evoked
by focusing on a body part) in terms of prevalence, gender differences and psychological con-
comitants. A total of 1,057 individuals (331 male; mean age: 30.6 ± 10.17 years) practicing yoga,
Pilates training, kung fu, aerobic, or ballroom dance completed our questionnaire. Analysing
data of all sports together, weekly frequency of practice, as opposed to time elapsed since starting

to higher levels of positive affect. Advanced yoga and Pilates participants showed higher body
            
related to the highest positive affect. Among beginners, there were no practically relevant dif-
ferences in the assessed constructs. These results might help to clarify the common and different
psychological properties that are needed for and/or can be developed by different sports.
Keywords: aerobic, body awareness, kung fu, mindfulness, physical activity, positive affect,

Körperbewusstsein, bewusste Präsenz und die Auswirkungen: Zählt es, welche Bewegungs-
form du wählst? Durch unsere Querschnittstudie wollten wir den Zusammenhang zwischen den
verschiedenen körperlichen Aktivitäten und der positiven bzw. negativen Stimmung, dem Kör-
perbewusstsein sowie der bewussten Präsenz erforschen. Ein weiteres Ziel stellte die genauere
Beschreibung des sog. Phänomens des Kribbelns (ein durch die auf einen bestimmten Körperteil
* Corresponding author: Ferenc Köteles, Institute for Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, Eötvös Loránd
University, Bogdánfy Ödön u. 10., H-1117 Budapest, Hungary; koteles.ferenc@ppk.elte.hu.
**      -
 B.F. Czinege (for proofreading). Re-

and by the Bolyai János Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (for F. Köteles).
Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest
European Journal of Mental Health 11 (2016) 97–111
DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.11.2016.1-2.6
98
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
   
       
Durchschnittsalter: 30,6 ± 10,17 Jahre), die Yoga, Pilates, Kung-Fu, Aerobic oder Gesellschafts-
tänze         
    
negativen Affektivität und der somatosensorischen Verstärkung und sie zeigte positive Korre-
lation mit der positiven Affektivität. Die seit dem Beginn des Trainings verstrichene Zeitspanne
stand mit keiner der gemessenen Variablen in Zusammenhang. Die Teilnehmer, die Yoga und
-
sensorischen Verstärkung war bei den Kung-Fu praktizierenden Personen das niedrigste, während
Aerobic war mit einer höheren positiven Affektivität verbunden. Unter den Anfängern haben wir
keinen wesentlichen Unterschied in Bezug auf die untersuchten Variablen gefunden. Diese Ergeb-
nisse könnten dazu beitragen, die allgemeinen und speziellen psychologischen Eigenschaften zu

entwickelt werden können.
Schlüsselbegriffe:       -
wusstsein, positive Affektivität, Präsenz, somatosensorische Verstärkung, Kribbeln
1. Introduction
The concept that physical activity (PA) plays a fundamental role in maintaining and
regaining physical and psychological health appeared in human culture millennia

and it plays a fundamental role in maintaining and developing physical health – it
has even been called a ‘miracle drug’ (PimloTT 2010). Positive impact of PA on
mental problems has also been reported. For example, in the case of depression, PA
Fox
severity of the disorder (meyer & BrooCkS 2000).
It is also well known that PA improves mental functioning even among healthy
people. As for cognitive functioning, PA can help to avoid neurological dysfunctions
and cognitive decline in old age (CoTman & engeSSer-CeSar 2002), to improve
school performance in childhood (FiSher et      
functions, intelligence, decision making, and effortful memory in adults (mCdowell
et al. 2003; Trudeau & ShePhard 2010). The positive effect of PA on subjective
well-being is also reported (Fox
than 100 studies, increase in well-being as a result of regular aerobic exercise was
mediated by positive affect (reed & BuCk  
was also described (SCully et 
well-being is self-esteem. Fox
     
itive changes in self-esteem. Evidence suggests that participation in certain physical
activities throughout the adolescent years positively affects self-esteem, body image
and physical strength (JaFFee & manzer
99
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and athletic competence (haugen
et al. 2011; mCauley et al. 2000). Interestingly, these aspects mainly represent an
external (i.e. a third-person) point of view of the body.
Beyond exteroceptive information on physical appearance improved by PA,
regular exercise can have an impact on body awareness that might also contribute
to subjective well-being. Elevated levels of body awareness are often regarded as a

  BarSky et
 8; wiCkramaSekera         
helpful in identifying important bodily sensations, and it gives the opportunity to
react to them appropriately (e.g. by resting or by visiting a physician, etc.; Bakal

contents and processes of the brain and that these so-called ‘somatic markers’ are
indispensable for decision making and emotions (damaSio et -
-
fessional marathoners as opposed to non-elites attempt to read and process somatic
information during running (morgan & PolloCk
higher body awareness partly depends on the individual’s emotional reaction. While
  
judgemental recognition might be adaptive.
Although skin-related information is traditionally regarded as part of extero-

view) of the body (mehling et 
sensations (tingling, crawling, etc.) may indeed represent an important component
of body-related information. Such tingling sensations were usually considered bene-

of the therapeutic touch) in some studies (Cox & hayeS9; Fang et al. 2013;
levine7, 2008; meloy & marTin 2001). However, negative aspects were also
reported (lazaruS & mayne-

out in order to free attentional resources to process information from more import-
ant (e.g. visual and auditory) sensory modalities (nelSon
we focus on a body part, however, skin and muscle-related information can reach
consciousness, the body area in question ‘pops out’, and the change in perception is
accompanied by a new sensation. As our knowledge on this phenomenon is scarce,
its precise description (prevalence, gender differences, related psychological con-
structs, etc.) would be extremely important for the development of a more compre-
hensive model of body awareness.
-
nected to body awareness and can increase well-being is mindfulness (kaBaT-zinn
& hanh
important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioural regula-
tion and interpersonal relationships, and in curtailing negative functioning (Brown
100
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
et 
positive emotion, joviality, attentiveness and vitality, and negative correlation with
anxiety (keune & PerCzel ForinToS 2010). hölzel and colleagues proposed a
model for the interaction of the factors required for the state of mindfulness (2011).
They consider mindfulness meditation practice as a process of enhanced self-regu-
lation, consisting of an interplay of attention regulation, body awareness, emotion
regulation (in form of reappraisal and extinction) and a change of perspective regard-
ing the self.
     
aerobic, kung fu, yoga, and Pilates) were investigated. We deliberately chose sports
which explicitly aim to improve body awareness (yoga and Pilates; dauBenmier
2005; lynCh 
and kung fu) and sports which do not directly target these changes (ballroom dance,
aerobic). First, it was hypothesised that PA, regardless the particular activity, is con-
   
higher levels of positive affect and body awareness. Second, we expected differences

we hypothesised that yoga and Pilates training relates to higher levels of body aware-
     
fu training is linked to higher levels of mindfulness. We were also curious about
whether the assessed personality characteristics had an impact on choosing a certain
physical activity or not (e.g. whether beginners with a marked proneness to somatic
absorption prefer yoga or Pilates to aerobic, etc.). Finally, we aimed to obtain de-
tailed descriptive information on the above-mentioned ‘tingling’ phenomenon.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants

years) participated in the study. Trainers and participants under the age of 18 years
were excluded. Participants were reached through the centres they exercised in.
Online and paper-based forms of the questionnaires were available. Questionnaires
were completed anonymously and voluntarily, participants did not receive any re-
ward for their participation. The study was approved by the Institutional Ethical
Board of Eötvös Loránd University.
2.2. Questionnaires
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (waTSon et 

101
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
measures the general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasant engagement
that subsumes a variety of aversive mood states (e.g. guilt, fear, nervousness), while
the positive affect scale assesses the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, ac-
tive and alert. In the current study, the short (5-item) version of the scales was used
(ThomPSon 2007). The Hungarian version of this scale had acceptable internal con-
sistency (gyollai et 
were 0.72 and 0.71, respectively.
The Somatosensory Amplification Scale (SSAS) (BarSky et 
a scale that assesses the tendency to experience a somatic sensation as intense, nox-
ious, and disturbing. The SSAS evaluates sensitivity to mild bodily sensations that
are uncomfortable and unpleasant but not pathological. It consists of ten self-rated
     
proved to be valid and psychometrically sound (köTeleS et 

Somatic Absorption Scale (SAS) was developed by David Watson
to measure the dispositional aspects of body awareness, especially the attention fo-
cusing on somatosensory processes (posture, heart beating, bodily changes caused
by sport or meal, etc.). The developer aimed to create a questionnaire that is inde-
pendent of negative affectivity/neuroticism, has a single factor structure and assesses
the proneness to continuously monitor body processes (D. Watson, personal commu-
nication). The Hungarian version of the scale proved to be valid and showed good
internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84) in a previous study (köTeleS et al.

The 15-item Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Brown & ryan
2003) measures the extent to which one is able to focus on the present moment in an
open and non-judgemental way. Each of the items is stated inversely using a six-point
Likert scale (from almost always to almost never) asking the respondents of how

The Hungarian version had a good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) in
an earlier study (Simor et al. 2013). In the present study, the internal consistency of
the scale was 0.83.
Sport practice. Two variables were used to characterise participants’ phys-
ical activity: duration (time in months since the beginning of the particular sport)
          
who had started practising maximum six months before (N = 286), while advanced
participants had practiced for more than six months (N = 754). This cut-off point
        
psychological changes can be registered, such as reduction in anxiety and depres-
sion (o’rourke     alFermann &
SToll 2000) and shift from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation (malTBy & day 2001).

marCuS et 
102
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
Tingling phenomenon. Participants were asked to focus on a freely chosen body
area (e.g. hand, ear) with closed eyes and to report whether the perception of that
particular area had changed as a result of paying attention to it (yes-no question).
2.3. Data analysis
Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS v20 software. As data were appropriate

investigate the contribution of duration and frequency of exercising to the assessed
variables regardless the type of PA. In each case, independent variables were entered
in one step using the ENTER method. In all analyses, participants’ gender and age,
duration (time in months since starting practice) and weekly frequency of body exer-
cises were used as independent variables. Additionally, positive and negative affect
scores were also used as independent variables in the equation predicting somatic
absorption score. In the two analyses with positive and negative affect as dependent
variables, somatic absorption score was used as an additional independent variable.
        
scores, positive and negative affect and somatic absorption scores were used as inde-
pendent variables beyond the four variables mentioned earlier.
         
     
beginners, participants’ age was used as a covariant in all cases. As for advanced
participants, age, and duration and frequency of practice were used as covariants.
Differences among sports were further explored using post hoc tests with Bonferroni
correction (p < 0.05 in all cases).
   
test; differences in the other assessed variables were checked by Student t-tests. Final-
ly, a binary logistic regression analysis was carried out with the tingling phenomenon
-

103
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics of the measured variables are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of the assessed variables
Mean SD Min.–Max.
Positive affect   5–25
Negative affect  3.10 5–22
Somatic absorption 65.0 6.02 
Mindfulness 60.3  15–88
Somatosensory amplification 27.7 6.02 10–45
Duration of practice (months) 46.0  0–576
Frequency of practice (per week) 2.4 1.73 
3.2. Positive and negative affect
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, practice fre-
  
even after controlling for participants’ age and gender (Table 2). Positive affect also
showed a positive correlation with somatic absorption. Negative affect was inversely
related to frequency of practice, but the connection was very weak (Table 2). It is
worth noting that both equations explained a very low proportion of the total variance

Table 2
Positive and Negative Affect
Positive affect
R2 = 0.071; p < 0.001
Standardised β coefficients
Negative affect
R2 = 0.048; p < 0.001
Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.050 –0.166***
Gender 0.077***
Duration of practice 0.037 –0.027
Frequency of practice 0.114*** –0.081*
Somatic absorption 0.210*** –0.018
Results of the multiple linear regression analyses predicting positive and negative affect scores.
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
104
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
In the case of beginners, ANCoVA showed no differences among sports ei-
ther for positive or for negative affect (F(4) = 2.274; p > 0.05, and F(4) = 1.500;
p > 0.05, respectively). Regarding people who had practised for more than six

-
ference was found: those who practised aerobic showed higher levels of posi-
 
controlling variables, only the impact of the weekly frequency of practice was




3.3. Body awareness
Table 3
Body awareness
R2 = 0.052; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.057
Gender –0.044
Duration of practice 0.002
Frequency of practice –0.003
Negative affect 0.038
Positive affect 0.224***
Results of the multiple regression analysis predicting somatic absorption score.
*** p < 0.001.
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, neither prac-
          
(Table 3

      
   -



aerobic practice (61.7 ± 1.12). Moreover, Pilates practice (68.0 ± 1.06) was linked to
higher somatic absorption score than dance and aerobic.
105
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
3.4. Somatosensory amplication
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, somatosens-
         
related to negative affect and somatic absorption (Table 4).
Table 4

R2 = 0.299; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age *
Gender 0.122***
Duration of practice –0.008
Frequency of practice –0.058*
Negative affect 0.242***
Positive affect –0.086**
Somatic absorption 0.466***

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
         
      
         



controlling variables were age (F(1) = 11.425; p < 0.01) and practice frequency

3.5. Mindfulness

mindfulness and somatic absorption, positive affect, and negative affect (reverse
relationship) (Table 5-
ther among beginners or among advanced participants (F(4) = 1.448; p > 0.05,
and F(4) = 1.331; p > 0.05, respectively).
106
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
Table 5
Mindfulness
R2 = 0.302; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.156***
Gender –0.057*
Duration of practice –0.034
Frequency of practice 0.023
Negative affect –0.382***
Positive affect 0.210***
Somatic absorption *
Results of the multiple regression analysis predicting mindfulness score.
* p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.
3.6. Tingling phenomenon
           
      
0.508). According to the results of Student t-tests, the phenomenon was not connected
to age, positive and negative affect, and mindfulness, and was positively associated
  Table 6 for details).
In the latter two cases, Cohen’s d values indicated small and medium effect sizes,
respectively. In the binary logistic regression analysis (p < 0.001, Nagelkerke R2 =

phenomenon (ExpB = 1.054; p < 0.001)
Table 6
Results of t-tests comparing characteristics of participants
who reported and not reported the tingling phenomenon (N = 1,057)
Tingling not reported Tingling reported t-value Cohen’s d
Age ± 10.378 30.44 ± 10.055 0.820 0.053
Somatosensory
amplification 26.38 ±  28.48 ± 6.073 *** –0.357
Somatic absorption 60.10 ± 12.408 67.87 ±11.517 –10.255*** –0.650
Positive affect ±  ±  –1.870 –0.117
Negative affect ± 3.042 ± 3.128 –0.666 –0.042
Mindfulness ±  60.16 ±  0.688 0.044
*** p < 0.001.
107
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
4. Discussion
Regardless of the type of exercise, weekly frequency of physical activity (PA) was
  
to higher levels of positive affect in a cross-sectional questionnaire study. No con-
nections between frequency of PA and body awareness or mindfulness were found.
Interestingly, time elapsed since starting the particular PA showed no connection to
any assessed psychological construct. As for the tingling phenomenon, it was con-
nected to the two constructs that assess some sort of body awareness (i.e. somato-

and positive and negative affect.
-

  
showed higher levels of body awareness than people practising kung fu, ballroom
dance or aerobic. Pilates practice was linked to higher body awareness than ballroom
dance or aerobic practice. Kung fu practice was connected to weaker somato sensory

higher levels of positive affect than kung fu practitioners.
As for beginners, no practically relevant differences were found among the

affected by any of the psychological constructs examined here, and the differences
found among the advanced either refer to the effect of the physical activity they

drop-out.
-
tion between PA and positive affect, and on the negative connection between PA
and negative affect (reed & BuCk SCully et 8). Our results also
hSiao & Thayer 
data was cross-sectional, these relations might be explained in two ways. On one
hand, exercising may improve affect; on the other hand, good mood and energy
may have a positive impact on practice. Nevertheless, existence of the former con-
nection (i.e. PA as a cause of improved well-being) was supported by longitudinal
and intervention studies (neTz et al. 2005). Interestingly, weekly frequency of
practice as opposed to the time since starting practice was connected to these con-
structs in the present study, showing the importance of regular exercise even for
advanced practitioners.
Positive affect was also connected to higher levels of body awareness, showing
either that body awareness contributes to mental well-being or that optimal emotion-
al state helps to connect properly to bodily signals. Putting all sports together, body
awareness was not connected to weekly frequency and duration in the regression
analysis. However, among advanced participants, yoga and Pilates practice were
connected to higher levels of body awareness than the other three, which supports
108
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
our hypothesis that these activities actually improve it. The lowest levels of body
awareness were found among advanced kung fu practitioners. Kung fu might train to
tolerate pain through repressing negative bodily signals and thus keeps body aware-
ness lower. Repression can be a negative effect of sports especially on a professional
level as in the case of ballet (mCewen & young 2011).
        
BarSky et 
was negatively related to positive affect and frequency of PA, which suggests that
regular exercise can decrease uncomfortable bodily signals and/or the propensity to
amplify them. While advanced kung fu practitioners showed less tendency to so-

among beginners. This might mean that kung fu decreased this maladaptive reaction
more (e.g. because pain and pain tolerance are part of kung fu training), but it is also
          
kung fu classes (because they did not tolerate painful experiences).
Finally, mindfulness was not related to PA either when we treated all sports
together or when we treated them separately. The connection of mindfulness to dif-
ferent sports may have been hidden by our methods. Namely, different classes and
studios were pooled in each sport. However, a connection between mindfulness and
body awareness was found, which relates to the hypothesis that body awareness is a
key element of mindfulness (hölzel et al. 2011).
The present study had an additional (primarily descriptive) goal: to gain
more information on what is called the tingling phenomenon. In our results it
-
ness. However, it showed a positive connection to the indicators of body aware-
ness, particularly to its non-judgemental, affect-free form (i.e. somatic absorp-
tion). Participants who had the tendency to pay attention to the current state of
their body (internal feelings, posture, etc.) were also prone to experience tingling
sensations in the body parts they focused on. The connection with somatic ab-
sorption found in the current study is in accordance with the attention model
mentioned in the introduction: participants who generally pay more attention
to their body are obviously able to allocate more attentional resources to body
-
ly free of positive or negative emotions, and evaluation (e.g. based on the actual
state of the individual or on the meaning attached to them) takes place in a later
step of their cognitive processing.
The most important limitation of the present cross-sectional study is that it is
not able to reveal the causal direction of the reported connections, that is, the pos-
sible effects of PA. Moreover, our sample was not representative; thus the generalis-
-
naire on the internet. The conditions in these cases were uncontrollable.
109
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
5. Conclusion


PA, the sedentary behaviour remains high in industrialised nations (Sági et al. 2012).
-
gate PA and to choose the proper sport which boosts intrinsic motivation and makes
PA pleasant and enduring (malTBy & day 2001). Such results can help practitioners
and trainers to exploit the resources of PA more, that is, to recognise psychologic al
factors which are needed for and can be developed by PA, to choose the sport that is
most suitable for a person, to decrease dropout and to give valid information in order
to make regular PA popular. Identifying such factors might also help us to include PA
in mental healthcare and form an integrated mind-body medicine.
References
alFermann  SToll (2000) ‘Effects of Physical Exercise on Self-Concept and Well-
Being’, International Journal of Sport Psychology 31, 47–65.
BakalMinding the Body: Clinical Uses of Somatic Awareness
BarSky, A.J., J.D. goodSon, R.S. laneCleary
Symptoms’, Psychosomatic Medicine
BarSkywyShakklerman
and Its Relationship to Hypochondriasis’, Journal of Psychiatric Research 24, 323–34.
Brownryan      
in Psychological Well-Being’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, 822–48.
Brown, K.W., R.M. ryan CreSwell (2007) ‘Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and
Evidence for Its Salutary Effects’, Psychological Inquiry 18, 211–37.
CoTmanengeSSer-CeSar (2002) ‘Exercise Enhances and Protects Brain Function’,
Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews
CoxhayeS
Therapeutic Touch in Critical Care’, Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery

damaSio, A.R., B.J. everiTT   BiShoP    
Possible Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex [and Discussion]’, Philosophical Transactions:
Series B: Biological Sciences 351, 1413–20.
dauBenmier, J.J. (2005) ‘The Relationship of Yoga, Body Awareness, and Body Responsive-
  Psychology of Women Quarterly

Fang z.-P., a.v. CaParSo & a.B. walker (2013) Systems and Methods for Producing Asyn-
chronous Neural Responses to Treat Pain and/or Other Patient Conditions, retrieved 11
May 2014 from www.google.co.jp/patents/US8255057.
FiSher, M., L. JuSzCzak   Friedman       
School: Academic and Psychologic Correlates’, Journal of Adolescent Health
110
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
FoxPublic Health Nu-
trition 2, 411–18.
Fox, K.R. (2000) ‘The Effects of Exercise on Self-Perceptions and Self-Esteem’ in S.J.h. Biddle,
k. Fox, S. BouTCher, eds., Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being (London:
Routledge) 88–117.
gyollai, A., P. Simor, F. köTeleSdemeTroviCS (2011) ‘Psychometric Properties of the
Hungarian Version of the Original and the Short Form of the Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS)’, Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica
haugen, T., R. SäFvenBomommundSen
Mental Health and Physical Activ-
ity
hölzel, B.K., S.W. lazar, T. gard, Z. SChuman-olivier, D.R. vagooTT (2011) ‘How
Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action from a Conceptual
and Neural Perspective’, Perspectives on Psychological Science
hSiaoThayer-
ence’, Personality and Individual Differences
JaFFee    manzer      
Melpomene Journal 11, 14–23.
kaBaT-zinnhanhFull Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body
and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness (New York: Random House).
keunePerCzel ForinToS (2010) ‘Mindfulness Meditation: A Preliminary Study on
Meditation Practice during Everyday Life Activities and Its Association with Well-Being’,
Psihologijske teme
köTeleS, F., h. gémeS, g. PaPP, P. TúróCzi, a. PáSzTor, a. Freyler, r. SzemerSzky &
g. BárdoS 
validálása’, Mentálhigiéné és Pszichoszomatika 10, 321–35.
köTeleS, F., P. Simor & n. Tolnai-
chometriai értékelése’, Mentálhigiéné és Pszichoszomatika
lazaruS, a.a. & T.J. mayne
Solutions’, Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 27, 261–66.
levineWaking the Tiger: Healing Trauma: The Innate Capacity to Transform Over-
whelming Experiences (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books).
levine, P.a. (2008) Healing Trauma: A Pioneering Program for Restoring the Wisdom of Your
Body (Boulder: Sounds True).
lynCh, J.a., g.r. ChalmerS, k.m. knuTzen & l.T. marTin 
of Learning a Pilates Skill with or without a Mirror’, Journal of Bodywork and Movement
Therapies
malTBy, J. & l. day (2001) ‘The Relationship between Exercise Motives and Psychological
Well-Being’, The Journal of Psychology 135, 651–60.
marCuS, B.h., C.a. eaTon, J.S. roSSi & l.l. harlow 
and Stages of Change: An Integrative Model of Physical Exercise’, Journal of Applied So-
cial Psychology
mCauley, e., B. BliSSmer, J. kaTula, T.e. dunCan & S.l. mihalko (2000) ‘Physical Activ-

Trial’, Annals of Behavioral Medicine
111
 BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
mCdowell, k., S.e. keriCk, d.l. SanTa maria & B.d. haTField (2003) ‘Aging, Physical
Activity, and Cognitive Processing: An Examination of P300’, Neurobiology of Aging 24,

mCewen, k. & k. youngQuali-
tative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 3, 152–73.
mehling, w.e., v. goPiSeTTy, J. dauBenmier, C.J. PriCe, F.m. heChT & a. STewarT
‘Body Awareness: Construct and Self-Report Measures’, PLoS ONE 4:5, e5614 (DOI:
10.1371/journal.pone.0005614).
meloy, T.S. & w.J. marTin (2001) Spinal Cord Stimulation, retrieved 11 May 2014 from www.

meyer, d.T. & a. BrooCkS (2000) ‘Therapeutic Impact of Exercise on Psychiatric Diseases’,
Sports Medicine
morgan, w.P. & m.l. PolloCk -
ner’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301, 382–403.
nelSon, R.J. (2010) The Somatosensory System: Deciphering the Brain’s Own Body Image (Boca
Raton: CRC).
neTz, y., m.-J. wu, B.J. BeCker & g. TenenBaum (2005) ‘Physical Activity and Psychological
Well-Being in Advanced Age: A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies’, Psychology and
Aging 20, 272–84.
o’rourke, a., B. lewin, S. whiTeCroSS & w. PaCey
Training and Cardiac Education on Levels of Anxiety and Depression in the Rehabilitation
International Disability Studies 12, 104–06.
PimloTT, N. (2010) ‘The Miracle Drug’, Canadian Family Physician / Médecin de Famille
Canadien 56, 407.
reed, J. & S. BuCk
A Meta-Analysis’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise
Sági, a., Zs. SzekereS & F. köTeleS
Mentál-
higiéné és Pszichoszomatika
SCully, d., J. kremer, m.m. meade, r. graham & k. dudgeon 
and Psychological Well-Being: A Critical Review’, British Journal of Sports Medicine 32,
111–20.
Simor, P., z. PeTke & F. köTeleS     
Hungarian Validation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)’, Learning &
Perception
ThomPSon, E.R. (2007) ‘Development and Validation of an Internationally Reliable Short-Form
of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psych-
ology 38, 227–42.
Trudeau, F. & r.J. ShePhard (2010) ‘Relationships of Physical Activity to Brain Health and
the Academic Performance of Schoolchildren’, American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 4,
138–50.
waTSon, d., l.a. Clark & a. Tellegen-
ures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales’, Journal of Personality and So-
cial Psychology 54, 1063–70.
wiCkramaSekera 
Threat Perception’, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 183, 15–23.
... The so-called tingling phenomenon (often dubbed attention-related body sensations) gives us hints about how expectations can shape interoceptive percepts, i.e., body experience. For about 50-60% of people, focusing on a body part or region changes the way that region is felt (Tihanyi et al., 2016;Tihanyi, Ferentzi, Daubenmier, et al., 2017;. The attended region pops out from the neighboring areas, which is often described as a tingling-like sensation (Naveteur et al., 2005). ...
... For example, the majority of mind-body interventions could not change cardioceptive accuracy, whereas improvement in self-reported body awareness is often reported (for a review, see (Ferentzi, Drew, et al., 2018)). As mind-body activities are associated with higher levels of subjective well-being, similarly to the placebo response they can substantially improve practitioners' quality of life and everyday functioning (Impett et al., 2006;Tihanyi et al., 2016). On the other hand, the risk of taking perceived state of the body and higher level of well-being as proof of healthy physiological functioning is also high. ...
... 60,61 Some studies have interpreted the sensation of tingling as the presence or flow of energy. 37,62,63 The sensation of tingling or any other during these interventions is often caused by (1) attention-related processes and (2) changes in peripheral physiology, for example, during relaxation, static postures, slow exercises, or deep breathing brought on by autonomic and somatic motor self-regulation and affective processes. 64 The most common experience identified in most studies is a sense of calm and relaxation. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background The idea of “life force” or “subtle pranic energy,” sometimes referred to as prana, ki, qi, vital force, and scientifically accepted as biofield, is prevalent across many cultures. Objectives This review's objective is to synthesize data from studies that looked at a range of physical, psychological, and biofield sensations while experiencing prana and receiving biofield therapies. Method We looked for qualitative, exploratory, and mixed-method studies on subtle pranic energy perceptions, as well as the physical and emotional experiences connected to biofield therapeutic procedures, through searches in 3 electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, ninteen studies were appropriate for this review. The results were synthesized using the 6 steps of the thematic analysis approach. Results The first concept, “energy experiences,” comprises 4 themes that describe participants’ sensations of prana (awareness of temperature variation; presence of energy; physical sensation of energy; and magnetic sensation). The second concept, “positive experiences,” consists of 3 themes that describe the benefits of undergoing biofield therapy on the physical and emotional conditions of the participants (positive affective experiences; positive physical sensations; and positive valued experiences). The third concept, “experience of awareness,” describes how participants become aware of their mental activities (awareness of mental activities). Conclusion Our knowledge of perceptions and experiences related to biofield therapy is enhanced by this meta-synthesis. It gave a comprehensive picture of the enormous sensations and advantages that were felt when engaging in biofield practices.
... Perceived aspect of interoception, i.e., individuals' beliefs about their awareness of and attentiveness to body processes, is called body awareness or interoceptive awareness (Shields et al. 1989;Mehling et al. 2009); it is assessed with questionnaires. In certain cases, body awareness is associated with proneness to aversive affective mood states, called negative affectivity (Tihanyi et al. 2016). For example, somatosensory amplification refers to the tendency to perceive somatic sensations as intense, noxious, and disturbing (Barsky et al. 1990); it can be conceptualized as risk perception with respect to possible threats to the integrity of the body (Köteles and Witthöft 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Perception of airway resistance has a sensory and an affective aspect, i.e., perceived resistance and unpleasantness, respectively. The current study aimed to shed more light on the relationship of these aspects, as well as their malleability to trait-like aspects of body awareness. In a laboratory study, 71 young participants completed two respiratory resistive load discrimination tasks relying on sensory and affective evaluation, respectively, and filled out questionnaires assessing somatosensory amplification, anxiety sensitivity, somatic symptoms distress, and breath awareness. Frequentist and Bayesian statistical analysis revealed no differences in discrimination accuracy with respect to the sensory and affective aspect of perceived resistance. Psychological traits were not associated with accuracy scores. In conclusion, affective evaluation of respiratory load is as accurate as sensory evaluation. Neither sensory not affective accuracy is influenced by various aspects of body awareness.
... Interestingly, positive affectivity and satisfaction with life were not impacted by the yoga intervention. Contrary to the findings supporting the existence of a positive association between yoga and positive affectivity (Impett et al., 2006;Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010;Tihanyi et al., 2016a), West et al. (2004) also found no increase in positive affectivity after yoga practice. In their study, positive affect increased in people practicing African dance, but did not change in the yoga group, while negative affect decreased in both conditions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Yoga based interventions were found to have a positive impact on various indicators of psychological functioning, such as perceived stress, satisfaction with life, positive and negative affectivity. Additionally, such interventions improved bodily or interoceptive awareness and spirituality. Methods The present study assessed the effects of a 3-month long complex yoga-based intervention compared to a passive control group in a Hungarian community sample. The final sample consisted of 44 intervention (Mage = 47.5, SD = = 8.76) and 29 control participants (Mage = 47.4, SD = 9.47). The aforementioned constructs were measured 1 week before and after the intervention. Results The intervention reduced participants’ perceived stress (p = <0.001, ηp² = 0.153) and negative affectivity (p = 0.019, ηp² = 0.113), improved spirituality (p = 0.048, ηp² = 0.054) and various aspects of interoceptive awareness such as noticing (p = <0.001, ηp² = 0.169) attention regulation (p = <0.001, ηp² = 0.211), self-regulation (p = 0.002, ηp² = 0.190) body listening (p = 0.010, ηp² = 0.097), trusting (p = 0.026, ηp² = 0.070), but did not impact positive affectivity and satisfaction with life. Conclusion A 3-months long complex yoga-based intervention has a positive impact on many aspects of healthy psychological functioning.
... There was no statistically significant difference in the subjects' body awareness as a result of the yoga exercises performed, according to Atılgan et al. (2019), who monitored the impact of yoga-based exercises on body awareness and mood. Tihanyi (2016) came to the conclusion that there is no relationship between the frequency of physical activity and body awareness after looking into the relationship between specific physical activities and body awareness. The analysis's findings indicated that there was no discernible gender difference in the students' body awareness test scores. ...
... First, the adaptivity/maladaptivity of body focused attention is a frequently discussed question in the literature of interoception [10,11]. One dominant approach highlights the therapeutic, potentially beneficial effects of body focus, e.g., in relation to mind-body practices and various types of psychotherapy [12][13][14][15][16][17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
There are a number of questionnaires assessing the self-reported trait-like aspect of interoception, also called interoceptive sensibility (ISb). Based on the varying purposes of their development and characteristics, however, it is not likely that they assess exactly the same construct. In a community sample of 265 adults, we examined this assumption for three commonly used questionnaires of ISb, namely the Body Awareness subscale of the Body Perception Questionnaire (BPQ-BA), the Body Awareness Questionnaire (BAQ), and the eight subscales of Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA). We investigated their associations, and their relation to positive and negative affect and somatosensory amplification. According to the results of correlation analysis, BPQ-BA, BAQ and MAIA were partly unrelated to each other, partly showed weak to moderate positive associations. Also, differences with respect to their association with positive and negative affect were found. These findings suggest that the investigated questionnaires cannot be used interchangeably to assess the subjective aspect of interoception, and the term ISb is not appropriately defined.
Chapter
In this chapter, presenting the history of interoception research, we tell six parallel stories: (1) how the initially narrow definition of interoception became broader, (2) how, instead of passive reception, active perception came into focus, (3) how the roots of accuracy measures and questionnaires differed from the beginning (and how they are related to major theories of emotion), (4) how various levels of consciousness were investigated, starting with conditioning, (5) what attempts to alter interoception looked like, and finally (6) how the view of body focus changed from negative to positive. We hope that these jigsaw pieces from the past help provide a more complete picture of recent interoception research.
Article
Amaç: Bu çalışmanın amacı kadınlarda menstrüel ağrı şiddetinin vücut farkındalığı, fiziksel aktivite düzeyi ve duyu organizasyonu üzerine etkisini incelemekti. Yöntem: Çalışmaya 18-30 yaş arası menstrüel ağrısı olan kadınlar dahil edildi. Katılımcılar görsel analog skalasına göre hafif (n=47), orta (n=28) ve şiddetli (n=18) menstrüel ağrı grubu olmak üzere toplam üç gruba ayrıldı. Katılımcılara Vücut Farkındalığı Anketi (VFA) ve Uluslararası Fiziksel Aktivite Anketi-kısa form (UFAA) uygulandı. Katılımcıların somatosensoriyel, görsel ve vestibüler duyu organizasyonları bilgisayarlı dinamik postürografi ile incelendi. Tüm değerlendirmeler menstrüasyon sırasında uygulandı. Bulgular: VFA ve UFAA açısından; şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ve orta şiddetli ağrı gruplarından ve orta şiddetli ağrı grubu ise hafif ağrı grubundan daha düşük puana sahipti (p<0.05). Şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ve orta şiddetli ağrı grubundan ve orta şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ağrı grubundan daha düşük antero-posterior somatosensoriyel test değerlerine sahipti (p<0.05). Şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif şiddetli ağrı grubundan daha düşük antero-posterior vestibüler test değerlerine sahipti (p<0.05). Şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ve orta şiddetli ağrı grubundan daha düşük medio-lateral somatosensoriyel test değerlerine sahipti (p<0.05). Şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ağrı grubundan ve orta şiddetli ağrı grubu hafif ağrı grubundan daha düşük medio-lateral vestibüler test değerlerine sahipti (p<0.05). Sonuç: Ağrı şiddeti arttıkça, VFA, UFAA ve somatosensoriyel ve vestibüler duyu organizasyonu test sonuçlarının düştüğü görüldü. Menstrüel ağrı ile baş etmek için vücut farkındalığını artıran fiziksel aktivite yöntemlerinin tercih edilmesi, menstruel ağrıyı azaltmak ve duyu organizasyonunu iyileştirmek için daha etkili sonuçlar ortaya koyabilir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Menstrüel ağrı, dismenore, vücut farkındalığı, fiziksel aktivite, duyu organizasyonu Yazının geliş tarihi: 14.03.2022 Yazının kabul tarihi: 26.04.2022
Article
Full-text available
Past research has shown that mindfulness meditation is useful for the attenuation of psychological and physical suffering in clinical populations. In structured mindfulness-based interventions, patients engage in meditation exercises to refine their attentional skills and to learn to purposefully relate to the present moment experience in a non-judgemental manner. Following the development of such interventions, mindfulness has also received considerable attention in academic psychology, where it has been incorporated in the self-determination theory (SDT). According to SDT, the cultivation of mindfulness may warrant effective need gratification and consequently yield enhanced well-being in healthy individuals. In this context, in the current study, we examined the association between mindfulness meditation, self-reported trait mindfulness and their predictive value for psychological well-being in a non-clinical sample. Individuals who engaged in mindfulness meditation regularly (N = 30) were compared to individuals without meditation experience (N = 30) on various scales which assessed trait mindfulness and psychological well-being. Meditators reported higher emotional well-being, which was predicted by frequency and duration of practice. Especially those practitioners, who made efforts to implement mindfulness practice in activities of everyday life showed enhanced emotional adjustment. In an explorative analysis, mindfulness was identified as a putative partial mediator of the relationship between meditation practice and well-being. Despite methodological constraints, results of the current study suggest that mindfulness meditation, in a non-clinical context, is associated with increased psychological well-being, and as such worth to be explored in more detail by future research. The study and its results might be relevant for the clinical sector as well, since they provide some information on how individuals with e.g., subclinical residual symptoms can protect themselves complementarily to CBT, but without participating in a completely structured mindfulness-based intervention.
Article
Full-text available
There is increasing interest in the contribution of exercise in both the promotion of mental well-being and the treatment and prevention of mental illness and disorders. Within this context, self-esteem has been regarded as an important element of well-being and a construct that might be open to change through exercise. This paper discusses recent advances in the theory and measurement of self-esteem including the concepts of multidimensionality, hierarchical structuring and the specific role of the physical self with a view to a) informing critique of the existing literature and b) suggesting future research challenges. The results of a recent comprehensive review of 37 randomised and 42 non-randomised controlled studies investigating the effects of exercise on self-esteem and physical self-perceptions are summarised. This is followed by suggestions for advancing research in the field and practical pointers for those already involved in the promotion of exercise for mental health.
Article
Full-text available
Eighty-three consecutive patients with chronic somatic complaints seen prior to therapy were tested on the eight factors of the High Risk Model of Threat Perception. Thirty-two percent were high and 28% were low on hypnotic ability, which is more highs and lows than would be expected in a normal population. In the high and low hypnotic ability somatizers, the distribution of somatic and psychological symptoms is significantly different from the moderate group. Counterintuitively, hypnotic ability and major life change were orthogonal to all of the other risk factors. These findings are consistent with eight of nine predictions from the High Risk Model of Threat Perception.
Article
Full-text available
Mindfulness is defi ned as an enhanced state of attention and awareness characterized by an open, non-judgmental pre-refl exive information processing style. Although there are different questionnaires measuring trait mindfulness, validated Hungarian versions are still lacking. One of the most widely used questionnaire for the measurement of dispositional mindfulness is the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) developed by Brown and Ryan (2003). In the present study, psychometric properties and personality correlates of the Hungarian version of the Scale (MAAS-H) were investigated on a student sample (N = 511). The scale has good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alfa = 0.78), a single factor structure and a test-retest reliability of 0.71 over a two months period. MAAS showed medium level correlations (Kendall’s tau_b = 0.18 and 0.19) with positive affectivity (PANAS+) and well-being (WB-5), and negative correlations (–0.22, –0.26 and –0.33) with various measures related to negative affectivity (PHQ-15, PANAS– and STAI-T, respectively). Correlation with private body consciousness (PBCS) was quite low (–0.09). Our results indicate that the psychometric qualities of the Hungarian version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale are in coherence with the original scale, and thus proved to be a valid tool in order to quantify dispositional mindfulness.
Article
Interest in mindfulness and its enhancement has burgeoned in recent years. In this article, we discuss in detail the nature of mindfulness and its relation to other, established theories of attention and awareness in day-to-day life. We then examine theory and evidence for the role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships. The processes through which mindfulness is theorized to have its beneficial effects are then discussed, along with proposed directions for theoretical development and empirical research.
Article
This article reports the development and validation of a 10-item international Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) in English. A qualitative study (N = 18) and then an exploratory quantitative study (N = 407), each using informants from a range of cultural backgrounds, were used to identify systematically which 10 of the original 20 PANAS items to retain or remove. A same-sample retest study (N = 163) was used in an initial examination of the new 10-item international PANAS's psychometric properties and to assess its correlation with the full, 20-item, original PANAS. In a series of further validation studies (N = 1,789), the cross-sample stability, internal reliability, temporal stability, cross-cultural factorial invariance, and convergent and criterion-related validities of the I-PANAS-SF were examined and found to be psychometrically acceptable.
Article
PurposeThe aim of this study was: a) to investigate mediating influences of body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and perceived athletic competence in the relationship between physical activity and global self-worth, controlling for contextual variations in physical activity; b) to investigate the relative magnitude of the specific indirect effects; c) to investigate whether gender moderates the mediating influences of body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and perceived athletic competence.