Content uploaded by Giovanni Caudullo
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Giovanni Caudullo on Jan 24, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
European Atlas of Forest Tree Species | Tree species
160
< 25%
25% - 50%
50% - 75%
> 75%
Native
Chorology
Frequency
Uncertain, no-data
Marginal/no presence < 5%
Low presence 5% - 10%
Mid-low presence 10% - 30%
Medium presence 30% - 50%
Mid-high presence 50% - 70%
High presence 70% - 90%
Very-high presence > 90%
Annual precipitation (mm)
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats
E. Eaton, G. Caudullo, S. Oliveira, D. de Rigo
Quercus robur L., (pedunculate oak) and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., (sessile oak) are common broadleaved tree
species in Europe, found from Scandinavia to the Iberian Peninsula. The two species are quite similar in appearance and
have a broadly overlapping range. Oak trees have cultural significance for people throughout Europe and the trees or
leaves are frequently used in national or regional symbols. Oak trees can live for more than 1 000 years and grow to
be 30 to 40 m in height. The wood from oaks is hard and durable and has been valued for centuries. It is favoured for
construction and for wine and spirit barrels; historically it was a major source of ship timbers. Recently, concerns have
arisen about the fate of oaks in the face of Acute Oak Decline, a little understood syndrome.
Quercus robur L., known as pedunculate or English oak, and
Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., known as sessile oak, are large,
rugged, deciduous broadleaved trees, native to most of Europe.
Individuals can be very long-lived (over 1 000 years in some cases)
and become large (over 40 m tall), attaining diameters of three to
four metres1-3. More usually, these oaks achieve a height of 30 m
and diameters of up to 1 m4. These two tree species, as well as
other oaks, are very variable morphologically, and can naturally
hybridise, generating individuals showing intermediate traits or
the prevalence of one, so that it can be difficult to characterise
them unequivocally by observations alone5, 6. The main trunk of
Q. robur tends to disappear in the crown, developing irregular
boughs with twisting branches, while Q. petraea usually develops
a main stem with boughs gradually deceasing in size7. The barks
are grey, fissured, forming rectangular elongate blocks, which
are thicker in Q. robur, while those of Q. petraea often tend to
exfoliate7. The leaves are simple, obovate-oblong and deeply and
irregularly lobed, with a short stalk (2-7 mm) in Q. robur and a
long stalk (13-25 mm) in Q. petraea. These oaks are monoecious
and wind-pollinated, with drooping male flowers in yellow catkins
about 5 cm long and inconspicuous globular female flowers of
1 mm at terminal shots, which appear just after the first leaves
have flushed8. The fruits are the acorns, which are often in pairs
and sit in scaly cups on the ends of long stalks in Q. robur and
on short or absent stalks in Q. petraea, giving rise to its common
name “sessile”, meaning “stalkless”. The acorns are very variable
in size and shape, but those of Q. robur are usually smaller
and rounded with olive-green longitudinal stripes visible when
fresh7. Mammals and birds are important for the seed dispersal,
especially the Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius) which can be
considered the primary propagator9, 10.
Distribution
Both oaks occur widely across most of Europe, reaching
northwards to southern Norway and Sweden, and southwards to
the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, South Italy, the Balkan
Peninsula and Turkey. They are sympatric in many parts of their
range. Q. robur has a more extended distribution, reaching more
northerly ranges on the Norwegian coast and in northern Scotland;
in Mediterranean areas it is also present in Portugal, Greece and
South Turkey, and eastwards into continental central Russia, up to
the Urals7, 11 . The southerly range limits are difficult to define, as
these oaks can mix, compete and naturally hybridise with other
Mediterranean oaks, such as Quercus pubescens and Quercus
frainetto, even if at relatively low rates12. Both oaks occur at
higher elevations in southern regions: Q. robur is recorded to grow
up to 1 300 m in the Alps13, while Q. petraea is more montane
and in southern Turkey can reach over 2 000 m4 , 14, 15 . Due to the
substantial human interest and usage of the species over many
centuries, there is widespread disturbance in their distribution, and
the structure of their original forests is highly uncertain16. Q. robur
has been introduced into the United States for timber production
and in some areas it has naturalised; more recently they have been
exported into other continents as ornamental trees17, 1 8.
Habitat and Ecology
Q. robur and Q. petraea co-occur at many sites as a main
component of temperate deciduous mixed forests, and they
share several common characteristics. These oaks are vigorous
trees with a large ecological amplitude, although they prefer
fertile and moist soils, and are able to dominate forests in
number and size at low-mid elevations19. Both are able to behave
as pioneer trees, the acorns possessing large reserves and
able to survive amongst grasses whilst developing sufficiently
deep roots to allow rapid shoot growth2, 10. As these trees do
not come into leaf until relatively late in the year (late April
to early May), late frost damage is rarely a problem, unless
the temperatures reach -3 °C killing new foliage2, 10. Sustained
temperatures below -6 °C in winter can kill acorns, despite the
epicotyl requiring some chilling to break its dormancy10. Both
oaks have a good re-sprouting aptitude, so they coppice and
pollard easily2, 7. Their deep and penetrating taproots (more
developed in Q. petraea) give them structural stability against
windthrow and allow them to withstand moderate droughts by
accessing deeper water2, 10. However, in conditions far from their
optimum, they show ecological differences. The tendency is for
Q. robur to grow on heavier soils in more continental climates, in
wet lowlands and damp areas by streams and rivers, tolerating
periodic flooding. The more drought tolerant Q. petraea prefers
to grow in more Atlantic climates on light and well-drained, often
rocky, soils (hence the specific Latin name petraea = of rocky
places), generally occurring on slopes and hill tops, and preferring
a more acid soil pH2, 7, 10, 15, 20 . They are both light-demanding
trees (Q. robur more so than Q. petraea)2, 10, and their canopies
permit a good deal of light to pass through to the undergrowth,
promoting the regeneration of many tree species and enriching
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea
Stalkless acorns of sessile oak (Quercus petraea).
(Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)
Acorn of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) with long stalk.
(Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)
Map 1-A: Plot distribution map (Q. robur).
Frequency of Quercus robur occurrences within the field observations as
reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native
spatial range for Q. robur is derived after EUFORGEN45.
Map 2-A: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for Quercus robur.
JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 160JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 160 05/07/2021 17:1405/07/2021 17:14
Tree species | European Atlas of Forest Tree Species 161
Uncertain, no-data
Tundra, cold desert
Negligible survivability
Low survivability
Mid-low survivability
Medium survivability
Mid-high survivability
High survivability
Annual average temperature (°C) Potential spring-summer solar irradiation (kWh m-2)
Annual precipitation (mm)
Average temperature of the coldest month (°C)
Sum of precipitation of the driest month (mm)
Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation (dimensionless)
Field data in Europe (including absences) Observed presences in Europe
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea
forest diversity19. These oaks rarely form pure forests under
natural conditions. Their substantial competitor is represented
by beech (Fagus sylvatica) and in a minor way other shade or
half-shade trees, in the presence of which the oaks are unable
to predominate as they are at a disadvantage. Typically, oaks
dominate in damp to wet and nutrient-rich soils, where they
occur principally with hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and other
deciduous tree species such as ash (Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus
angustifolia), maple (Acer campestre, Acer platanoides) and
small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata). In these oak-hornbeam forest
communities, assigned to the Carpinion betuli alliance, beech is
out of its range, or replaced as the soils are relatively dry and
warm or too wet. On warmer dry sites in sub-Mediterranean
regions, Q. petraea tends to mix with Q. pubescens and with other
drought-tolerant tree species, forming communities belonging to
the order of Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae. In poor and acid
soils, where beech is unable to regenerate, oaks form mixed
forests belonging to Quercetea robori-petraea communities,
which are relatively small and scattered inside the beech range.
Oaks are also present in many other forest types as secondary
species, principally in beech forests at low elevations, where soils
and climate conditions are still favourable to oaks19, 21, 22 .
Importance and Usage
Since the earliest times, these oaks have held an important
role in human culture in Europe, providing wood for fuel, acorns
for livestock, bark for tanning, and timber for construction. From
the Greeks to the Germans, Slavs and Celts, the oak was a sacred
tree15 and this is why oak is frequently a national or regional
symbol, e.g. it has appeared on German, Croatian and British
coins, and in the coat of arms of Bulgaria. The increasing demand
for oak wood products and the reduction of natural forests have
influenced the development of modern silviculture23. Due to their
capacity to produce large volumes of valuable timber, oak stands
are frequently managed either as high forest or as coppice with
standards23-27. Pedunculate and sessile oaks are amongst the
most economically important deciduous forest trees in Europe,
providing high quality hardwood for construction and furniture
manufacture2. Q. petraea wood is largely indistinguishable from
that of Q. robur and is particularly appreciated for its straight
grain, its durability thanks to its hardness, and its high tannin
content, which makes it resistant to insect and fungal attacks28, 29 .
Oaks have traditionally been used in timber-framed buildings,
as well as for fencing, gates and mining timber, and in the past
it was the most important wood used in the manufacture of
wooden sailing vessels7. Furniture, floor-boards, panelling, joinery
and veneer are also important uses of the wood10. As the wood
is resistant to liquids, it has been used for barrels for wines and
spirits, where the flavour imparted by the wood is often much
desired13, 30 . The most valuable oak wood has narrow rings and is
produced in high mixed forests on fertile sites with long economic
rotations (about 160 years of age for Q. petraea, about 130
years for Q. robur)2. Successful oak silviculture requires particular
attention, selecting the proper deciduous tree species mixture,
proportion and density, which strongly influence the wood quality
with regard to tree diameters, ring widths and the presence of
wood knots formed by lateral epicormic shoots. Choice of site
and management is also important to minimise the number of
trees with ‘shake’ (the development of circular or radial cracks
through the timber, which substantially reduces its value and
which is influenced by a number of factors including soil type and
mechanical stresses)10, 31, 32 . Furthermore promoting an abundant
and uniform natural regeneration is also crucial10, 15, 20, 33 , 34 .
In coppices, oaks provide a valuable source of firewood and
charcoal, and in the past the bark has been much used in the
tanning of leather10. Several cultivars have been selected for
ornamental purposes, especially from Q. robur, and exported
all over the world. Oaks are particularly appreciated as park or
roadside trees for their size and shade. Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’
is one of the most common cultivars, large in size and with a
columnar cypress-like habit; Quercus petraea ‘Laciniata’ has
long narrow and deeply incised leaves4. These tree species also
have an important ecological role, as they support many species
of insects such as moths, wood-boring beetles and gall-forming
hymenoptera, and the acorns provide a valuable food source for
many birds and mammals, such as jays, mice, squirrels and pigs10.
Threats and Diseases
Defoliation of the first flush of leaves is common by
several caterpillars, e.g. Tortrix viridana, Lymantria dispar,
Operophtera brumata2. A second leaf crop (known as ’St John’s’
or ’Lammas’ growth, depending on its timing) is usual. As a result
of particularly heavy infestations, especially when combined
with oak mildew (Erysiphe alphitoides syn. Microsphaera
alphitoides), an oak’s productivity can be seriously limited, as
the mildew covers the remaining leaf surfaces, preventing light
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea
Bud of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in late winter.
(Copyright Sten Porse, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)
Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field
observations from forest plots for Quercus robur.
Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability for Quercus robur.
Large pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in Dunkeld Hilton park (Scotland).
(Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)
JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 161JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 161 05/07/2021 17:1405/07/2021 17:14
European Atlas of Forest Tree Species | Tree species
162
< 25%
25% - 50%
50% - 75%
> 75%
Native
Chorology
Frequency
Annual precipitation (mm)
Uncertain, no-data
Marginal/no presence < 5%
Low presence 5% - 10%
Mid-low presence 10% - 30%
Medium presence 30% - 50%
Mid-high presence 50% - 70%
High presence 70% - 90%
Very-high presence > 90%
reaching them7, 10 . In recent years, oak processionary moth
(Thaumetopoea processionea) has spread from its native
habitat in southern Europe further north35. This caterpillar
defoliates oaks and sheds micro hairs that are a serious irritant
to the human respiratory system, eyes and skin. Knopper gall
wasps (Andricus quercuscalicis) cause some damage to acorn
crops36. Young oak trees often have their bark stripped by grey
squirrels10. Pedunculate and sessile oaks are vulnerable to
Lymantria dispar and moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria
parasitica37. They both suffer because of root pathogens of the
oomycete genus Phytophthora (P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum, P.
quercina)37. Phytophthora ramorum has been known to cause
extensive damage and mortality in North America, known as
Sudden Oak Death. Although this pathogen has been detected
in Europe, it has not yet had a substantial effect on native
European oaks and it is under observation38. Acute Oak Decline
is a new syndrome affecting principally pedunculate and sessile
oaks, and this has become a more widely recognised problem in
recent years. It is characterised by a decrease in the density of
the crown, the appearance of dark oozing wounds (’bleeds’) on
the trunk, and in most cases the presence of the jewel beetle
Agrilus biguttatus. This syndrome can kill trees over the course
of a number of years39. Whilst not yet fully understood, it may
be the consequence of an assemblage of contributing human,
environmental and biotic factors, such as lowering ground water
table or absence of flooding, air and water pollution, non-adapted
silvicultural practices, and climate change (e.g. 40-44).
Quercus robur and Quercus petraeaQuercus robur and Quercus petraea
Bark of a sessile oak (Quercus petraea).
(Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)
Maturing catkins of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in spring.
(Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)
300 year old sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Rigney (eastern France).
(Copyright Arnaud 25, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)
Map 1-B: Plot distribution map (Quercus petraea).
Frequency of Quercus petraea occurrences within the field observations
as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native
spatial range for Q. petraea is derived after EUFORGEN46.
Map 2-B: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for Quercus petraea.
JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 162JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 162 05/07/2021 17:1405/07/2021 17:14
Tree species | European Atlas of Forest Tree Species 163
Annual average temperature (°C) Potential spring-summer solar irradiation (kWh m-2)
Annual precipitation (mm)
Average temperature of the coldest month (°C)
Sum of precipitation of the driest month (mm)
Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation (dimensionless)
Field data in Europe (including absences) Observed presences in Europe
Quercus robur and Quercus petraeaQuercus robur and Quercus petraea
This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of
this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at
https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01c6df. The purpose of this
summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related
main topics.
This QR code points to the full online version, where the most
updated content may be freely accessed.
Please, cite as:
Eaton, E., Caudullo, G., Oliveira, S., de Rigo, D., 2016. Quercus robur
and Quercus petraea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage
and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G.,
Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree
Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01c6df+
References
[1] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees
(2015).
[2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of
forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013).
[3] I. Colin Prentice, H. Helmisaari, Forest
Ecology and Management 42, 79 (1991).
[4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide
(Collins, 2006).
[5] G. Aas, Annales des sciences forestières
50, 107s (1993).
[6] J. Jensen, A. Larsen, L. R. Nielsen,
J. Cottrell, Annals of Forest Science 66,
706 (2009).
[7] E. W. Jones, Journal of Ecology 47 (1959).
[8] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen,
C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of
Britain and northern Europe (Collins,
1974).
[9] I. Bossema, Behaviour 70, 1 (1979).
[10] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in
British forestry (CABI, 2013).
[11] A. Ducousso, S. Bordacs, EUFORGEN
Technical Guidelines for genetic
conservation and use for pedunculate
and sessile oaks (Quercus robur/Quercus
petraea) (Bioversity International, 2003).
[12] A. L. Curtu, O. Gailing, R. Finkeldey, BMC
Evolutionary Biology 7, 218+ (2007).
[13] A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang,
B. Stimm, Bäume Mitteleuropas: Von Aspe
bis Zirbelkiefer. Mit den Porträts aller
Bäume des Jahres von 1989 bis 2010.
(Wiley-VCH, 2010).
[14] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende
Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora
- Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag,
Jena, 1998).
[15] G. Aas, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse:
Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie,
A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang,
B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag,
Weinheim, 2000), vol. 3.
[16] R. Bunce, Trees and Their Habitats: An
Ecological Guide to Some European Trees
Grown at Westonbirt Arboretum (Forestry
Commission Research and Development
Division, Edinburgh, 1982).
[17] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015).
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro,
USA, http://plants.usda.gov.
[18] K. C. Nixon, C. H. Muller, Flora of North
America North of Mexico, Flora of North
America Editorial Committee, ed. (New
York and Oxford, 1997), vol. 3.
[19] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of
Central Europe (Cambridge University
Press, 2009), fourth edn.
[20] G. Aas, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse:
Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie,
A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang,
B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag,
Weinheim, 2012), vol. 3.
[21] European Environment Agency, European
forest types. categories and types for
sustainable forest management reporting
and policy, Tech. rep. (2007).
[22] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen
Vegetation Europas; Map of the
Natural Vegetation of Europe
(Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000).
[23] P. S. Johnson, S. R. Shifley, R. Rogers, eds.,
The ecology and silviculture of oaks (CABI,
Wallingford, 2002).
[24] E. Hochbichler, Annales des Sciences
Forestières 50, 583 (1993).
[25] G. K. Kenk, Annales des Sciences
Forestières 50, 563 (1993).
[26] R. Solymos, Annales des Sciences
Forestières 50, 607 (1993).
[27] G. Decocq, Biodiversity & Conservation 9,
1467 (2000).
[28] EN 350-2, Durability of wood and wood-
based products. Natural durability of
solid wood. Guide to natural durability
and treatability of selected wood species
of importance in Europe (European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels,
1994).
[29] L. Meyer, et al., International
Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 86,
79 (2014).
[30] T. Garde-Cerdán, C. Ancìn-Azpilicueta,
Trends in Food Science & Technology 17,
438 (2006).
[31] A. J. E. Price, Shake in oak: an evidence
review (Forestry Commission, 231
Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh, 2015).
[32] R. A. Mather, P. S. Savill, Forestry 67, 119
(1994).
[33] E. Guilley, J.-C. Hervé, G. Nepveu, Forest
Ecology and Management 189, 111
(2004).
[34] G. Kerr, R. Harmer, Forestry 74, 467
(2001).
[35] E. Wagenhoff, R. Blum, K. Engel, H. Veit,
H. Delb, Journal of Pest Science 86, 193
(2013).
[36] M. J. Crawley, C. R. Long, Journal of
Ecology 83, 686 (1995).
[37] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2,
mri10a15+ (2016).
[38] N. J. Grünwald, M. Garbelotto, E. M. Goss,
K. Heungens, S. Prospero, Trends in
Microbiology 20, 131 (2012).
[39] S. Denman, N. Brown, S. Kirk, M. Jeger,
J. Webber, Forestry 87, 535 (2014).
[40] J. N. Gibbs, B. J. W. Greig, Forestry 70,
399 (1997).
[41] K. Sohar, S. Helama, A. Läänelaid, J. Raisio,
H. Tuomenvirta, Geochronometria 41
(2014).
[42] C. de Sampaio e Paiva Camilo-Alves,
M. I. da Clara, N. M. de Almeida Ribeiro,
European Journal of Forest Research 132,
411 (2013).
[43] D. B. Stojanović, T. Levanič, B. Matović,
S. Orlović, European Journal of Forest
Research 134, 555 (2015).
[44] R. Siwkcki, K. Ufnalski, Forest Pathology
28, 99 (1998).
[45] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of
pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) (2008).
www.euforgen.org.
[46] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of sessile
oak (Quercus petraea) (2008).
www.euforgen.org.
Leaves of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in autumn.
(Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)
Forest dominated by sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Sierra Ancares (North Western Spain).
(Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)
Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in winter near Havré village (Mons, Belgium).
(Copyright Jean-Pol Grandmont, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)
Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field
observations from forest plots for Quercus petraea.
JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 163JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 163 05/07/2021 17:1405/07/2021 17:14
