ArticlePDF Available

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal and unique association between number of years of team sport and individual sport participation during adolescence and depressive symptoms during early adulthood. Adolescents (n = 860) reported team sport and individual sport participation in each year of secondary school for five years. Participants reported depressive symptoms using the Major Depression Inventory three years after secondary school. Multivariate linear regression was performed to model the associations of sport participation with depressive symptoms while controlling for sex, age, parent education, and baseline depressive symptoms. In the final model, adolescents who consistently participated in team sport during high school reported lower depression scores in early adulthood (β = -.09, p = .02). Number of years of individual sport participation was not statistically significantly associated with depressive symptoms in early adulthood. Based on these findings, team sport participation may protect against depressive symptoms in early adulthood. If this finding is replicated, strategies should be implemented to encourage and maintain team sport participation during adolescence. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms that link team sport participation to lower depression.
105
RESEARCH NOTE
Catherine M. Sabiston, Rachel Jewett, and Garcia Ashdown-
Franks are with the Department of Kinesiology and Physical
Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Mathieu Belanger is with the Department of Family Medicine,
Université de Sherbrooke, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada.
Jennifer Brunet is with the School of Human Kinetics, Uni-
versity of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Erin O’Loughlin
is with the Department of Preventive Medicine, Concordia
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Jennifer O’Loughlin
is with the Department of Social and Preventive Medicine,
Université de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Address
author correspondence to Catherine M. Sabiston at catherine.
sabiston@utoronto.ca.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2016, 38, 105 -110
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0175
© 2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Number of Years of Team and Individual Sport
Participation During Adolescence and Depressive
Symptoms in Early Adulthood
Catherine M. Sabiston,1 Rachel Jewett,1 Garcia Ashdown-Franks,1 Mathieu Belanger,2
Jennifer Brunet,3 Erin O’Loughlin,4 and Jennifer O’Loughlin5
1University of Toronto; 2Université de Sherbrooke; 3University of Ottawa;
4Concordia University; 5Université de Montreal
The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal and unique association between number of years
of team sport and individual sport participation during adolescence and depressive symptoms during early
adulthood. Adolescents (n = 860) reported team sport and individual sport participation in each year of second-
ary school for ve years. Participants reported depressive symptoms using the Major Depression Inventory
three years after secondary school. Multivariate linear regression was performed to model the associations of
sport participation with depressive symptoms while controlling for sex, age, parent education, and baseline
depressive symptoms. In the nal model, adolescents who consistently participated in team sport during high
school reported lower depression scores in early adulthood (β = –.09, p = .02). Number of years of individual
sport participation was not statistically signicantly associated with depressive symptoms in early adulthood.
Based on these ndings, team sport participation may protect against depressive symptoms in early adult-
hood. If this nding is replicated, strategies should be implemented to encourage and maintain team sport
participation during adolescence. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms that link team
sport participation to lower depression.
Keywords: adolescent, sport, exercise psychology
Approximately 30–40% of adolescent boys and
girls age 12–19 years report moderate to high levels of
depressive symptoms (Galambos, Leadbeater, & Barker,
2004; Hankin et al., 1998), and 2–9% are diagnosed with
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD; Costello, Foley, &
Angold, 2006; Williams, O’Connor, Eder, & Whitlock,
2009; Lewinsohn, Hops, Roberts, Seeley, & Andrews,
1993). More than 50% of adolescents diagnosed with
MDD will continue to experience major depression into
adulthood (Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999).
Symptoms of depression can challenge overall health,
well-being, and quality of life (Himelhoch et al., 2004;
McIntyre et al., 2006; Judd, Schettler, & Akiskal, 2002;
Gonzalez-Tejera et al., 2005). As such, it is important
to identify and test modiable factors that may reduce
depressive symptoms in youth.
Sport participation is associated with fewer or less
severe depressive symptoms in youth (Boone & Lead-
beater, 2006; Gore, Farrell, & Gordon, 2001; Sanders,
Field, Diego, & Kaplan, 2000; Ferron, Narring, Cau-
deray, & Michaud, 1999). Brunet et al. (2013) found
that involvement in organized sport during adolescence,
but not moderate to vigorous physical activity outside
of a sport context, was associated with lower depressive
symptom scores in early adulthood. One explanation
offered for this nding was that physical activity in the
context of organized sport may foster positive mental
health by providing opportunities for social interaction
and connectedness. Similarly, Jewett et al. (2014) found
that participation in school sport was associated with
decreased depressive symptoms and stress, and higher
self-rated mental health in young adulthood. These nd-
ings also highlight the potential importance of social
factors in linking sport participation and mental health
during adolescence and young adulthood.
106 Sabiston et al.
JSEP Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016
The possible link between the social nature of sport
participation and depression has not yet been explored
longitudinally. It is possible that participation in indi-
vidual sports (i.e., participation involving people compet-
ing against others for personal goals) is less protective
than participation in team sports (i.e., involving a group
of people working together toward a shared goal) due
to the differences in the social nature of training and
participation (Eime, Young, Harvey, Charity, & Payne,
2013). In a cross-sectional study, Miller and Hoffman
(2009) compared associations between individual sport
and team sport participation and depression, and con-
cluded that the experience of playing on a team during
adolescence may contribute to the development of a
prosocial athlete identity that buffers against depression.
In another cross-sectional study, Boone and Leadbeater
(2006) showed that positive team sport involvement (i.e.,
involvement that led to skill development, and which had
warm positive coaching and fostered feelings of social
support and belonging), mediated the risk of depressive
symptoms in male and female adolescents. In a longitudi-
nal study spanning two years, Vella et al. (2014) reported
that children aged 8–10 years who participated in team
sports had greater health-related quality of life (a con-
struct that includes assessment of psychological health)
over time compared with children who only participated
in individual sports. Possible explanations included that
team sports enhance perceived social acceptance (Boone
& Leadbeater, 2006), teamwork and accountability to
others (MacDonald, Côté, Eys, & Deakin, 2012), collec-
tive goal-striving (Senécal, Loughead, & Bloom, 2008),
and emotional regulation (Vella, Oades, & Crowe, 2013).
Team sport may also be an environment conducive to
social contagion effects (Scarapicchia et al., 2013), and
may lead to more intense and more frequent physical
activity, which may improve mental health outcomes
through neurobiological inuences such as monoamine
availability and increased neurotrophic factors (Aan het
Rot, Collins, & Fitterling, 2009). Although youth can
participate in both team and individual sport, and despite
the possible differences in the social and training contexts
of team and individual sport participation, there has been
limited attention in exploring the possible differences in
their association to mental health.
Although the notion that sport participation may
protect against depression has been examined, there has
been little attention directed to the unique benets offered
by team and individual sports participation. Evaluat-
ing which type of sport participation is associated with
depression may inform sport programing that is con-
cerned with promoting mental health as well as mental
health interventions. In the current study, the longitudinal
association between participation in team and individual
sports in adolescence and depressive symptoms in early
adulthood was examined. We hypothesized that number
of years of involvement in team sport would be associated
with fewer depressive symptoms during early adulthood,
whereas no such relationship would emerge for individual
sport participation.
Method
Data for the study were drawn from the Nicotine Depen-
dence In Teens (NDIT) study, which is a prospective
cohort study of 1294 students (52% female) who were
enrolled in 1 of 10 purposefully recruited high schools
in Montreal, QC. Beginning in 1999, the rst 20 survey
cycles comprised self-report questionnaires administered
at schools every three months during the 10-month school
year for the ve years of secondary school. Additional
data were collected three years after graduation from high
school (2008–09; survey cycle 21) in mailed self-report
questionnaires completed by 880 participants. Approval
from appropriate ethics committees was obtained for the
study protocol. Further details on the study design have
been published elsewhere (O’Loughlin et al., 2014).
A total of 860 males and females who provided
complete data were included in the analytic sample.
Participants (54% female) were on average 20.4 (SD =
0.7) years of age at survey cycle 21. Mean depressive
symptoms at baseline on a scale ranging from 1 to 4 were
2.1 (SD = 0.6). There were no signicant differences in
baseline age, sex, parent education, team or individual
sport participation, or depressive symptoms between
participants retained and not retained in the analysis.
Measures
Involvement in Team and Individual Sport. Involve-
ment in team sport and individual sport was measured in
survey cycles 1 through 20 by asking participants if they
belonged to any of 12 sport teams at school (basketball,
soccer, football, track and eld, rugby, wrestling, swim-
ming, softball, cross-country ski, volleyball, gymnastics,
and hockey) and 11 sport teams outside of school (bas-
ketball, soccer, football, swimming, baseball, volleyball,
hockey, ballet/dance, aerobic classes, ski lessons, and
judo/karate). The list of sports for both individual and
team participation was based on common opportunities
in Canadian schools and recreational and community
programs at the time of the baseline assessment period.
Participants were also offered the chance of providing
responses for “other.” Response options for each sport
were yes or no. Sports were organized into team (football,
basketball, volleyball, soccer, hockey, softball, baseball,
and rugby) or individual (swim, track, gymnastics, dance,
cross-country ski, wrestling, and judo) categories based
on the primary competition context. As such, coactive
sports were included in the individual sport category
because participation requires little to no group inter-
action and coordination for the achievement of goals.
Sports listed as “other” were also categorized as team or
individual (e.g., ringette). To account for seasonal varia-
tion in opportunities for involvement and participation,
responses across a single school year (September to
June) were collapsed into a dichotomous variable (yes
or no) for each of the ve years of secondary school. As
such, both team sport and individual sport participation
scores ranged from 0 to 5 (no involvement to 5 years of
Adolescent Sports and Depressive Symptoms 107
JSEP Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016
involvement). For descriptive purposes only, participants
were also coded as involved in no sport, or team sport,
individual sport, or both team and individual sport across
the ve years of adolescence.
Depressive Symptoms. Depressive symptoms were
assessed in survey cycle 21 (three years after secondary
school) using the Major Depression Inventory (MDI;
Bech, Rasmussen, Olsen, Noerholm, & Abildgaard,
2001). Participants reported the frequency of experienc-
ing 10 depressive symptoms in the past two weeks using
a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (at no time)
to 5 (all the time). The scores for each symptom were
summed to create the MDI score that ranged from 0 to
50. For items 8 and 10 of the MDI, which each had two
possible choices (a and b), only the highest of the two
scores was used as per recommended scoring procedures
for the MDI (Bech et al., 2001). Scores on the MDI are
valid and reliable in adults (Bech et al., 2001). In the
current study, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.9.
Covariates. Potential confounders of the associations
between team and individual sport participation and
depressive symptoms assessed at survey cycle 21 included
sex (male = 1 or female = 2), age, baseline depression
symptoms, and parent education. Baseline depression
symptoms were measured using a six-item depressive symp-
toms scale at survey cycle 1 (Kandel & Davies, 1982),
for which scores have been shown to be valid and reliable
(Brunet, Sabiston, Chaiton, Low, Contreras, Barnett, &
O’Loughlin, 2014). Participants indicated the frequency
with which they experienced six symptoms related to
depression in the past 3 months on a 4-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (often). Responses were
summed and averaged to create the baseline depression
symptom score. Parental education status, used as a
proxy for socioeconomic status, was dichotomized as “no
university education” (score = 0) or “one or both parents
have some university education” (score = 1) using data
reported by parents themselves around the same time
as participants completed survey cycle 21. If data were
missing from parents, data reported by participants in
survey cycles 13 or 17 were used.
Data Analysis
Data analyses were performed in SPSS V20 (IBM Corp.,
Armonk, NY). Descriptive statistics (means, standard
deviations, Pearson correlation coefcients) were com-
puted in preliminary analyses. Hierarchical linear regres-
sion was used to model the associations of number of
years of participation in team sport and individual sport
during adolescence with depressive symptoms in early
adulthood. Covariates (sex, age, baseline depressive
symptoms, and parent education) were entered on step
1, and team and individual sport participation variables
were entered on step 2. Cohen’s f 2 (Cohen, 1988) was
calculated as f 2 = R2 ÷ (1 – R2) to provide effect size coef-
cients. In sensitivity analysis, separate models tested if
team or individual sport participation were independent
predictors of depressive symptoms. To explore the unique
effects of team and individual sport experiences, we
also tested a third model by excluding participants who
competed in both team and individual sports at any time
during adolescence.
Results
Participants reported an average of 2.4 (SD = 2.0) years
in team sport and 1.6 (SD = 1.7) years in individual sport.
In the sample, 12.6% of the participants reported no team
or individual sport participation; and 52% of the sample
reported participating in both team and individual sport
in one or more data collection cycles during adolescence.
The mean MDI score for depressive symptoms at survey
cycle 21 was 9.8 (SD = 7.8). Mean MDI scores for
participants involved in no sports (n = 108), individual
sports only (n = 103), team sports only (n = 200), or both
team and individual sports (n = 449) at any point during
adolescence were 11.08 (SD = 9.36), 11.14 (SD = 8.53),
8.73 (7.27), and 9.64 (7.51) respectively.
Years of involvement in team sport participation
during adolescence was positively correlated with years
of participation in individual sport during the same time
period (r = .22, p = .01), and negatively correlated with
depressive symptoms in early adulthood (r = –.12, p =
.01). The number of years of individual sport participa-
tion was positively, but not statistically signicantly,
correlated with depressive symptoms (r = .04, p = .30).
The regression model was statistically signicant,
F (6, 838) = 15.71, p < .001, R2 = .12, Cohen’s f = 0.14
(Table 1). After controlling for sex, age, baseline depres-
sive symptoms, and parent education, years of team sport
participation during adolescence was negatively associ-
ated with depressive symptoms in early adulthood. The
number of years of individual sport participation was
not signicantly associated with depressive symptoms
in early adulthood. The ndings were consistent when
the number of years of team (Model R2 = .11, team sport
coefcient β = – 0.09, p = .03) and individual (Model
R2 = .09, individual sport coefcient β = 0.02, p = .94)
sport participation were tested in separate models, as
well as in the subset of participants who reported experi-
ences in team or individual sport exclusively. Among the
481 participants reporting individual or team sport only
throughout adolescence, the number of years of team
sport involvement was a signicant predictor of depres-
sive symptoms (β = – 0.11, p = .03) after controlling for
the covariates whereas number of years of involvement
in individual sport was not signicant (β = 0.04, p = .39).
Discussion
The association between team sport and individual sport
participation during ve years of high school and depres-
sive symptoms three years later in early adulthood was
examined in the current study. Based on these ndings,
number of years in team sport participation, but not in
108 Sabiston et al.
JSEP Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016
individual sport participation, is longitudinally associated
with depressive symptoms after controlling for sociode-
mographic variables. Although the effects in the model
predicting depressive symptoms were small and should
be replicated, prevention efforts aimed at reducing the
prevalence and burden of depressive symptoms could be
directed at promoting consistent team sport involvement
throughout adolescence.
Consistent with the hypothesis, adolescents who
participated in more years of team sports during second-
ary school reported lower depressive symptoms in early
adulthood. Participation in sports in general has previ-
ously been associated with fewer or less severe depressive
symptoms in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
(Boone & Leadbeater, 2006; Brunet et al., 2013; Gore et
al., 2001; Sanders et al., 2000; Ferron et al., 1999). Based
on the current study results, number of years participating
in team sport may protect against depressive symptoms.
These ndings were robust in sensitivity analyses when
team and individual sport participation were tested in
separate models and when participants playing both team
and individual sport were excluded. It was also evident
in the mean values of depression symptoms, whereby
participants involved in team sport reported the lowest
MDI scores compared with peers involved in both team
and individual sport, individual sport only, or no sport.
The team sport climate offers a possible explanation for
this nding. Based on a review of the psychological and
social benets of sport participation, Eime and colleagues
(2013) suggest that due to the social nature of teams, team
sport participation contributes more strongly to positive
psychological outcomes such as lower depressive symp-
toms than individual sport participation. In addition, team
sports may reduce depressive symptoms indirectly by
fostering a positive athletic identity (Miller & Hoffman,
2009), building self-esteem (Pedersen & Seidman, 2004),
and a sense of social acceptance (Boone & Leadbeater,
2006). Further, a wide range of team sports meets
the description of vigorous intensity exercise, which
increases monoamines in the brain that help stabilize
mood (e.g., serotonin and dopamine), immune function,
and quality of life factors that are linked to mental health
(Aan het Rot, Collins, & Fitterling, 2009; Sabiston, Cas-
tonguay, Low, Barnett, Mathieu, O’Loughlin, & Lambert,
2010; Vella et al., 2014). Possible mechanisms linking
team sport participation and depressive symptoms need
to be tested in future research.
In the current study, individual sport was not statisti-
cally signicantly associated with depressive symptoms
and the beta coefcient was small suggesting that there
is little association between individual sport participa-
tion and depressive symptoms. The number of years in
individual sport participation may not be as protective
against depression as number of years of team sport expe-
riences due to lack of social connections and cohesion
that may limit improvements in self-concept, self-esteem,
and foster feelings of social isolation (Barber, Eccles, &
Stone, 2001; Eime et al., 2013; Marsh, 1993; Pedersen &
Seidman, 2004). In addition, many individual sports are
judged by others or emphasize physical appearance along
with performance (Parsons & Betz, 2001). As such, the
differences in associations of team sport and individual
sport participation with mental health may relate to sport-
specic and contextual mechanisms. In summary, and
consistent with the results of the current study, researchers
have identied weaker relationships between individual
sport participation and psychological, social, and quality
of life outcomes (Eime et al., 2013; Vella et al., 2014).
Further research efforts are needed to understand the
mechanisms that help to explain to association.
Table 1 Mean Number of Years of Team and Individual Sport
Participation During Adolescence as Predictors of Mean Depressive
Symptoms Scores During Young Adulthood (n = 844)
b (
SE
)
βR2
Step 1 0.09
Sexa3.15 (0.55) 0.20*
Age –0.18 (0.38) –0.02
Baseline depression 2.85 (0.45) 0.22*
Parent educationb–0.27 (0.24) –0.04
Step 2 0.12
Sexa2.85 (0.58) 0.18*
Age –0.10 (0.38) –0.01
Baseline depression 2.78 (0.46) 0.21*
Parent educationb–0.43 (0.25) –0.06
Years of team sport –0.33 (0.14) –0.09*
Years of individual sport participation 0.05 (0.17) 0.01
a,bSex was coded as male = 1 and female = 2. Parent education was coded as less than university education =
0 and university education = 1. *Statistically signicant at p < .05.
Adolescent Sports and Depressive Symptoms 109
JSEP Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016
Limitations of this study include use of a convenience
sample, which may limit generalizability of the results.
Data were collected using self-report measures that may
be subject to misclassication bias. The classication
of sports as team or individual may not capture social
contextual differences in participation. There may also be
a biased sample such that youth who experienced depres-
sive symptoms early in adolescence may have opted out of
team sport. Selection bias due to loss to follow-up is also
possible, although participants in the sample retained for
the analyses were not signicantly different at baseline
from those who dropped out on age, sex, parent education,
or team and individual sport participation, or depressive
symptoms. Lastly, although we controlled for several
potential confounders, unmeasured variables associated
with sport participation and depressive symptoms, such
as self-esteem, social connectedness and acceptance, and
body image may explain the observed association. There
may also be personal and contextual factors associated
with the selection of individual sport participation over
team sports that are associated with depressive symptoms.
Despite these limitations, this study has strengths includ-
ing a large sample size, low attrition rate from high school
to young adulthood, use of a longitudinal study design
spanning adolescence and early adulthood, and valid and
reliable measures used to assess depressive symptoms.
To conclude, this study is the rst to show that the
number of years of team sport participation, but not years
of involvement in individual sport, during adolescence is
associated with depressive symptoms in early adulthood.
Although replication of these ndings is necessary, they
provide support that widespread strategies need to be
implemented to help more adolescents participate, and
stay involved, in team sports to protect against depres-
sive symptoms in early adulthood. Finally, while we can
merely speculate on the social aspects inherent in team
sport participation that may be driving these associations,
future research examining the contribution of such social
aspects to the benets of team sport participation is needed.
References
Aan het Rot, M., Collins, K., & Fitterling, H.L. (2009). Physical
activity and depression. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine,
76, 204–214. doi:10.1002/msj.20094
Barber, B., Eccles, J., & Stone, M. (2001). Whatever happened
to the jock, the brain, and the princess? Young adult path-
ways linked to adolescent activity involvement and social
identity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 429–455.
doi:10.1177/0743558401165002
Bech, P., Rasmussen, N.A., Olsen, L.R., Noerholm, V., &
Abildgaard, W. (2001). The sensitivity and specicity of
the Major Depression Inventory, using the Present State
Examination as the index of diagnostic validity. Journal
of Affective Disorders, 66, 159–164. PubMed doi:10.1016/
S0165-0327(00)00309-8
Boone, E., & Leadbeater, B. (2006). Game on: Diminish-
ing risks for depressive symptoms in early adolescence
through positive involvement in team sports. Journal of
Research on Adolescence, 16, 79–90. doi:10.1111/j.1532-
7795.2006.00122.x
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C.M., Chaiton, M., Barnett, T.A.,
O’Loughlin, E., Low, N.C.P., & O’Loughlin, J. (2013).
The association between past and current physical activ-
ity and depressive symptoms in young adults: a 10-year
prospective study. Annals of Epidemiology, 23, 25–30.
PubMed doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2012.10.006
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C.M., Chaiton, M., Low, N.C.P., Con-
treras, G., Barnett, T.A., & O’Loughlin, J. (2014). Mea-
surement invariance of the depressive symptoms scale
during adolescence. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 95. PubMed
doi:10.1186/1471-244X-14-95
Cohen, J.E. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behav-
ioral Sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Costello, E.J., Foley, D.L., & Angold, A. (2006). 10-year
research update review: The epidemiology of child and
adolescent psychiatric disorders: II. Developmental epide-
miology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 8–25. PubMed doi:10.1097/01.
chi.0000184929.41423.c0
Eime, R.M., Young, J.A., Harvey, J.T., Charity, M.J., & Payne,
W.R. (2013). A systematic review of the psychological
and social benets of participation in sport for children
and adolescents: Informing development of a conceptual
model of health through sport. The International Journal
of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10, 98.
PubMed doi:10.1186/1479-5868-10-98
Ferron, C., Narring, F., Cauderay, M., & Michaud, P. (1999).
Sport activity in adolescence: Associations with health
perceptions and experimental behaviors. Health Education
Research, 14, 225–233. PubMed doi:10.1093/her/14.2.225
Galambos, N.L., Leadbeater, B.J., & Barker, E.T. (2004).
Gender differences and risk factors for depression in
adolescence: A 4-year longitudinal study. Interna-
tional Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 16–25.
doi:10.1080/01650250344000235
Gonzalez-Tejera, G., Canino, G., Ramirez, R., Chavez,
L., Shrout, P., Bird, H., & Bauermeister, J. (2005).
Examining minor and major depression in adolescents.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied
Disciplines, 46, 888–899. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1469-
7610.2005.00370.x
Gore, S., Farrell, F., & Gordon, J. (2001). Sports involvement as
protection against depressed mood. Journal of Adolescent
Research, 11, 119–130. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00006
Hankin, B., Abramson, L., Moftt, T., Silva, P., McGee, R., &
Angell, K. (1998). Development of depression from pre-
adolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differ-
ences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 107, 128–140. PubMed doi:10.1037/0021-
843X.107.1.128
Himelhoch, S., Lehman, A., Kreyenbuhl, J., Daumit, G.,
Brown, C., & Dixon, L. (2004). Prevalence of chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease among those with serious
mental illness. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161,
2317–2319. PubMed doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2317
Jewett, R., Sabiston, C.M., Brunet, J., O’Loughlin, E.K.,
Scarapicchia, T., & O’Loughlin, J. (2014). School sport
110 Sabiston et al.
JSEP Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016
participation during adolescence and mental health in
early adulthood. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 55,
640–644. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.04.018
Judd, L.L., Schettler, P.J., & Akiskal, H.S. (2002). The preva-
lence, clinical relevance, and public health signicance
of subthreshold depressions. The Psychiatric Clinics of
North America, 25, 685–698. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0193-
953X(02)00026-6
Kandel, D.B., & Davies, M. (1982). Epidemiology of depres-
sive mood in adolescents: An empirical study. Archives of
General Psychiatry, 39, 1205–1212. PubMed doi:10.1001/
archpsyc.1982.04290100065011
Lewinsohn, P.M., Hops, H., Roberts, R.E., Seeley, J.R., &
Andrews, J.A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I.
Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSMIII-
R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 102, 133–144. PubMed doi:10.1037/0021-
843X.102.1.133
Lewinsohn, P.M., Rohde, P., Klein, D.N., & Seeley, J.R. (1999).
Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder: I.
Continuity into young adulthood. Journal of the American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 56–63.
PubMed doi:10.1097/00004583-199901000-00020
Marsh, H. (1993). The effects of participation in sport during the
last two years of high school. Sociology of Sport Journal,
10, 18–43 Retrieved from http://journals.humankinetics.
com/ssj.
MacDonald, D.J., Côté, J., Eys, M., & Deakin, J. (2012). Psy-
chometric properties of the youth experience survey with
young athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13,
332–340. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.09.001
McIntyre, R.S., Konarski, J.Z., Soczynska, J.K., Wilkins, K.,
Panjwani, G., & Bouffard, B. . . . Kennedy, S.H. (2006).
Medical comorbidity in bipolar disorder: Implications for
functional outcomes and health service utilization. Psy-
chiatric Services, 57, 1140-1144. Retrieved from http://
ps.psychiatryonline.org/
Miller, K., & Hoffman, J. (2009). Mental well-being and sport-
related identities in college students. Sociology of Sport
Journal, 26, 335–356 Retrieved from http://journals.
humankinetics.com/ssj. PubMed
O’Loughlin, J., Dugas, E.N., Brunet, J., DiFranza, J., Engert,
J.C., Gervais, A., . . . Paradis, G. (2014). Cohort prole:
The Nicotine Dependence in Teens (NDIT) Study. Inter-
national Journal of Epidemiology. PubMed
Parsons, E.M., & Betz, N.E. (2001). The relationship of partici-
pation in sports and physical activity to body objectica-
tion, instrumentality, and locus of control among young
women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 209–222.
doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00022
Pedersen, S., & Seidman, E. (2004). Team sports achievement
and self-esteem development among urban adolescent
girls. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 412–422.
doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00158.x
Sabiston, C.M., Castonguay, A., Low, N., Barnett, T., Mathieu,
M., O’Loughlin, J., & Lambert, M. (2010). Vigorous
physical activity and low-grade systemic inflamma-
tion in adolescent boys and girls. International Jour-
nal of Pediatric Obesity; IJPO, 5, 509–515. PubMed
doi:10.3109/17477160903572019
Sanders, C., Field, T., Diego, M., & Kaplan, M. (2000). Mod-
erate involvement in sports is related to lower depression
levels among adolescents. Adolescence, 35, 793–798.
PubMed
Scarapicchia, T.M.F., Sabiston, C.M., Anderson, R.E., & Garcia
Bengoechea, E. (2013). The motivational effects of social
contagion on exercise participation in young female adults.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35, 563–575.
Senécal, J., Loughead, T., & Bloom, G.A. (2008). A season-
long team-building intervention: Examining the effect of
team goal setting on cohesion. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 30, 186–199.
Vella, S.A., Cliff, D.P., Magee, C.A., & Okely, A.D. (2014).
Sports participation and parent-reported health-related
quality of life in children: Longitudinal association.
The Journal of Pediatrics, 164, 1469–1474. PubMed
doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.01.071
Vella, S.A., Oades, L.G., & Crowe, T.P. (2013). A pilot test of
transformational leadership training for sports coaches:
Impact on the developmental experiences of adolescent
athletes. International Journal of Sports Science & Coach-
ing, 8(3), 513–530. doi:10.1260/1747-9541.8.3.513
Williams, S.B., O’Connor, E.A., Eder, M., & Whitlock, E.P.
(2009). Screening for child and adolescent depression in
primary care settings: A systematic evidence review for
the US Preventive Services Task Force. Pediatrics, 123,
e716–e735. PubMed doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2415
Manuscript submitted: June 30, 2015
Revision accepted: October 21, 2015
CopyrightofJournalofSport&ExercisePsychologyisthepropertyofHumanKinetics
Publishers,Inc.anditscontentmaynotbecopiedoremailedtomultiplesitesorpostedtoa
listservwithoutthecopyrightholder'sexpresswrittenpermission.However,usersmayprint,
download,oremailarticlesforindividualuse.
... entre las escalas construidas específicamente para evaluar conductas de sexting, puede mencionarse la desarrollada por national Campaign to prevent teen and unplanned pregnancy (nCpTup) [52], que presentaba dos subescalas (de 7 ítems cada una) para evaluar por separado el envío de mensajes de texto y el envío de fotos y/o vídeos de contenido erótico. sin embargo, no se han presentado sus propiedades psicométricas, ni las adaptaciones realizadas por lee et al. [31] o Fleschler et al. [17]. por otro lado, Weisskirch y delevi [55] construyeron una escala de conducta de sexting que ha mostrado propiedades psicométricas favorables para los 5 ítems que la componen. ...
... con un rango de edad entre 18 y 65 años. en cuanto al nivel de estudios, el 6.4 % de la prueba recibió educación primaria, el 31 Sexting. para estudiarlo se usó la escala de sexting que suele consistir en una serie de preguntas (véase la tabla) que evalúan la frecuencia y los tipos de conductas de sexting de los individuos. ...
... Los resultados de un metaanálisis donde se estudiaron asociaciones entre la ansiedad competitiva, características del deportista y contexto deportivo, evidenciaron que aquellos individuos que practican deportes individuales tienden a mostrar mayores niveles de ansiedad que quienes practican deportes en equipo; y la razón por la que esto sucedía era la responsabilidad de lograr resultados que dependen exclusivamente de sí mismos, mientras que aquellos que practican deportes en equipo compartirían esta responsabilidad con los otros miembros del equipo [28]. Por último, los hallazgos de un estudio que examinó la asociación longitudinal entre el número de años de participación en deportes de equipo y deportes individuales durante la adolescencia, y los síntomas depresivos en la adultez temprana, informaron menos síntomas depresivos en aquellas personas que habían practicado deportes en equipo, en relación con las que habían realizado deportes individuales [31]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Con los avances tecnológicos y el uso generalizado de internet, las redes sociales y los teléfonos móviles, han surgido nuevos comportamientos que se consideran prácticas sexuales actuales. Uno de estos nuevos comportamientos es el "Sexting", definido como el acto de recibir, enviar o reenviar mensajes de texto, imágenes o fotografías con contenido sexual explícito a través de internet o del teléfono móvil. Esta nueva práctica se ha asociado más a menudo con las generaciones más jóvenes que con la población adulta. El objetivo principal de este estudio es analizar la frecuencia de conductas de Sexting entre adultos de la sociedad argentina, evaluando también las diferencias según género y edad. Otro objetivo del estudio es examinar las relaciones entre el Sexting y los niveles de miedo a perderse algo (Fear of Missing Out, FoMo) y de inteligencia emocional de los participantes. El estudio se realizó sobre una muestra de 1020 adultos de entre 18 y 65 años, con una edad media de 42,29 años; con el 59,01% (n = 602) de mujeres y el 40,99% (n = 418) de hombres. Este estudio revela diferencias estadísticamente significativas en las prácticas de Sexting según el género y la edad de los participantes. Además, muestra que el Sexting se correlaciona con altos niveles de FoMo y de inteligencia emocional.
... For example, the relationship between sport participation and mental health is stronger among team versus individual participants (Murray et al., 2021a;pluhar et al., 2019). Specifically, the social climate and connectedness experienced when engaged in team sports reportedly combats isolation and reduces negative mental health consequences such as anxiety and depression during youth development and into adulthood, compared to individual sports (Sabiston et al., 2016;Vella et al., 2017). participation in team sports is also linked with improved social skills, support, teamwork, emotional regulation, social capital, and feelings of social identity (Bruner et al., 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Within the sport context, critical social agents, such as coaches and peers have a significant impact on youth developmental outcomes as well as participation decisions. While youth’s interpersonal relationships with coaches and peers in sport have received considerable attention, to-date, there remains a lack of research examining the impact of such dynamics for youth development and participation decisions according to sport type. The purpose of this study therefore was to explore youth’s relationships with coaches and peers in individual and team sports and the perceived influence of such dynamics on their developmental experiences and participation decisions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 youth athletes (10 boys and 10 girls), 13-19 years of age and data were analyzed through a reflexive thematic analysis approach. Regardless of sport type, all athletes highlighted the critical importance of coaches and peers for youth development and participation decisions. However, team sports were perceived to better satisfy youth’s developmental outcomes, such as meaningful connections, fun and enjoyment, athletic worth, and motivation and interest. The lack of connections beyond the coach-athlete relationship in individual sports reportedly contributed to decisions to leave sport. To optimize positive developmental experiences and sport participation for youth, coaches are encouraged to prioritize opportunities for youth to experience interpersonal connections with peers; specifically, nurturing peer connections beyond competition outcomes in individual sports remains an important area of interest. Recommendations for future research and practice are suggested.
Article
Research concerning sexual and gender minority inclusion in sport has primarily focused on cisgender and binary transgender participants. Participation in organized team sport among nonbinary people is understudied. The goal of this study was to identify the barriers nonbinary people face to entering and remaining in organized team sports in Canada. The Understanding Affirming Communities, Relationships and Networks Study surveyed 6495 15-29-year-olds in Canada, including 2513 nonbinary (encompassing genderqueer, agender, third gender and trans nonbinary) and 1929 cisgender respondents. A smaller proportion of nonbinary respondents (11%) participated in team sport compared to cisgender respondents (18%) (p = 0.001). More nonbinary respondents (62%) have played a sport and then stopped compared to cisgender respondents (57%) (p = 0.0008). The most commonly reported reason nonbinary people felt unsafe in sport was discriminatory comments, with >50% witnessing homophobic, transphobic, and/or sexist comments. Structural and policy changes by organizers, administrators, and coaches can support the inclusion of nonbinary people in organized team sports.
Article
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Recovery after sport-related concussion is variable, and potential differences between team vs individual sport athletes are not fully understood. In a cohort of athletes with concussions, we sought to compare these groups across (1) symptom severity score, (2) individual symptom cluster scores, and (3) recovery metrics. METHODS A retrospective, cohort study of 13 to 23-year-old athletes treated at a regional sport concussion center between November 2017 and April 2022 was conducted. Athletes were categorized into team vs individual sport athletes, with additional classification of individual sports based on strong vs minimal team elements (ie, the degree of interdependence displayed by athletes). The primary outcomes were symptom severity score, measured by either the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool-5th Edition or the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing, and physical, cognitive, emotional, and sleep symptom cluster scores. Secondary outcomes were recovery metrics, including time to return-to-learn, symptom resolution, and return-to-play. RESULTS Of the 1051 athletes, 954 (90.8%) were in team sports and 97 (9.2%) in individual sports. In multivariable linear regression, individual sport athletes had higher emotional symptom severity compared with team sport athletes (β = 0.09 [0.01, 0.17], P = .034) when adjusting for sex, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, psychological disorders, time to clinic, on-field evaluation, and Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing vs Sport Concussion Assessment Tool-5 th Edition scale. There were no significant differences in return-to-learn ( P = .104), symptom resolution ( P = .941), or return-to-play ( P = .279) on univariate regressions. CONCLUSION In the current single-center, pilot study of athletes with a sport-related concussion, individual sport athletes exhibited more emotional symptoms than team sport athletes. These preliminary data lend early support that individual sport athletes may be more at risk of emotional symptoms than team sport athletes after a sport-related concussion. Clinicians may use these findings to identify athletes who may be particularly vulnerable to emotional symptoms.
Article
Full-text available
This study examined whether sustained yoga-based intervention with secondary school students mitigated examination stress and built their academic confidence. A 2-year multicity repeated measures design was used. Secondary schoolers in select Asian and African cities were randomly allocated to the yoga education program (YEP) and the control group. Two scales were used to measure the outcomes: Test Anxiety Scale and Academic Behavioral Confidence Scale. The YEP was effective and specifically so for students from Asian cities, girls, middle class, Hindus and Buddhists, pupils of international schools, and whose mothers were their primary caregivers. Attendance of the YEP lessons and regular self-practice were significant predictors of the outcomes. The YEP can be incorporated in the curricular schedules of secondary school students with some variations based on cultural and ethnic belief systems, gender, and family backgrounds.
Article
Objectives Depression is one of the most prevalent diseases worldwide, with almost half of the adolescent population affected according to latest research. Given this serious burden of disease, research points towards interventions that could effectively fight this disease in this population subset. One of these pivotal interventions is physical activity, although the effects of different sport types and sport performance level on depression has not yet been studied in adolescent populations. Accordingly, the objective of the current study was to assess the relationship between depressive symptoms, sport type and performance level in a large adolescent population. Design Cros-sectional study assessing a large cohort of adolescents through self-reported data. Methods 10,248 participants aged 11–19 years old answered questionnaires regarding depressive symptoms and sporting habits and were classified according to their sports performance level: from physically inactive to internationally competitive. Results Girls reported higher incidence of depressive symptoms than boys, difference that further increased during late adolescence. Performance level was related to depressive symptoms: inactive participants reported the highest depressive scores while internationally competitive athletes reported the lowest. However, there were no differences between competitive athletes of different performance levels. Further, sport type had a small influence on depressive symptoms. Conclusions All these findings result in a potential guideline for future research and community health recommendations: as long as sufficient physical activity levels are met and the adolescent engages in sporting activities, the protection against depressive symptoms remains largely unrelated to the sport type and the level at which he or she performs.
Article
Team-based physical activity (PA) can improve social cognition; however, few studies have investigated the neurobiological mechanism underlying this benefit. Accordingly, a hyper-scanning protocol aimed to determine whether the interbrain synchrony (IBS) is influenced by an acute bout of team-based PA (i.e., tandem rope skipping). Specifically, we had socially avoidant participants (SOA, N=15 dyads) and their age-Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation
Article
Full-text available
Data were collected on the point and lifetime prevalences, 1-year incidence, and comorbidity of depression with other disorders (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [3rd ed., rev.]) in a randomly selected sample (n = 1,710) of high school students at point of entry and at 1-year follow-up (n = 1,508). The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children was used to collect diagnostic information; 9.6% met criteria for a current disorder, more than 33% had experienced a disorder over their lifetimes, and 31.7% of the latter had experienced a second disorder. High relapse rates were found for all disorders, especially for unipolar depression (18.4%) and substance use (15.0%). Female subjects had significantly higher rates at all age levels for unipolar depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and adjustment disorders; male subjects had higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders.
Article
Full-text available
This study examined (1) the factor structure of a depressive symptoms scale (DSS), (2) the sex and longitudinal invariance of the DSS, and (3) the predictive validity of the DSS scale during adolescence in terms of predicting depression and anxiety symptoms in early adulthood. Data were drawn from the Nicotine Dependence in Teens (NDIT) study, an ongoing prospective cohort study of 1,293 adolescents. The analytical sample included 527 participants who provided complete data or had minimal missing data over follow-up. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that an intercorrelated three-factor model with somatic, depressive, and anxiety factors provided the best fit. Further, this model was invariant across sex and time. Finally, DSS scores at Time 3 correlated significantly with depressive and anxiety symptoms measured at Time 4. Results suggest that the DSS is multidimensional and that it is a suitable instrument to examine sex differences in somatic, depressive, and anxiety symptoms, as well as changes in these symptoms over time in adolescents. In addition, it could be used to identify individuals at-risk of psychopathology during early adulthood.
Article
Full-text available
Young inactive healthy-weight females (n = 42) were randomly assigned to exercise at a self-selected pace on a treadmill beside a confederate who was providing either intrinsic or externally regulated verbal primes. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), percentage of time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and exercise continuance were recorded. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire assessing mood pre- and postexercise session and postexercise motivational outcomes. The intrinsic motivation group reported higher RPE values after 8 min of exercise, had higher recorded HR measures at all 5 recorded time points, exercised at a higher %HR max, spent more time in MVPA, and were more likely to continue to exercise than participants in the externally regulated motivation group. A time effect was noted for vigor. Based on these findings, exercise motivation can be "contagious" through verbal primes, suggesting that exercising with or around intrinsically motivated individuals may have beneficial outcomes.
Article
Full-text available
There are specific guidelines regarding the level of physical activity (PA) required to provide health benefits. However, the research underpinning these PA guidelines does not address the element of social health. Furthermore, there is insufficient evidence about the levels or types of PA associated specifically with psychological health. This paper first presents the results of a systematic review of the psychological and social health benefits of participation in sport by children and adolescents. Secondly, the information arising from the systematic review has been used to develop a conceptual model. A systematic review of 14 electronic databases was conducted in June 2012, and studies published since 1990 were considered for inclusion. Studies that addressed mental and/or social health benefits from participation in sport were included. A total of 3668 publications were initially identified, of which 30 met the selection criteria. There were many different psychological and social health benefits reported, with the most commonly being improved self-esteem, social interaction followed by fewer depressive symptoms. Sport may be associated with improved psychosocial health above and beyond improvements attributable to participation in PA. Specifically, team sport seems to be associated with improved health outcomes compared to individual activities, due to the social nature of the participation. A conceptual model, Health through Sport, is proposed. The model depicts the relationship between psychological, psychosocial and social health domains, and their positive associations with sport participation, as reported in the literature. However, it is acknowledged that the capacity to determine the existence and direction of causal links between participation and health is limited by the fact that the majority of studies identified (n=21) were cross-sectional. It is recommended that community sport participation is advocated as a form of leisure time PA for children and adolescents, in an effort to not only improve physical health in relation to such matters as the obesity crisis, but also to enhance psychological and social health outcomes. It is also recommended that the causal link between participation in sport and psychosocial health be further investigated and the conceptual model of Health through Sport tested.
Article
Full-text available
The authors investigated the emergence of gender differences in clinical depression and the overall development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood among members of a complete birth cohort using a prospective longitudinal approach with structured diagnostic interviews administered 5 times over the course of 10 years. Small gender differences in depression (females greater than males) first began to emerge between the ages of 13 and 15. However, the greatest increase in this gender difference occurred between ages 15 and 18. Depression rates and accompanying gender differences for a university student subsample were no different than for a nonuniversity subsample. There was no gender difference for depression recurrence or for depression symptom severity. The peak increase in both overall rates of depression and new cases of depression occurred between the ages of 15 and 18. Results suggest that middle-to-late adolescence (ages 15–18) may be a critical time for studying vulnerability to depression because of the higher depression rates and the greater risk for depression onset and dramatic increase in gender differences in depression during this period.
Article
Full-text available
This study examined young adult sequelae of participation in high school activities and identity group for 900 participants from the Michigan Study of Life Transitions.Participation at Grade 10 in high school activities predicted later substance use, psychological adjustment, and educational and occupational outcomes.Prosocial activity participation predicted lower substance use and higher self-esteem and an increased likelihood of college graduation.Performing arts participation predicted more years of education as well as increases in drinking between ages 18 and 21 and higher rates of suicide attempts and psychologist visits by the age of 24.Sports participation predicted positive educational and occupational outcomes and lower levels of social isolation but also higher rates of drinking. Breakfast Club identity categories were predictive of both levels and longitudinal patterns in substance use, education and work outcomes, and psychological adjustment.In general, Jocks and Brains showed the most positive adjustment and Criminals the least.
Article
The effects of participation in sport during the last 2 years of high school were examined by use of the nationally (United States) representative High School and Beyond data collected between 1980 and 1984. After background variables and outcomes collected during the sophomore year of high school were controlled for, sport participation positively affected 14 of 22 senior and postsecondary outcomes (e.g., social and academic self-concept, educational aspirations, course work selection, homework, reduced absenteeism, and subsequent college attendance) and had no negative effects on the remaining 8 variables. These positive effects were robust, generalizing across individual characteristics (race, socioeconomic status, sex, and ability level), school size, and school climates (academic, social, and sport). The positive effects of sport participation were mediated by academic self-concept and educational aspirations, supporting the proposal that sport participation enhances identification with the school.
Article
This study investigated the impact of a transformational leadership training program for youth sport coaches on adolescent athletes' perceptions of transformational leadership and positive developmental experiences. The transformational leadership training program was associated with higher rates of perceived transformational leadership behaviour at follow-up when compared to baseline measures. Importantly, these increases were associated with significantly higher rates of self-reported developmental experiences. Coach training was associated with a predictability and reliability to athlete outcomes that was not evident in athletes of a comparison group. Transformational leadership may provide a theoretically sound foundation for coaching practice and education in the service of facilitating positive developmental outcomes for athletes.
Article
Purpose: This longitudinal study examined the association between participation in school sport during adolescence and mental health in early adulthood. Methods: Adolescents (n = 853) reported participation in school sport in each grade throughout the 5 years of secondary school. In early adulthood, participants reported depressive symptoms, level of stress, and self-rated mental health. Results: Involvement in school sport during adolescence was a statistically significant predictor of lower depression symptoms, lower perceived stress, and higher self-rated mental health in young adulthood. Conclusions: School sport participation may protect against poor mental health in early adulthood. Policies to increase school sport participation may be warranted as part of public health strategies to promote mental health.
Article
To investigate the longitudinal association between sports participation and parent-reported health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in children. Cohort study that used data drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children in waves 3 (2008) and 4 (2010). Participants were a nationally representative sample of 4042 Australian children ages 8.25 (SD = 0.44) years at baseline and followed-up 24 months later. After we adjusted for multiple covariates, children who continued to participate in sports between the ages of 8 and 10 years had greater parent-reported HRQOL at age 10 (Eta(2) = .02) compared with children who did not participate in sports (P ≤ .001), children who commenced participation after 8 years of age (P = .004), and children who dropped out of sports before reaching 10 years of age (P = .04). Children who participated in both team and individual sports (P = .02) or team sports alone (P = .04) had greater HRQOL compared with children who participated in individual sports alone (Eta(2) = .01). The benefits of sports participation were strongest for girls (P < .05; Eta(2) = .003). Children's participation in developmentally appropriate team sports helps to protect HRQOL and should be encouraged at an early age and maintained for as long as possible.