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J. DOLEEL
Benedek T. Tihanyi, andrea Sági, BarBara CSala,
nóra Tolnai & FerenC köTeleS*
BODY AWARENESS, MINDFULNESS AND AFFECT
Does the Kind of Physical Activity Make a Difference?**
(Received: 12 May 2014; accepted: 8 October 2014)
The aim of this cross-sectional study is to explore expected differences in the connection between
particular physical activities and positive and negative affect, body awareness or mindfulness.
Additionally, we describe the so-called tingling phenomenon (i.e. skin-related sensations evoked
by focusing on a body part) in terms of prevalence, gender differences and psychological con-
comitants. A total of 1,057 individuals (331 male; mean age: 30.6 ± 10.17 years) practicing yoga,
Pilates training, kung fu, aerobic, or ballroom dance completed our questionnaire. Analysing
data of all sports together, weekly frequency of practice, as opposed to time elapsed since starting
to higher levels of positive affect. Advanced yoga and Pilates participants showed higher body
related to the highest positive affect. Among beginners, there were no practically relevant dif-
ferences in the assessed constructs. These results might help to clarify the common and different
psychological properties that are needed for and/or can be developed by different sports.
Keywords: aerobic, body awareness, kung fu, mindfulness, physical activity, positive affect,
Körperbewusstsein, bewusste Präsenz und die Auswirkungen: Zählt es, welche Bewegungs-
form du wählst? Durch unsere Querschnittstudie wollten wir den Zusammenhang zwischen den
verschiedenen körperlichen Aktivitäten und der positiven bzw. negativen Stimmung, dem Kör-
perbewusstsein sowie der bewussten Präsenz erforschen. Ein weiteres Ziel stellte die genauere
Beschreibung des sog. Phänomens des Kribbelns (ein durch die auf einen bestimmten Körperteil
* Corresponding author: Ferenc Köteles, Institute for Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, Eötvös Loránd
University, Bogdánfy Ödön u. 10., H-1117 Budapest, Hungary; koteles.ferenc@ppk.elte.hu.
** -
B.F. Czinege (for proofreading). Re-
and by the Bolyai János Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (for F. Köteles).
Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest
European Journal of Mental Health 11 (2016) 97–111
DOI: 10.5708/EJMH.11.2016.1-2.6
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EJMH 11:1-2, April 2016
Durchschnittsalter: 30,6 ± 10,17 Jahre), die Yoga, Pilates, Kung-Fu, Aerobic oder Gesellschafts-
tänze
negativen Affektivität und der somatosensorischen Verstärkung und sie zeigte positive Korre-
lation mit der positiven Affektivität. Die seit dem Beginn des Trainings verstrichene Zeitspanne
stand mit keiner der gemessenen Variablen in Zusammenhang. Die Teilnehmer, die Yoga und
-
sensorischen Verstärkung war bei den Kung-Fu praktizierenden Personen das niedrigste, während
Aerobic war mit einer höheren positiven Affektivität verbunden. Unter den Anfängern haben wir
keinen wesentlichen Unterschied in Bezug auf die untersuchten Variablen gefunden. Diese Ergeb-
nisse könnten dazu beitragen, die allgemeinen und speziellen psychologischen Eigenschaften zu
entwickelt werden können.
Schlüsselbegriffe: -
wusstsein, positive Affektivität, Präsenz, somatosensorische Verstärkung, Kribbeln
1. Introduction
The concept that physical activity (PA) plays a fundamental role in maintaining and
regaining physical and psychological health appeared in human culture millennia
and it plays a fundamental role in maintaining and developing physical health – it
has even been called a ‘miracle drug’ (PimloTT 2010). Positive impact of PA on
mental problems has also been reported. For example, in the case of depression, PA
Fox
severity of the disorder (meyer & BrooCkS 2000).
It is also well known that PA improves mental functioning even among healthy
people. As for cognitive functioning, PA can help to avoid neurological dysfunctions
and cognitive decline in old age (CoTman & engeSSer-CeSar 2002), to improve
school performance in childhood (FiSher et
functions, intelligence, decision making, and effortful memory in adults (mCdowell
et al. 2003; Trudeau & ShePhard 2010). The positive effect of PA on subjective
well-being is also reported (Fox
than 100 studies, increase in well-being as a result of regular aerobic exercise was
mediated by positive affect (reed & BuCk
was also described (SCully et
well-being is self-esteem. Fox
itive changes in self-esteem. Evidence suggests that participation in certain physical
activities throughout the adolescent years positively affects self-esteem, body image
and physical strength (JaFFee & manzer
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body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and athletic competence (haugen
et al. 2011; mCauley et al. 2000). Interestingly, these aspects mainly represent an
external (i.e. a third-person) point of view of the body.
Beyond exteroceptive information on physical appearance improved by PA,
regular exercise can have an impact on body awareness that might also contribute
to subjective well-being. Elevated levels of body awareness are often regarded as a
BarSky et
8; wiCkramaSekera
helpful in identifying important bodily sensations, and it gives the opportunity to
react to them appropriately (e.g. by resting or by visiting a physician, etc.; Bakal
contents and processes of the brain and that these so-called ‘somatic markers’ are
indispensable for decision making and emotions (damaSio et -
-
fessional marathoners as opposed to non-elites attempt to read and process somatic
information during running (morgan & PolloCk
higher body awareness partly depends on the individual’s emotional reaction. While
judgemental recognition might be adaptive.
Although skin-related information is traditionally regarded as part of extero-
view) of the body (mehling et
sensations (tingling, crawling, etc.) may indeed represent an important component
of body-related information. Such tingling sensations were usually considered bene-
of the therapeutic touch) in some studies (Cox & hayeS9; Fang et al. 2013;
levine7, 2008; meloy & marTin 2001). However, negative aspects were also
reported (lazaruS & mayne-
out in order to free attentional resources to process information from more import-
ant (e.g. visual and auditory) sensory modalities (nelSon
we focus on a body part, however, skin and muscle-related information can reach
consciousness, the body area in question ‘pops out’, and the change in perception is
accompanied by a new sensation. As our knowledge on this phenomenon is scarce,
its precise description (prevalence, gender differences, related psychological con-
structs, etc.) would be extremely important for the development of a more compre-
hensive model of body awareness.
-
nected to body awareness and can increase well-being is mindfulness (kaBaT-zinn
& hanh
important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioural regula-
tion and interpersonal relationships, and in curtailing negative functioning (Brown
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et
positive emotion, joviality, attentiveness and vitality, and negative correlation with
anxiety (keune & PerCzel ForinToS 2010). hölzel and colleagues proposed a
model for the interaction of the factors required for the state of mindfulness (2011).
They consider mindfulness meditation practice as a process of enhanced self-regu-
lation, consisting of an interplay of attention regulation, body awareness, emotion
regulation (in form of reappraisal and extinction) and a change of perspective regard-
ing the self.
aerobic, kung fu, yoga, and Pilates) were investigated. We deliberately chose sports
which explicitly aim to improve body awareness (yoga and Pilates; dauBenmier
2005; lynCh
and kung fu) and sports which do not directly target these changes (ballroom dance,
aerobic). First, it was hypothesised that PA, regardless the particular activity, is con-
higher levels of positive affect and body awareness. Second, we expected differences
we hypothesised that yoga and Pilates training relates to higher levels of body aware-
fu training is linked to higher levels of mindfulness. We were also curious about
whether the assessed personality characteristics had an impact on choosing a certain
physical activity or not (e.g. whether beginners with a marked proneness to somatic
absorption prefer yoga or Pilates to aerobic, etc.). Finally, we aimed to obtain de-
tailed descriptive information on the above-mentioned ‘tingling’ phenomenon.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
years) participated in the study. Trainers and participants under the age of 18 years
were excluded. Participants were reached through the centres they exercised in.
Online and paper-based forms of the questionnaires were available. Questionnaires
were completed anonymously and voluntarily, participants did not receive any re-
ward for their participation. The study was approved by the Institutional Ethical
Board of Eötvös Loránd University.
2.2. Questionnaires
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (waTSon et
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measures the general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasant engagement
that subsumes a variety of aversive mood states (e.g. guilt, fear, nervousness), while
the positive affect scale assesses the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, ac-
tive and alert. In the current study, the short (5-item) version of the scales was used
(ThomPSon 2007). The Hungarian version of this scale had acceptable internal con-
sistency (gyollai et
were 0.72 and 0.71, respectively.
The Somatosensory Amplification Scale (SSAS) (BarSky et
a scale that assesses the tendency to experience a somatic sensation as intense, nox-
ious, and disturbing. The SSAS evaluates sensitivity to mild bodily sensations that
are uncomfortable and unpleasant but not pathological. It consists of ten self-rated
proved to be valid and psychometrically sound (köTeleS et
Somatic Absorption Scale (SAS) was developed by David Watson
to measure the dispositional aspects of body awareness, especially the attention fo-
cusing on somatosensory processes (posture, heart beating, bodily changes caused
by sport or meal, etc.). The developer aimed to create a questionnaire that is inde-
pendent of negative affectivity/neuroticism, has a single factor structure and assesses
the proneness to continuously monitor body processes (D. Watson, personal commu-
nication). The Hungarian version of the scale proved to be valid and showed good
internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84) in a previous study (köTeleS et al.
The 15-item Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Brown & ryan
2003) measures the extent to which one is able to focus on the present moment in an
open and non-judgemental way. Each of the items is stated inversely using a six-point
Likert scale (from almost always to almost never) asking the respondents of how
The Hungarian version had a good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) in
an earlier study (Simor et al. 2013). In the present study, the internal consistency of
the scale was 0.83.
Sport practice. Two variables were used to characterise participants’ phys-
ical activity: duration (time in months since the beginning of the particular sport)
who had started practising maximum six months before (N = 286), while advanced
participants had practiced for more than six months (N = 754). This cut-off point
psychological changes can be registered, such as reduction in anxiety and depres-
sion (o’rourke alFermann &
SToll 2000) and shift from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation (malTBy & day 2001).
marCuS et
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Tingling phenomenon. Participants were asked to focus on a freely chosen body
area (e.g. hand, ear) with closed eyes and to report whether the perception of that
particular area had changed as a result of paying attention to it (yes-no question).
2.3. Data analysis
Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS v20 software. As data were appropriate
investigate the contribution of duration and frequency of exercising to the assessed
variables regardless the type of PA. In each case, independent variables were entered
in one step using the ENTER method. In all analyses, participants’ gender and age,
duration (time in months since starting practice) and weekly frequency of body exer-
cises were used as independent variables. Additionally, positive and negative affect
scores were also used as independent variables in the equation predicting somatic
absorption score. In the two analyses with positive and negative affect as dependent
variables, somatic absorption score was used as an additional independent variable.
scores, positive and negative affect and somatic absorption scores were used as inde-
pendent variables beyond the four variables mentioned earlier.
beginners, participants’ age was used as a covariant in all cases. As for advanced
participants, age, and duration and frequency of practice were used as covariants.
Differences among sports were further explored using post hoc tests with Bonferroni
correction (p < 0.05 in all cases).
test; differences in the other assessed variables were checked by Student t-tests. Final-
ly, a binary logistic regression analysis was carried out with the tingling phenomenon
-
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3. Results
3.1. Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics of the measured variables are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of the assessed variables
Mean SD Min.–Max.
Positive affect 5–25
Negative affect 3.10 5–22
Somatic absorption 65.0 6.02
Mindfulness 60.3 15–88
Somatosensory amplification 27.7 6.02 10–45
Duration of practice (months) 46.0 0–576
Frequency of practice (per week) 2.4 1.73
3.2. Positive and negative affect
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, practice fre-
even after controlling for participants’ age and gender (Table 2). Positive affect also
showed a positive correlation with somatic absorption. Negative affect was inversely
related to frequency of practice, but the connection was very weak (Table 2). It is
worth noting that both equations explained a very low proportion of the total variance
Table 2
Positive and Negative Affect
Positive affect
R2 = 0.071; p < 0.001
Standardised β coefficients
Negative affect
R2 = 0.048; p < 0.001
Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.050 –0.166***
Gender 0.077***
Duration of practice 0.037 –0.027
Frequency of practice 0.114*** –0.081*
Somatic absorption 0.210*** –0.018
Results of the multiple linear regression analyses predicting positive and negative affect scores.
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
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In the case of beginners, ANCoVA showed no differences among sports ei-
ther for positive or for negative affect (F(4) = 2.274; p > 0.05, and F(4) = 1.500;
p > 0.05, respectively). Regarding people who had practised for more than six
-
ference was found: those who practised aerobic showed higher levels of posi-
controlling variables, only the impact of the weekly frequency of practice was
3.3. Body awareness
Table 3
Body awareness
R2 = 0.052; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.057
Gender –0.044
Duration of practice 0.002
Frequency of practice –0.003
Negative affect 0.038
Positive affect 0.224***
Results of the multiple regression analysis predicting somatic absorption score.
*** p < 0.001.
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, neither prac-
(Table 3
-
aerobic practice (61.7 ± 1.12). Moreover, Pilates practice (68.0 ± 1.06) was linked to
higher somatic absorption score than dance and aerobic.
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3.4. Somatosensory amplication
According to the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, somatosens-
related to negative affect and somatic absorption (Table 4).
Table 4
R2 = 0.299; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age *
Gender 0.122***
Duration of practice –0.008
Frequency of practice –0.058*
Negative affect 0.242***
Positive affect –0.086**
Somatic absorption 0.466***
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
controlling variables were age (F(1) = 11.425; p < 0.01) and practice frequency
3.5. Mindfulness
mindfulness and somatic absorption, positive affect, and negative affect (reverse
relationship) (Table 5-
ther among beginners or among advanced participants (F(4) = 1.448; p > 0.05,
and F(4) = 1.331; p > 0.05, respectively).
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Table 5
Mindfulness
R2 = 0.302; p < 0.001 Standardised β coefficients
Age 0.156***
Gender –0.057*
Duration of practice –0.034
Frequency of practice 0.023
Negative affect –0.382***
Positive affect 0.210***
Somatic absorption *
Results of the multiple regression analysis predicting mindfulness score.
* p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.
3.6. Tingling phenomenon
0.508). According to the results of Student t-tests, the phenomenon was not connected
to age, positive and negative affect, and mindfulness, and was positively associated
Table 6 for details).
In the latter two cases, Cohen’s d values indicated small and medium effect sizes,
respectively. In the binary logistic regression analysis (p < 0.001, Nagelkerke R2 =
phenomenon (ExpB = 1.054; p < 0.001)
Table 6
Results of t-tests comparing characteristics of participants
who reported and not reported the tingling phenomenon (N = 1,057)
Tingling not reported Tingling reported t-value Cohen’s d
Age ± 10.378 30.44 ± 10.055 0.820 0.053
Somatosensory
amplification 26.38 ± 28.48 ± 6.073 *** –0.357
Somatic absorption 60.10 ± 12.408 67.87 ±11.517 –10.255*** –0.650
Positive affect ± ± –1.870 –0.117
Negative affect ± 3.042 ± 3.128 –0.666 –0.042
Mindfulness ± 60.16 ± 0.688 0.044
*** p < 0.001.
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4. Discussion
Regardless of the type of exercise, weekly frequency of physical activity (PA) was
to higher levels of positive affect in a cross-sectional questionnaire study. No con-
nections between frequency of PA and body awareness or mindfulness were found.
Interestingly, time elapsed since starting the particular PA showed no connection to
any assessed psychological construct. As for the tingling phenomenon, it was con-
nected to the two constructs that assess some sort of body awareness (i.e. somato-
and positive and negative affect.
-
showed higher levels of body awareness than people practising kung fu, ballroom
dance or aerobic. Pilates practice was linked to higher body awareness than ballroom
dance or aerobic practice. Kung fu practice was connected to weaker somato sensory
higher levels of positive affect than kung fu practitioners.
As for beginners, no practically relevant differences were found among the
affected by any of the psychological constructs examined here, and the differences
found among the advanced either refer to the effect of the physical activity they
drop-out.
-
tion between PA and positive affect, and on the negative connection between PA
and negative affect (reed & BuCk SCully et 8). Our results also
hSiao & Thayer
data was cross-sectional, these relations might be explained in two ways. On one
hand, exercising may improve affect; on the other hand, good mood and energy
may have a positive impact on practice. Nevertheless, existence of the former con-
nection (i.e. PA as a cause of improved well-being) was supported by longitudinal
and intervention studies (neTz et al. 2005). Interestingly, weekly frequency of
practice as opposed to the time since starting practice was connected to these con-
structs in the present study, showing the importance of regular exercise even for
advanced practitioners.
Positive affect was also connected to higher levels of body awareness, showing
either that body awareness contributes to mental well-being or that optimal emotion-
al state helps to connect properly to bodily signals. Putting all sports together, body
awareness was not connected to weekly frequency and duration in the regression
analysis. However, among advanced participants, yoga and Pilates practice were
connected to higher levels of body awareness than the other three, which supports
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our hypothesis that these activities actually improve it. The lowest levels of body
awareness were found among advanced kung fu practitioners. Kung fu might train to
tolerate pain through repressing negative bodily signals and thus keeps body aware-
ness lower. Repression can be a negative effect of sports especially on a professional
level as in the case of ballet (mCewen & young 2011).
BarSky et
was negatively related to positive affect and frequency of PA, which suggests that
regular exercise can decrease uncomfortable bodily signals and/or the propensity to
amplify them. While advanced kung fu practitioners showed less tendency to so-
among beginners. This might mean that kung fu decreased this maladaptive reaction
more (e.g. because pain and pain tolerance are part of kung fu training), but it is also
kung fu classes (because they did not tolerate painful experiences).
Finally, mindfulness was not related to PA either when we treated all sports
together or when we treated them separately. The connection of mindfulness to dif-
ferent sports may have been hidden by our methods. Namely, different classes and
studios were pooled in each sport. However, a connection between mindfulness and
body awareness was found, which relates to the hypothesis that body awareness is a
key element of mindfulness (hölzel et al. 2011).
The present study had an additional (primarily descriptive) goal: to gain
more information on what is called the tingling phenomenon. In our results it
-
ness. However, it showed a positive connection to the indicators of body aware-
ness, particularly to its non-judgemental, affect-free form (i.e. somatic absorp-
tion). Participants who had the tendency to pay attention to the current state of
their body (internal feelings, posture, etc.) were also prone to experience tingling
sensations in the body parts they focused on. The connection with somatic ab-
sorption found in the current study is in accordance with the attention model
mentioned in the introduction: participants who generally pay more attention
to their body are obviously able to allocate more attentional resources to body
-
ly free of positive or negative emotions, and evaluation (e.g. based on the actual
state of the individual or on the meaning attached to them) takes place in a later
step of their cognitive processing.
The most important limitation of the present cross-sectional study is that it is
not able to reveal the causal direction of the reported connections, that is, the pos-
sible effects of PA. Moreover, our sample was not representative; thus the generalis-
-
naire on the internet. The conditions in these cases were uncontrollable.
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5. Conclusion
PA, the sedentary behaviour remains high in industrialised nations (Sági et al. 2012).
-
gate PA and to choose the proper sport which boosts intrinsic motivation and makes
PA pleasant and enduring (malTBy & day 2001). Such results can help practitioners
and trainers to exploit the resources of PA more, that is, to recognise psychologic al
factors which are needed for and can be developed by PA, to choose the sport that is
most suitable for a person, to decrease dropout and to give valid information in order
to make regular PA popular. Identifying such factors might also help us to include PA
in mental healthcare and form an integrated mind-body medicine.
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