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Stability of within-sport specialisation in competitive adolescent sub-elite swimmers
International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport
Abstract
The study aimed to assess the stability of stroke selection during
adolescence and the determination of within-sport specialisation. All
swimmers (448 males, 14.1±1.6 y and 518 females, 13.9±1.6 y) who
competed in an annual international schools championship from 2006 to
2013 were analysed. Kruskal-Wallis tests identified the significant
differences between paired stroke combinations and the relative frequency
of each pair was determined from Cohen’s Kappa tests. The percentage of
swimmers selecting the same event in two of three paired age categories
(13-14, 15-16, 17-18 y) was calculated for each sex separately (n=78).
Stability of stroke selections were determined using Cohen’s Kappa tests.
The most preferred combination of events selected was 50 and 100 m
freestyle for males (33.9±5.8%) and females (36.9±6.5%). The least
preferred combination was 100 m breaststroke with 100 m butterfly for
males (2.7±1.7%), and 200 m freestyle with 100 m breaststroke for females
(1.9±1.4%). Males were less stable than females in electing to swim the
same events from when first competing until their final competition.
Breaststroke was the only stroke where early specialisation was observed.
Young swimmers appear to be drawn towards particular stroke
combinations over distance specialisation and males choices stabilise later
compared with females.
Keywords: talent-identification, longitudinal, development, maturation,
school-level
... In contrast, among NDS, the best multimedalist (Michael Phelps) won 23 gold medals between 2004 and 2016 in freestyle, butterfly, the IM, and relays on several distances from 100 to 400 m. From the junior national level (Stewart and Hopkins, 2000) to sub-elite level (Dormehl and Williams, 2016), high level non-disabled swimmers tend to perform in one or two race events with the most common overlap in races consisting of the 50 and 100 m freestyle. ...
... Overall, females were entered in more race events than males. The majority of PS participated in more than 5 race events while NDS participated in only one or two race events, which is in accordance with the previous research on NDS (Dormehl and Williams, 2016). ...
... The network analysis visualization allows a good understanding of the combinations between PS and NDS. Based on the results, NDS appeared to be stroke specialists (Stewart and Hopkins, 2000;Dormehl and Williams, 2016) while this observation seemed less prevalent among PS. However, the race events with the most overlap between swimmers were race events of the same stroke (e.g., 50 and 100 m freestyle), which FIGURE 4 | Mean performance (± SD) as a percentage (%) of the best performance based on the number of events in which swimmers involved, by stroke for Para female (A) and Para male (B), non-disabled female (C), and non-disabled male (D) swimmers. ...
International elite Para swimmers form a large portion of the overall multi-medalist winning population. For the highest performing Para swimmers, world class performances were achieved across different strokes. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of involvement across different events and to examine this in relation to the level of performance. The performances in swimming speed of the top 100 females and males for both Para- and non-disabled swimmers were collected in 11 race events between 2009 and 2019 (4,400 performances for 307 Para females and 365 Para males, 605 non-disabled females, and 715 non-disabled males). We tallied the number of events in which each swimmer was involved. Swimmers were grouped according to the total number of race events in which they participated. Then the association between involvement and level of performance was investigated. Para swimmers with impairment from classes seven to 14 were involved in a range of race events across different strokes. The most common combination for both Para and non-disabled athletes was over similarly distanced races of the same stroke (50 and 100 m freestyle). The more race events in which Para swimmers involved, the higher the level of performance that was achieved. This trend can partially be explained by the less concentrated competition pool for Para swimmers compared to able-bodied swimmers. Para swimmers with minimal and no physical impairment perform in multiple race events more often than able-bodied swimmers. Fewer Para swimmers at the international level and a less concentrated competition pool could explain these differences.
... With swimming being a sport in which it is possible and common to compete in different events at a single competition, the German Swimming Federation, on the one hand, supports a multi-stroke approach and underlines the importance of individual medley as a prerequisite for becoming an elite-level swimmer (Lambertz, 2014;Rudolph, 2015); however, at the same time, they focus on large training loads at a young age, which on the other hand impedes an investment in a multi-stroke approach at the same time (Lang & Light, 2010). An investigation of within-sport specialisation in sub-elite adolescent swimmers showed early specialisation only for breaststroke swimming, especially the stability of within sport specialisation was not calculated to be dependent on success (Dormehl & Williams, 2016). Thus, there is a lack of literature describing the process of specialisation within swimming (Dormehl & Williams, 2016). ...
... An investigation of within-sport specialisation in sub-elite adolescent swimmers showed early specialisation only for breaststroke swimming, especially the stability of within sport specialisation was not calculated to be dependent on success (Dormehl & Williams, 2016). Thus, there is a lack of literature describing the process of specialisation within swimming (Dormehl & Williams, 2016). ...
... Although it remains questionable whether sampling in "land-sports" transfers into in water skills, within-sport specialisation has not been examined so far. There is a gap in research describing the process of stroke-specific specialisation in swimming (Dormehl & Williams, 2016). In a multivariate analysis of swimming performance, it has been shown that the determinants of success in swimming are nonstroke specific (Saavedra et al., 2010). ...
Early specialisation versus early diversification in long term athlete development remains controversial. Although several parameters of sport specialisation have already been explored, this study investigates within-sport specialisation in the careers of young swimmers. In this cohort study, the number of strokes, events and distance categories during childhood and adolescence, as well as entry age were analysed to find potential correlations with success at age 18. Also, national team members were compared to non-members within this cohort. The number of events, strokes or distance categories at a younger age showed a moderate correlation to the best FINA point score at the age of 18, i.e. the greater the diversification, the greater the performance at age 18. The number of events, strokes or distance categories. however, it showed a stronger correlation when comparing national team members with the non-members. Most of the observed athletes were more likely to have high FINA points at 18 if they had been listed in the top 100 at 11 years of age. Entry age had a strong negative correlation with the FINA point score at 18, i.e. the younger the athlete when entering the top 100, the higher the FINA point score at 18. When national team members were compared to non-national team members, early age of entry into the top 100 showed a greater impact on the national team members. However, being successful in childhood in more than one stroke correlates well with success at age 18.
... For example, Allen, Vandenbogaerde, and Hopkins (2014) found that on average male Olympic swimmers are two years older than female Olympians. Dormehl and Williams (2016) support this finding. They found that female athletes select their favorite stroke earlier than male swimmers. ...
... In contrast, in athlete development research, it is getting more and more important to use a longitudinal design because athlete development is a difficult process that depends on many factors and that does not proceed linearly. Dormehl et al. (2016) underlined the importance of longitudinal studies in athlete development, by pointing out that the possibility to follow athletes over a period of time can help analyze their development in different aspects of their performance. These findings indicated that a longitudinal study design may benefit athlete performance prediction studies. ...
In high performance sport, it is important to predict future performance in junior athletes. In swimming, different selection criteria have been tested in past research papers. The purpose of this study was to investigate if performance variability could be a selection criterion in junior athletes. We analysed more than 1300 competition results of German national team athletes over seven consecutive years to investigate the development of junior into high performance athletes. We found that variability in general could be a predictor for future success. On average we found a variability overall groups of 1.7% (95% confidence interval 1.6 to 1.8%). Different subgroups varied in the age at which their performance showed least variability. In single age groups we found differences between more successful athletes compared to non-successful athletes. Our investigation suggests that variability could be a promising future performance predictor in junior athletes when subgroup-specific differences are taken into account.
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
Insufficient data on adolescent athletes is contributing to the challenges facing youth athletic development and accurate talent identification. The purpose of this study was to model the progression of male sub-elite swimmers’ performances during adolescence. The performances of 446 males (12–19 year olds) competing in seven individual events (50, 100, 200 m freestyle, 100 m backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, 200 m individual medley) over an eight-year period at an annual international schools swimming championship, run under FINA regulations were collected. Quadratic functions for each event were determined using mixed linear models. Thresholds of peak performance were achieved between the ages of 18.5 ± 0.1 (50 m freestyle and 200 m individual medley) and 19.8 ± 0.1 (100 m butterfly) years. The slowest rate of improvement was observed in the 200 m individual medley (20.7%) and the highest in the 100 m butterfly (26.2%). Butterfly does however appear to be one of the last strokes in which males specialise. The models may be useful as talent identification tools, as they predict the age at which an average sub-elite swimmer could potentially peak. The expected rate of improvement could serve as a tool in which to monitor and evaluate benchmarks
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
Background: Over the last decade there has been debate concerning the topic of early specialisation in competitive youth sport. The Development Model of Sports Participation described how specialisation involved athletes reducing the number of sports in which they participated, eventually leading to the emergence of a preferred sport. Swimming is unusual in respect to specialisation in that swimmers have the opportunity to specialise not only in stroke technique, but also in race distance. The aim of the study was therefore to determine the stability of stroke selection during adolescence and the determination of within-sport specialisation. Methods: All swimmers (448 males, 14.1±1.6 y and 518 females, 13.9±1.6 y) who competed in an annual international schools championship from 2006 to 2013 were analysed. Kruskal-Wallis tests determined the relationships between stroke combinations and the relative frequency of each pair was determined from Cohen’s Kappa tests. The percentage of swimmers selecting the same event in two of three paired age categories (13-14, 15-16, 17-18 y) was calculated for each sex seperately (n=78). Stability of stroke selections were determined using Cohen’s Kappa tests. Results: The most preferred combination of events selected was 50 and 100 m freestyle for males (33.9±5.8%) and females (36.9±6.5%). The least preferred combination was 100 m breaststroke with 100 m butterfly for males (2.7±1.7%), and 200 m freestyle with 100 m breaststroke for females (1.9±1.4%). Discussion: This is the first longitudinal study to assess the stability of event specialisation and combination preferences. Males were less stable than females in electing to swim the same events from when first competing until their final competition. A key finding was that swimmers of either sex who were to specialise in breaststroke did so early and likely before reaching biological maturity: a phenomenon that deserves further investigation. With the increased attention afforded to talent identification, the opportunity to understand the development of preferences within a sport that includes both distance and technique specialisation has shown that even young swimmers gravitate towards particular combinations of strokes, over distance specialisation but that males stabilise later in their choices compared with females.
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
... The youngest swimmers of these events were markedly variable in standard. Dormehl and Williams (2016) [33], did however find a lack of stability in the continued selection of these events by male swimmers between the ages of 12 and 19 years. Freestyle is also likely to be the stroke most favoured by inexperienced competitive swimmers, since it is the most efficient stroke with which they would be most familiar [25]. ...
Numerous long-term training models have been proposed to cater for the development of young athletes in the hope that some will emerge as potential champions. Little research has focussed on recording athletes’ performance through adolescence.
Aims: This paper tracked the performance of finalists and record holders at a school-level sub-elite swimming competition. The stability of their performance was compared with that of junior-elite and elite swimmers in order to determine whether they were progressing at a different rate and whether there were differences between genders.
Method: Race speeds for the finalists from the 15 to 18 year age-group (mean age 15.90±0.22 years) of an annual international schools competition were tracked from 2006 to 2013. Kendall’s tau non-parametric correlations were used to analyse the performance progression of each event separately. The records achieved in this competition were compared with the Short Course World Championship and Junior World Championship records over the same 8 year period.
Results: Mean progression in performance times for males showed significant improvement in all strokes with the exception of the 100 m breaststroke. There was little improvement for females except in the 50 m freestyle. The records for these sub-elite swimmers continued to improve largely due to the continual improvement of female records, in contrast to the stable records of the elite and junior-elite swimmers. Mean gender gaps of the record performances over the study period for elite, junior-elite and sub-elite swimmers were, 11.48±0.76%, 11.32±1.06% and 10.37±2.4% respectively. The gender gap for sub-elite swimmers narrowed whereas it has remained fairly stable at both junior and elite level.
Conclusions: Despite elite-level records having stabilised recently, sub-elite swimming performances continued to advance with variable improvement between genders and record holders with no clear pattern emerging. Males demonstrated significant improvement in all strokes (excluding breaststroke) in contrast to females who appeared to show more stability but less homogeneity, with only continued mean progression of the finalists in the 50 m freestyle. The positive trends evident in the performance of school-level swimming hints at a wider selection base for talent and the greater participation, motivation and improved coaching methods in this category of swimmer.
Key Words: Talent identification, sub-elite, athlete development, youth sport
... In contrast, in talent research, it is getting more and more important to use a longitudinal design because talent development is a difficult process that depends on many factors and that does not proceed linearly. The importance of longitudinal studies in talent development underlined Dormehl et al. (2016) by pointing out the opportunity to follow athletes over a period of time and show their development in different aspects in their performance. These findings indicated that a longitudinal study design fits very well into talent prediction studies. ...
Looking at differences in the progression in junior athletes. Are there differences in athletes who were selected for national team compared to those who were deselected.
... In contrast, in talent research, it is getting more and more important to use a longitudinal design because talent development is a difficult process that depends on many factors and that does not proceed linearly. The importance of longitudinal studies in talent development underlined Dormehl et al. (2016) by pointing out the opportunity to follow athletes over a period of time and show their development in different aspects in their performance. These findings indicated that a longitudinal study design fits very well into talent prediction studies. ...
Looking at differences in the development in junior athletes. Are there differences in athletes who made the national team compared to those who drop out.
Purpose:
This study aimed to investigate the peak performance characteristics of the world top-8 swimmers and the key factors involved in the journey toward achieving better peak performance.
Methods:
The results of the world top-8 swimmers from 2001 to 2022 were collected from the World Aquatics performance database. Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories (1191 cases). Utilizing k-means clustering to group competitive feature variables, this study investigated key developmental factors through a binary logistic regression model, using the odds ratio (OR) to represent whether a factor was favorable (OR > 1) or unfavorable (OR < 1).
Results:
Significant differences (P < .001) in the peak age between men (23.54/3.80) and women (22.31/4.60) were noticed, while no significant differences (P > .05) in the peak-performance window for both sexes appeared. Peak performance occurred at later ages for the sprint for both sexes, and women had a longer duration in peak-performance window for sprint (P < .05). Peak-performance occurred at later ages for the breaststroke and butterfly for both sexes (P < .05). Binary logistic regression revealed that high first-participation performance (OR = 1.502), high major-competition performance (OR = 4.165), early first-major-competition age (OR = 1.441), participation frequency above 4 times/year in both phase 2 (4.3-8.0 times/y, OR = 3.940; 8.1-20.0 times/y, OR = 5.122) and phase 3 (4.1-7.5 times/y: OR = 5.548; 7.7-15.0 times/y: OR = 7.526), and a career length of 10 years or more (10-15 y, OR = 2.102; 16-31 y, OR = 3.480) were favorable factors for achieving better peak performance.
Conclusions:
Peak performance characteristics varied across sex, swimming stroke, and race distance in the world top-8 swimmers. Meanwhile, the research indicated that certain specific developmental factors were key conditions for the world top-8 swimmers to achieve better peak performance in the future.
The present cumulative dissertation deals with performance fluctuations of top athletes and their effects on future results. For almost two decades, international studies have been dealing with variability of excellence. The idea of variation in performance is based upon a systematic review by Malcata and Hopkins (2014). Aim of this work was to investigate the performance variability in swimming in general for one season by means of three own, already published studies. In addition, the performance variability of partial services on the basis of the initial jump is to be examined and whether the performance variability is suitable as a selection criterion for the youth performance sport.
In retrospective analyzes of competition data, occasionally available performance di- agnostic data and squad lists, the intra-individual performance variability of the athletes was calculated per season. In addition, performance variability was assessed and compared in different age groups. Similarly, correlations between partial performance in relation to overall performance were measured and the variability of the various per- formance-related parameters related.
The results of the individual studies show that performance variability at different levels is a performance determining factor. The first investigation shows a difference in the performance variability of Olympic medal winners (0.52 %) compared to medalless German athletes (0.68 %). In addition, it becomes clear that the variability within the course of the season up to the peak of the season is decreasing (0.55 % - 0.21 %). The results of the second study show that the starting phase in swimming has an ex- orbitantly high impact on overall performance (r2 = 0.78). Likewise, a connection be- tween the variability of the start analysis and the variability of the overall result can be established.
In another study it can be shown that the performance variability differs for junior ath- letes. Athletes who have been in the squad for several years show less variability in both male and female athletes. In addition, the results show that the increase within
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the eight-year period between the athletes who made it into the national team and those who did not make it significantly different.
The available studies have shown that performance variability becomes more im- portant as the main competition gets closer. It could also be demonstrated that a small variation in performance is also highly relevant for partial services. Also discussed is the relevance of performance variability for talent selection. The results indicate a link. However, further studies have yet to confirm this.
Background:
This work is aimed at examining how coordination and kinematic indices interplay with swimming performance measured by average speed in 50m all-out test.
Methods:
The group of 34 male competitive swimmers (19.1± 1.91 years old) participated in the study. The underwater movements of swimmers' bodies were recorded providing side- shots. Accelerations and angular velocity of pitch rotation of swimmer's sacrum were measured with inertial sensor device (three-axial accelerometer and gyroscope).
Results:
Indices calculated on the basis of video analysis as well as their relationship with speed - V50surface breast clearly show, that stroke rate (SR) kinematic and ample arm propulsion (AP) duration impulse are both highly associated with performance. At the same time V50surface breast is highly related to significant shortening inter-cycle gap - Glide or Overlap. The study shows, that sagittal maximal ventral acceleration (Azmax) and sagittal amplitude acceleration (Azamp) significantly interplay with V50surface breast (0.54, p<0.01 and 0.45, p=0.01 respectively), which is connected with dolphin-like body waving.
Conclusions:
The most important thing is to recognize possible gains coming from suitably shaped dolphin-like body waving, as well as to enhance this specific action during well-timed upper trunk and head immersion in each sprint breaststroke cycle.
INTRODUCTION The article by Melanie Lang and Richard Light provides interesting information related to the difficult task of adapting a swimming training programme to the general guidelines that the sport governing bodies impose to obtain funding support for the competitive programme. In general terms, a long term athlete development (L TAD) model is written by sport experts to define a general pathway of athlete development to achieve national or international performances in dif ferent sports or in a particular sport based on an interdisciplinary scientific knowledge. Numerous such models have been published and distributed for years in many countries and seek to guide the achievement of outstanding performances in many sports (see Canadian and English examples [1, 2]). The programme application entails a considerable ef fort on the part of the participants (swimmers, coaches and clubs), but unfortunately this ef fort seems absolutely necessary to obtain international performances. The problem arises when external guidelines based on LTAD may contradict, in some cases, the competitive rules that should stimulate participation in this long-term programme, as the cited article tries to demonstrate. However, I wish to deal with the conclusion of the article that concerned the impact of excessive volume upon development of technique. This led me to deal with the lack of attention that swimming-planning specialists devote to this highly influential factor in swimming performance.
Abstract The age-related progression of elite athletes to their career-best performances can provide benchmarks for talent development. The purpose of this study was to model career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers to develop these benchmarks. We searched the Web for annual best times of swimmers who were top 16 in pool events at the 2008 or 2012 Olympics, from each swimmer's earliest available competitive performance through to 2012. There were 6959 times in the 13 events for each sex, for 683 swimmers, with 10 ± 3 performances per swimmer (mean ± s). Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories derived using a mixed linear model that included adjustments for better performance in Olympic years and for the use of full-body polyurethane swimsuits in 2009. Analysis of residuals revealed appropriate fit of quadratic trends to the data. The trajectories provided estimates of age of peak performance and the duration of the age window of trivial improvement and decline around the peak. Men achieved peak performance later than women (24.2 ± 2.1 vs. 22.5 ± 2.4 years), while peak performance occurred at later ages for the shorter distances for both sexes (∼1.5-2.0 years between sprint and distance-event groups). Men and women had a similar duration in the peak-performance window (2.6 ± 1.5 years) and similar progressions to peak performance over four years (2.4 ± 1.2%) and eight years (9.5 ± 4.8%). These data provide performance targets for swimmers aiming to achieve elite-level performance.
Despite the limitations set by FINA regulations, execution technique in breaststroke swimming is being improved thanks to more and more advanced analyses of the efficiency of the swimmer's movements. The aim of this study was to detect the parameters of the time structure of the cycle correlated with the maximal swimming speed at the of 50 meters distance, in order to focus to specific technical aspects in the breaststroke training. In the group of 23 participants, between the age of 15.0 ± 1.17, the breaststroke cycle movement of the arms and legs was divided into two phases: propulsive or non-propulsive. In addition, indices characterizing the temporal coordination of movements of the upper limbs in relation to the lower limbs were distinguished: 1) Arm-Leg Lag - determines the interval between the phases of propulsion generated by upper and lower limbs; 2) Glide or Overlap - the inter-cyclic glide or overlap of the propulsive movement of the upper on lower limbs. Significant dependence was noted between the swim speed (V50surface breast) and the percentage of time of the arm propulsive in-sweep phase 0.64, p < 0.01. A significant correlation was observed between the V50surface breast with the percentage of partially surfaced hand phase of arm recovery 0.54, p < 0.01. Correlation between total leg propulsion and non-propulsion phases with V50surface breast was 0.49 and -0.49 respectively, both p < 0.01. The Glide or Overlap index was significantly related to the swimming speed V50surface breast 0.48, p < 0.05. This type of analysis suggests how to refine the swimming technique, with the goal to improve the current speed capabilities; furthermore the results also indicate the direction of its development in the future swimmers of the group studied.
The aim of the study was to follow-up the stability of young talented swimmers' performance and its biomechanical determinant factors (i.e., anthropometrics, kinematics, hydrodynamics and efficiency) during a competitive season. Thirty three (15 boys and 18 girls) young swimmers (overall: 11.81 ± 0.75 years old and Tanner stages 1-2 by self-evaluation) were evaluated. Performance, anthropometrics, hydrodynamics, kinematics and efficiency variables were assessed at three moments during a competitive season. Performance had a significant improvement (with minimum effect size) and a moderate-very high stability throughout the season. In the anthropometrics domain all variables increased significantly (ranging from without to minimum effect size) between moments and had a moderate-very high stability. Hydrodynamics presented no variations between all moments and had a low-very high stability throughout the season. In the kinematics domain, there were no variations between moment one and three, except for an increase in stroke frequency (without size effect). Speed fluctuation remained constant, with no significant variations. All kinematic variables had a low-very high stability. Efficiency variables did not present variations between moment one and three and had a low-moderate stability. Overall, young swimmers showed a minimum improvement in performance and in anthropometric factors; and a moderate stability of performance and its determinant factors (i.e., anthropometrics, hydrodynamics, kinematics and efficiency) during the competitive season.
The LTAD (Long Term Athlete Development) model has come to represent a sports-wide set of principles that significantly influences national sports policy in England. However, little is known about its impact ‘on the ground.’ This study is concerned with how national sporting bodies have adapted the model to their specific requirements and how local interpretation and implementation of this is operationalized and delivered. Interpretation and implementation of the LTAD model used in English swimming was investigated through interviews with six elite and five non-elite swimming coaches in the north of England. While there were concerns with aspects of the Amateur Swimming Association (ASA) regulations governing competition for age-group swimmers, the major concern expressed by participants was with over-emphasizing volumes of training, leading to the neglect of technique.
The role of early specialization in the development of sport expertise is a point of contention among researchers. While there is consistent evidence linking quantity of training with level of proficiency attained, a focus on specialized training during early stages of development has been linked with several negative consequences. Diversified involvement in a number of sports during early stages of development has been presented as a possible alternative to early specialization. Considering the consequences of advocating the early specialization ap- proach and research suggesting the effectiveness of early diversification, coaches and sport scientists should consider the early diversification approach as an alternative. Further research is required to expand our understanding of the relative contributions of diversified versus specialized training. The acquisition of expertise in sport is the result of complex interactions among biological, psychological, and sociological constraints (Singer & Janelle, 1999). Successful negotiation of these constraints can lead to the highest levels of perform-
In November 2005, the International Olympic Committee's Medical Commission issued a statement on Training the elite child athlete recommending that “more scientific research be done to better identify the parameters of training the elite child athlete”. This paper focuses on a specific issue related to training the child athlete: early specialization. While associations between early specialization and expertise development are highlighted, much research also suggests early specialization is associated with a range of negative consequences affecting physical, psychological, and social development. Alternately, some researchers have proposed that an early diversification approach does not disadvantage athletes in acquiring expertise, and is important for the development of intrinsic motivation and skill transferability. However, this review suggests that inadequate evidence exists to resolve the issue in favor of either approach.
Abstract Whether young people should specialise in one competitive sport at an early age, or pursue a wider range of sports during adolescence is a topic of some debate (Baker, Cobley, & Fraser-Thomas, 2009) and is fundamental within sports policy and coaching practice. The purpose of this retrospective recall study was to identify whether early specialisation or sporting diversification (sampling) throughout childhood and adolescence can influence performance levels prior to adulthood. An online questionnaire was used to collect the sport participation histories of 1006 UK sports people, which were then compared with the developmental framework provided by the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP, Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007). A significant association between the number of sports participated in at the ages of 11, 13, and 15 and the standard of competition between 16 and 18 years was found. Individuals who competed in three sports aged 11, 13, and 15 were significantly more likely to compete at a national compared with club standard between the ages of 16 and 18 than those who practised only one sport. The findings reported here provide some empirical support for the sampling performance pathway DMSP model in a UK context.
The purpose of this study was to examine the adequacy of "multi-age" classification systems in youth sports with a specific focus on the unisex multi-age-groupings used by USA Swimming. In addition, we offer an analytical rationale for the multi-age-groupings and potential alternatives. We examined the top 100 US swim performances for three years (2005, 2006, and 2007) for girls and boys in 15 age-groups (7 to 20 years and a singular group of 21 years and older). Data for each age and sex were pooled over the three years and means were calculated for each of seven competitive swim events. Swim times differed among each age up to the 14-year age-group in girls (F (14,30885) = 183.9, P < 0.01, Cohen's d = 1.19-3.72, large effect) and 16-year age-group in boys (F (14,30885) = 308.7, P < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.81-3.64, large effect) for all events. Age-related differences in swim times continued later in boys than girls likely due to differences between the sexes in timing of growth and maturation. Because of the differences in swim performance in contemporary multi-age-groups, stratifying swimmers by a single age is the best means to ensure competitive fairness and equality, although there is no rationale for swimmers under the age of 8 years to compete in separate unisex competitive groups.
Stability of athletic performance is important for practitioners and coaches, since it allows the selection of appropriate training methods and prediction of ages for best results. We performed a longitudinal study of 1694 season-best performances of 242 elite-standard swimmers throughout their careers, from 12 to 18 years of age. Mean stability (descriptive statistics and one-way repeated-measures ANOVA, followed by a Bonferroni post-hoc test) and normative stability (Cohen's kappa tracking index and the Pearson correlation coefficient) were determined for seven consecutive seasons. Performance improvements in all events were observed (14.36-18.97%). Bonferroni post-hoc tests verified changes in almost all events assessed. Cohen's kappa demonstrated low stability (0.17-0.27) in relative performance. Pearson correlations only became high from 15 to 16 years in the 50-m and 100-m events, and from 16 to 17 years in the 200-m, 400-m, and 1500-m events. Our results show that: (a) swimmers should display a substantial improvement (14-19%) to become elite standard as adults, such as at 18 years; (b) 16 is the age at which the ability to predict adult performance increases markedly.
This study develops multivariate models to predict swimming performance based on multidimensional assessment. 66 male (age 13.6 +/- 0.6 y) and 67 female (11.5 +/- 0.6 y) swimmers undertook a test battery including a sports background and training questionnaire, anthropometry, general and specific fitness tests, and technique. Competitive performance (LEN scores in three best events) was the predicted variable. A multiple linear regression model explained 82.4% of performance variability in males (based on age, sitting height, 30-min test, 6 x 50 m at 1:30, and swimming index) and 84.5% in females (age, 30-min test, 6 x 50 m at 1:30, and velocity at 50 m). Discriminant analysis using a four-group split-sample approach correctly classified 94.1% of the best male swimmers (based on age, 30-min test, 6 x 50 m at 1:30, shoulder extension, arm span, and height), and 71.0% of the best females swimmers (30-min test, horizontal floating, velocity at 50 m, and age). Chronological age was the main predictor of performance in this age category. Main predictive variables pertained to the anthropometric (particularly in males), specific fitness (aerobic speed and endurance), and technical domains (particularly in females). In these ages competitions should be organized according to year of birth and not by age categories.
The aim of the study was to examine the development of specific physical, physiological, and biomechanical parameters in 29 young male swimmers for whom measurements were made three times for two consecutive years. During the 400-m front-crawl swimming, the energy cost of swimming, and stroking parameters were assessed. Peak oxygen consumption (VO2 peak) was assessed by means of the backward-extrapolation technique recording VO2 during the first 20 sec. of recovery period after a maximal trial of 400-m distance. Swimming performance at different points of physical maturity was mainly related to the increases in body height and arm-span values from physical parameters, improvement in sport-specific VO2 peak value from physiological characteristics, and improvement in stroke indices on biomechanical parameters. In addition, biomechanical factors characterised best the 400-m swimming performance followed by physical and physiological factors during the 2-yr. study period for the young male swimmers.
The present study analyzed the development of physiological, biomechanical and anthropometrical parameters in young female swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming performance during biological maturation. In total, 26 female swimmers participated in the study in which data were annually collected for two consecutive years. Body composition, basic anthropometrical parameters and biological age were measured. During the 400-m front-crawl swimming, the energy cost of swimming and stroking parameters were assessed. Peak oxygen consumption (VO2(peak)) was assessed by means of the backward-extrapolation technique recording VO2 during the first 20 sec of the recovery period after a maximal trial of 400-m distance. During the 2-year follow-up study period, age, height, body mass, body fat %, fat free mass, bone mineral mass, total bone mineral density, arm span and biological maturation values significantly increased during each year (p < 0.05). The tracking of the physical characteristics measured over the 2-year study period was relatively high (r > 0.694), except for the body fat% (r > 0.554). The tracking of the Tanner stages was also high (r = 0.759-0.780). Stepwise regression analyses showed that biomechanical factors (R2 > 0.322; p < 0.05) best characterized the 400-metre swimming performance in young female swimmers, followed by bioenergetical (R2 > 0.311; p < 0.05) and physical (R2 > 0.203; p < 0.05) factors during all three measurement times.
Estimates of progression and variability of athletic performance in competitions are useful for researchers and practitioners interested in factors that affect performance. We used repeated-measures mixed modelling to analyse 676 official race times of 26 US and 25 Australian Olympic swimmers in the 12-month period leading up to the 2000 Olympic Games. Progression was expressed as percent changes in mean performance; variability was expressed as the coefficient of variation in performance of an individual swimmer between races. Within competitions, both nations showed similar improvements in mean time from heats through finals (overall 1.2%; 95% confidence limits 1.1 to 1.3%). Mean competition time also improved over 12 months by a similar amount in both nations (0.9%; 95% confidence limits 0.6 to 1.2%). The US swimmers showed a greater improvement between the finals (a difference of 0.5%; 95% confidence limits -0.2 to 1.1%), which paralleled changes in the medal haul of the two nations. The coefficient of variation in performance time for a swimmer between races was 0.60% (95% confidence limits 0.56 to 0.65%) within a competition and 0.80% (95% confidence limits 0.73 to 0.86%) between competitions. Our results show that: (a) to stay in contention for a medal, an Olympic swimmer should improve his or her performance by approximately 1% within a competition and by approximately 1% within the year leading up to the Olympics; (b) an additional enhancement of approximately 0.4% (one-half the between-competition variability) would substantially increase the swimmer's chances of a medal.
The aim of this study was to compare the intra-cyclic velocity graphs of breaststroke swimmers at two skill levels in relation to their movement phases. Two groups of nine male swimmers were videotaped underwater at three swimming race paces corresponding to their actual competitive times for the 200-m, 100-m and 50-m breaststroke. Their forward intra-cyclic hip velocity was recorded with a velocity-meter. The breaststroke cycle was divided into four phases: leg propulsion, leg-arm lag phase, arm propulsion, and arm and leg recovery. From the velocity-time data, the following parameters were computed: an index of velocity fluctuations (IVF), the distance covered during each stroke phase, and an acceleration-deceleration time ratio (ADTR). The main results showed that in both groups of swimmers, when the race pace increased, the distance covered during the leg-arm lag phase decreased, while the other swimming phases remained stable. When expressed in relative values, the percentage of distance covered during the leg-arm lag phase decreased. In nonelite swimmers, the percentage of distance covered in the other stroke phases increased significantly, while only a tendency was noted in the elite group. Elite swimmers demonstrated a higher ADTR at the 50-m pace than at their 100-m and 200-m paces. An inter-group comparison showed that elite swimmers had higher values for the IVF and ADTR, which indicated their capacity to accelerate to boost the swim and highlighted the relevancy of these factors to discriminate skill level.
The aim of this study was to compare the arm-to-leg coordination in the butterfly stroke of three groups of male swimmers of varying skill (10 elite, 10 non-elite, and 10 young swimmers) at four race paces (400-m, 200-m, 100-m, and 50-m paces). Using qualitative video analysis and a hip velocity-video system (50 Hz), key events of the arm and leg movement cycles were defined and four-point estimates of relative phase were used to estimate the arm-to-leg coordination between the propulsive (pull and push of arms and downward movement of leg undulation) and non-propulsive phases (entry, catch, and recovery of arms and upward movement of leg undulation). With increasing race pace, the velocity, stroke rate, and synchronization between the arm and leg key points also increased, indicating that velocity and stroke rate may operate as control parameters. Finally, these changes led to greater continuity between the propulsive actions, which is favourable for improving the swim velocity, suggesting that coaches and swimmers should monitor arm-to-leg coordination.
The aim of this study was to assess stroke rate variability in elite female swimmers (200-m events, all four techniques) by comparing the semi-finalists at the Athens 2004 Olympic Games (n = 64) and semi-finalists at the French National 2004 Championship (n = 64). Since swimming speed (V) is the product of stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL), these three variables and the coefficient of variation of stroke rate (CV(SR)) of the first and second 100 m were determined (V1, V2; SR1, SR2; SL1, SL2; CV(SR)1, CV(SR)2) and differences between the two parts of the events were calculated (DeltaV; DeltaSR; DeltaSL; DeltaCV(SR)). When the results for the four 200-m events were analysed together, SR1, SR2, SL1, and SL2 were higher (alpha = 0.05, P< 0.001) and DeltaV, DeltaSR, and DeltaCV(SR) were lower (P< 0.01) in the Olympic group than in the National group. The Olympic-standard swimmers exhibited faster backstrokes and longer freestyle strokes (P < 0.05). Both CV(SR)1 and CV(SR)2 were lower for freestyle and backstroke races in the Olympic group than in the National group (P < 0.001). Our results suggest that stroke rate variability is dependent on an interaction between the biomechanical requisites of the task (techniques) and the standard of the swimmer.
The purpose of this research was to develop a comprehensive normative database of the physiological characteristics of elite swimmers. Data were obtained from 195 elite swimmers (89 males and 106 females) ages 12 to 18 years. Six protocols were used to measure variables in the following categories: descriptive characteristics, cardiovascular, respiratory, strength and power, body composition, and anthropometry. Significant effects of gender and age were identified for a number of variables. These data could be used for the physiological assessment and talent identification of swimmers in comparison with other populations.
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the pacing strategies employed in 200m and 400m individual medley events, and which style was the most determinant for the final performance as a function of sex and classification in international competitions. Twenty-six international competitions covering a 12-year period (2000-2011) were analyzed retrospectively: Olympic Games, World Championships, European Championships, Commonwealth Games, Pan Pacific Games, U.S. Olympic Team Trials, and Australian Olympic Trials. The data corresponded to a total of 1643 swimmers' competition histories (821 men, 822 women). A two-way ANOVA (sex [2 levels: men, women] × classification [3 levels: 1st to 3rd, 4th to 8th, 9th to 16th]) was performed for each stroke (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle). The Bonferroni post-hoc test was used to compare means. Pearson's simple correlation coefficient was used to determine correlations between the style (sections time) and the final performance (total time). The men employed a smaller percentage of their event times in the breaststroke than the women and a greater percentage in the freestyle in both the 200m and 400m distances, with the fastest style for both sexes being the butterfly. Considering only the medalists, in men (200m and 400m) the backstroke was the style that most determined their final performance, whereas in women it was the backstroke (200m) or freestyle (400m). It was concluded that in general the men apply a positive pacing strategy in the 200m and 400m individual medley events, while the women apply a negative pacing strategy. The practical application of the study is that it suggests the need for a differentiated approach in training men and women individual medley swimmers.
A controversial question within elite sports is whether young athletes need to specialize early, as suggested by Ericsson et al., or if it is more beneficial to follow the path of early diversification proposed by Côté et al., which includes sampling different sport experiences during childhood and specializing later on during adolescence. Based on a Danish sample of 148 elite and 95 near-elite athletes from cgs sports (sports measured in centimeters, grams, or seconds), the present study investigates group differences concerning accumulated practice hours during the early stages of the career, involvement in other sports, career development, as well as determining whether or not these variables predict membership in the elite group. The results clearly reveal that elite athletes specialized at a later age and trained less in childhood. However, elite athletes were shown to intensify their training regime during late adolescence more than their near-elite peers. The involvement in other sports neither differs between the groups nor predicts success. It can be concluded that factors related to the organization of practice during the mid-teens seem to be crucial for international success within cgs sports. Future research should adopt a longitudinal design with means of drawing causal inferences.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of swimming speed and skill level on inter-limb coordination and its intra-cyclic variability. The elbow-knee continuous relative phase (CRP) was used as the order parameter to analyze upper-lower limbs coupling during a complete breaststroke cycle. Twelve recreational and 12 competitive female swimmers swam 25m at a slow speed and 25m at maximal speed. Underwater and aerial side views were mixed and genlocked with an underwater frontal view. The angle, angular velocity, and phase were calculated for the knee and elbow by digitizing body marks on the side view. Three cycles were analyzed, filtered, averaged, and normalized in percentage of the total cycle duration. The competitive swimmers showed greater intra-cyclic CRP variability, indicating a combination of intermediate phase and in-phase knee-elbow coupling within a cycle. This characteristic was more marked at slow speed because more time was spent in the glide period of the stroke cycle, with the body completely extended. Conversely, because they spent less time in the glide, the recreational swimmers showed lower intra-cyclic CRP variability (which is mostly in the in-phase coordination mode), resulting in superposition of contradictory actions (propulsion of one limb during the recovery of the other limb).
This paper presents a general statistical methodology for the analysis of multivariate categorical data arising from observer reliability studies. The procedure essentially involves the construction of functions of the observed proportions which are directed at the extent to which the observers agree among themselves and the construction of test statistics for hypotheses involving these functions. Tests for interobserver bias are presented in terms of first-order marginal homogeneity and measures of interobserver agreement are developed as generalized kappa-type statistics. These procedures are illustrated with a clinical diagnosis example from the epidemiological literature.
In this paper the complex topic of 'the child and exercise' is approached from a multidisciplinary angle. Research concerned with effects of exercise on growth and development is reviewed. In spite of traditional beliefs, there is not enough evidence to support the view that regular and intense physical training promotes an increase in body size, nor is there any physiological evidence that severe training has any harmful effect on the body. Exercise capacity and aerobic power increase gradually throughout childhood. Investigations have shown that children aged 10 years or younger do not react with an increased VO2 max as one would expect from endurance activities. The trainability of endurance seems to depend on the biological maturity level of growing children. After puberty the effects of endurance training are similar to those reported for adults. Just how much physical activity is necessary or optimal during the growing years is not known because individual variation is great. Even fewer results are available on the trainability of anaerobic capacity. The trainability of other factors such as strength, speed, flexibility and coordination is amply discussed. Finally some thoughts are given to young female athletes, both early and late maturers, with respect to their sport performance and expectancies.
A theoretical model was developed to identify anthropometric variables relevant to success in swimming. Frontal areas, cross-sectional areas (XSA), and lengths of body segments were measured on twelve members of a men's college team using a photographic procedure. Motion-picture films were taken of the subjects competing in freestyle events and were analyzed to determine the average stroke length (SL), average stroke frequency (SF), and average stroking speed (S). Correlation and multiple regression procedures were used to determine the relationships among the anthropometric variables and SL, SF, and S, respectively. Of the 21 anthropometric variables selected with the aid of the theoretical model, 6 were found to be significantly related to one or more of the measures of swimming performance when the influence of event distance was partialled out (P less than or equal to 0.05). The anthropometric variables characterizing the subjects accounted for 89% (SL), 41% (SF), and 17% (S) of the variances in the measured characteristics of their strokes. The axilla XSA was shown to have the largest influence on both SL and SF, accounting for 57% of the variance in the SL and 24% in the SF. These results suggest that although S is little influenced by the physique of a swimmer, the combination of SL and SF used to attain a given S is very much a function of his physique.
Using a mixed longitudinal design, the incidence of injuries, and the development of flexibility and isometric strength of the upper and lower limbs were studied for 2 years in 453 élite young athletes (aged between 9 and 18 years) practising football, gymnastics, swimming or tennis. The children suffered from a low incidence of injuries. Strength and flexibility did not exert a significant role in determining injuries. The rate of injury was not significantly different between the 2 years of the study. Young swimmers showed a greater generalized flexibility. Girls were more flexible than boys between the ages of 13 to 16 years. Athletic children are able to exert greater isometric strength than normal schoolchildren. Boys diverged from the normal population at 14 years, while athletic girls were stronger at all ages. Girls were stronger than boys up to age 12, who were still increasing their muscle strength at 19 years. The average maximal isometric strength exerted in both upper and lower limbs in the four sports was not significantly different. Male gymnasts over 11 years old were significantly stronger than all other athletes.
The consistency of performance between events impacts how athletes should specialize in events, how competitions should be structured, and how changes in performance affect an athlete's placing in an event. We have therefore determined the consistency of swimming performance in events within and between two national-level competitions.
We used mixed linear modeling to analyze official performance times of 149 male and 162 female swimmers at a junior national championship, and of 117 male and 104 female swimmers at an open national championship 20 d later. The events differed in stroke (backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, freestyle, and individual medley) or distance (50-1500 m).
Swimmers were most consistent in their performance for the same event between the two competitions (typical variation between competitions, 1.4%; 95% likely range of true value, 1.3-1.5%). They were less consistent between distances of a given stroke within each competition (1.7%; 1.5-1.9%) and least consistent between strokes for a given distance (2.7%; 2.3-3.1%). Variation in performance between the longest continuous freestyle distances (400, 800, and 1500 m) in the open competition was half that between widely spaced freestyle distances (50, 200, and 800 m). Faster swimmers were more consistent (1.1%; 0.9-1.4%) for the same event between competitions than slower swimmers (1.5%; 1.3-1.9%).
(a) Swimmers are stroke specialists rather than distance specialists; with the present set of events in competitions, they should concentrate training and competing on a particular stroke rather than a particular distance. (b) More swimmers would have a chance of winning a medal if events of a given stroke differed more widely in distance. (c) Factors that affect performance time by as little as 0.5% will affect the placing of a top junior swimmer.
The aim of this investigation was to study the possible relationships between anthropometry, flexibility and specific swimming results in female breaststroke swimmers. Subjects were 125 female breaststroke swimmers in age of 11-18 years. Body height and mass were measured and BMI (kg/m2 ) and Broca index (body height in cm - 100 = weight in kg) were calculated. The flexibility of hip external rotation, knee external rotation, ankle dorsal flexion and ankle supination were measured with plastic goniometer. 100 m breaststroke swimming using kickboard and legs only was used as a swimming performance parameter. The number of kicks was also fixed. Horizontal jumping ability was measured using a simple standing broad jump (cm) minus body height (cm). As a rule, flexibility in different joints did not depend on anthropometrical parameters. Only knee external rotation and ankle dorsal flexion correlated significantly with body mass (r = -0.221 and r = -0.210, respectively) and BMI (r = 0.242 and r = 0.204, respectively). The relationship between flexibility in different joints, as a rule, was not significant. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that from the used anthropometrical parameters the most important was the body height, which explained 11.1% (R2 x 100) of the 100 m breaststroke swim results using legs only. The most important parameter from the measured flexibility indices was knee external rotation (11.1%, R2 x 100). Combination of knee external rotation and ankle supination increased the determination coefficient to 24.4%. Finally, three flexibility measures (knee external rotation, ankle supination, hip external rotation) explained the swimming results by 28.2% (R2 x 100). It was concluded that the good flexibility is more important than single anthropometrical parameters when explaining the breaststroke swimming results using kickboard and legs only.
Analysis of USA swimming’s all-time top 100 times
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Longitudinal development of physical and performance parameters during biological maturation of young male swimmers
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Physical development and swimming performance during biological maturation in young female swimmers
- E Lätt
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Critical Periods in the Development of Performance Capacity During Childhood and Adolescence
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The influence of anthropometrical and flexibility parameters on the results of breaststroke swimming
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