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A SURVEY OF DISEASES IN CAPTIVE RED WOLVES ( CANIS RUFUS ), 1997–2012
Abstract
Conservation efforts to preserve the red wolf ( Canis rufus ) have been in progress since the 1970s through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Red Wolf Recovery Program and the Association of Zoos and Aquarium's Red Wolf Species Survival Plan. An ongoing part of this project has been to monitor mortality trends, particularly to look for potential genetic conditions resulting from inbreeding given the small founding population of only 14 individuals. An initial survey was conducted in the 1990s but a comprehensive assessment of the population has not been done since then. This retrospective review evaluates mortality in the population from 1997 to 2012 through analysis of gross necropsy and histology records provided by cooperating institutions that housed red wolves during the time period of interest. Of the 378 red wolves that died during this 15-yr period, 259 animals had gross necropsy records, histology records, or both that were evaluated. The major causes of neonatal death were parental trauma, stillbirth, or pneumonia. Overall, juveniles had very low mortality rates with only 12 wolves aged 30 days to 6 mo dying during the study period. The most common cause of death within the adult populations was neoplasia, with epithelial neoplasms, carcinomas, and adenocarcinomas being the most common types reported. Gastrointestinal disease was the second most common cause of death, particularly gastric dilation and volvulus, inflammatory bowel disease, and gastrointestinal perforations. These findings are in stark contrast to causes of mortality in the wild population, which are primarily due to human-related activities such as vehicular trauma, gunshot, or poisoning. Overall, the captive population has few health problems, but an increase in inflammatory bowel disease in particular warrants further investigation.
... While the captive population is integral to the recovery of the red wolf, there has been limited quantitative analysis of how management practices affect the long-term health and survival of these animals. Previous research on zoo red wolves has reported parental trauma and gastrointestinal disease as leading causes of death among neonates and adults, respectively (Acton et al. 2000, Seeley et al. 2016. Recent researchers of red wolves have suggested that genetic factors (Henson et al. 2017) and diet (Bragg et al. 2020) may drive high rates of gastrointestinal disorders and, perhaps, related mortalities. ...
... The following cause of death categories were listed: stillborn, parental trauma, neoplasia, gastrointestinal disease, renal disease, reproductive disease, capture-related, accidental or trauma, respiratory, musculoskeletal disease, opthalmic disease, sepsis, anesthesia-related, neurologic disease, and autoimmune. These reflect those reported in previous research exploring zoo-housed red wolf causes of death (Acton et al. 2000, Seeley et al. 2016). We also solicited information on guest access to each wolf (born after 1999), as many facilities maintain 2 separate areas for the wolves: ...
... = 107 days). Using a Cox mixed effect model, we treated death by parental trauma as the event and censored an individual if it did not die of parental trauma during the first 180 days (commonly considered the neonate period; Acton et al. 2000, Seeley et al. 2016 or if the individual was under 180 days old at the time of data collection (Dec 2020). We censored individuals who did not die of this event or survived past 180 days (n = 397) and scored those that died from parental trauma as an event (n = 37). ...
Ex situ breeding programs serve as an important conservation tool for threatened and endangered species. Such programs must strike a balance among the immediate welfare needs of individual animals, growing the population, maintaining genetic diversity, and ensuring a successful release. While several carnivores have been successfully reintroduced into the wild from ex situ populations, little is known regarding the long‐term effects of management practices on animals within such reintroduction programs. We evaluated the effects of different management practices on survival for red wolves ( Canis rufus ), an endangered species in North America for which >95% of the population remains under human care and destined for release, as of 2020. We combined studbook records and survey information on the population of red wolves under managed care in Association of Zoos and Aquariums institutions. We aimed to assess age‐specific survival probabilities and causes of mortality as outcomes of various management practices within the red wolf breeding program. Large enclosures significantly reduced the risk of death by parental trauma for neonates and transferring wolves away from their natal group improved overall survival probabilities. In addition, exposure to the public positively correlated with survival. We recommend large enclosures (>929 m ² ) for breeding pairs, consistent transfer plans away from natal groups, and the incorporation of flexible approaches to management based on strategic planning of releases. Improving ex situ breeding programs is important to the welfare and survival of animals under human care and plays an important role in the management and recovery of endangered and threatened species.
... Among the diseases affecting wild animals, birth defects are not commonly observed, and there are only a few reports of congenital abnormalities occurring in wild canids (8,20,22,24,30). Diaphragmatic hernias are disruptions of the diaphragm that result in the misplacement of abdominal viscera within the thoracic cavity, and they may be acquired or congenital (2). ...
... Birth defects in wild canids are rare and usually associated to ocular (8), cardiac (22,24) or musculoskeletal abnormalities (20,22,30). There are only a few reports of hernias in wild carnivores and they are restricted to wild felids (12,14) and a maned wolf (10). ...
... Birth defects in wild canids are rare and usually associated to ocular (8), cardiac (22,24) or musculoskeletal abnormalities (20,22,30). There are only a few reports of hernias in wild carnivores and they are restricted to wild felids (12,14) and a maned wolf (10). ...
An approximately 3-month-old crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) was found by environmental authorities in the State
of Paraiba, Northeastern Brazil and referred to a wildlife care center. The fox was presenting respiratory distress and it was
referred to the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Paraiba (UFPB) for ancillary testing. Abdominal and thoracic
ultrasound and radiographies were performed. These imaging tests indicated the fox had a possible diaphragmatic hernia and
ectopic kidney. The imageology results were confirmed on necropsy, which revealed a postero-lateral focal discontinuity of the
dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic muscle with protrusion of the gastrointestinal tract into the thoracic cavity. The stomach and
intestinal loops were filled with gas and obliterated the visualization of the heart and lungs. Additionally, only the right kidney
was found, and no vestigial left kidney was identified. Congenital diaphragmatic hernias are not commonly observed in wildlife
but should be considered as a potential differential diagnosis for acute onset of respiratory distress in young carnivores.
... 10 Prior studies have identified disease exposure and mortality in both captive and free-ranging red wolves. 2,9 A survey of mortality in captive red wolves examined postmortem between 1997 and 2012 identified neoplasia and gastrointestinal disease as the most common causes of death in adult animals. 9 Infectious disease (primarily bacterial pathogens) contributed to 9% of adult mortality. ...
... 2,9 A survey of mortality in captive red wolves examined postmortem between 1997 and 2012 identified neoplasia and gastrointestinal disease as the most common causes of death in adult animals. 9 Infectious disease (primarily bacterial pathogens) contributed to 9% of adult mortality. 9 A recent analysis of infectious diseases affecting free-ranging red wolves identified exposure to ectoparasites (ticks, biting lice, mange mites), endoparasites (hookworm, heartworm), viral disease (canine distemper, canine parvovirus, rabies), and tick-borne disease (Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever). 2 Prior determination that free-ranging red wolves are exposed to vector-borne organisms (VBOs) raises the question whether these pathogens affect the ex situ population. ...
... 9 Infectious disease (primarily bacterial pathogens) contributed to 9% of adult mortality. 9 A recent analysis of infectious diseases affecting free-ranging red wolves identified exposure to ectoparasites (ticks, biting lice, mange mites), endoparasites (hookworm, heartworm), viral disease (canine distemper, canine parvovirus, rabies), and tick-borne disease (Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever). 2 Prior determination that free-ranging red wolves are exposed to vector-borne organisms (VBOs) raises the question whether these pathogens affect the ex situ population. The goal of this study was to assess the prevalence of selected VBOs in captive red wolves to evaluate their potential as threats to species survival and to provide a baseline that may facilitate ongoing disease monitoring and the detection of emergent threats from such VBOs. ...
The red wolf (Canis rufus) is a critically endangered North American canid, with surviving conspecifics divided between a captive breeding population and a reintroduced free-ranging population. The goal of this study was to assess the prevalence of selected vector-borne pathogens in captive red wolves. Whole blood samples were collected from 35 captive red wolves. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were performed on extracted DNA to identify infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and vector-borne organisms within the following genera: Anaplasma, Babesia, Bartonella, Ehrlichia, Mycoplasma, Neoehrlichia, Neorickettsia, and Rickettsia. All red wolves sampled were PCR-negative for all tested organisms. These pathogens are unlikely to constitute threats to red wolf conservation and breeding efforts under current captive management conditions. The results of this study establish a baseline that may facilitate ongoing disease monitoring in this species.
... Unfortunately, the captive red wolf population is threatened by health issues, especially gastrointestinal (GI) disease that are not described in the wild population (Acton et al., 2000). Gastrointestinal disease is the second most common cause of mortality in the captive red wolf population (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). For instance, from 1992 through 2012, 21% (32/151) of mortalities in adult red wolves were related to GI disease, with 25% (8/32) of these individuals suffering from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). ...
... Gastrointestinal disease is the second most common cause of mortality in the captive red wolf population (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). For instance, from 1992 through 2012, 21% (32/151) of mortalities in adult red wolves were related to GI disease, with 25% (8/32) of these individuals suffering from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). An additional 25% (37/151) of wolves that died from 1992 to 2012 had non-lethal GI lesions (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). ...
... For instance, from 1992 through 2012, 21% (32/151) of mortalities in adult red wolves were related to GI disease, with 25% (8/32) of these individuals suffering from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). An additional 25% (37/151) of wolves that died from 1992 to 2012 had non-lethal GI lesions (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). While IBD did not kill these individuals, 68% (22/37) possessed lesions similar to IBD (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). ...
Captive management of many wildlife species can be challenging, with individuals displaying health disorders that are not generally described in the wild population. Retrospective studies have identified gastrointestinal (GI) diseases, in particular inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), as the second leading cause of captive adult red wolf (Canis rufus) mortality. Recent molecular studies show that imbalanced gut microbial composition is tightly linked to IBD in the domestic dog. The goal of the present study was to address two main questions: (1) how do red wolf gut microbiomes differ between animals with loose stool consistency, indicative of GI issues, and those with normal stool consistency and (2) how does dietary type relate to stool consistency and red wolf gut microbiomes? Fresh fecal samples were collected from 48 captive wolves housed in eight facilities in the United States and from two wild wolves living in Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, NC, United States. For each individual, the stool consistency was categorized as loose or normal using a standardized protocol and their diet was categorized as either wild, whole meat, a mix of whole meat and kibble or kibble. We characterized gut microbiome structure using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We found that red wolves with a loose stool consistency differed in composition than wolves with normal stool consistency, suggesting a link between GI health and microbiome composition. Diet was not related to stool consistency but did significantly impact gut microbiome composition; gut microbiome composition of wolves fed a kibble diet were significantly different than the gut microbiome composition of wolves fed a mixed, whole meat and wild diet. Findings from this study increase the understanding of the interplay between diet and GI health in the red wolf, a critical piece of information needed to maintain a healthy red wolf population ex situ.
... Association of Zoos and Aquariums and related facilities, the incidence of CEH or endometrial hyperplasia was 75% and the incidence of pyometra was 11.1%. Results of a 2009 retrospective mortality review 4 indicate that 2 of 64 (3.1%) red wolves died of pyometra over a 4-year period, whereas results of a 2016 review 5 of mortality records from 1997 to 2012 indicated that 8.8% of female red wolves died of reproductive tract disease and 11.8% of female red wolves had ancillary reproductive lesions such as suppurative endometritis or CEH. Additionally, Veterinary Advisor Reports a from 2009 to 2013 identified 8 female red wolves that were treated for, died of, or were euthanized because of pyometra. ...
... Factors that contribute to that increased risk include red wolf management, limited space available for breeding, and possibly a species predilection. 2,3,5,14 As the current population of red wolves ages, an increase in the frequency of age-associated diseases such as CEH and pyometra is expected. Results of a study 15 [3] 10.73 (7.14-18.67) ...
... Results of a study 15 [3] 10.73 (7.14-18.67) [5] 8.86 (7.14-12.85) [3] 16.31 (8.57-18.67) ...
OBJECTIVE To describe ultrasonographic characteristics of the reproductive tract and serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations in captive female red wolves ( Canis rufus ) with and without reproductive tract disease.
DESIGN Prospective study.
ANIMALS 13 adult female red wolves.
PROCEDURES Wolves with varying parity and history of contraceptive treatment were anesthetized to facilitate ultrasonographic examination and measurement of the reproductive tract and blood collection for determination of serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations in December 2011 and June 2012. Additionally, during the December evaluation, fine-needle aspirate samples of the uterus were obtained for cytologic evaluation. Measurements were compared between wolves with and without reproductive tract disease and between wolves that had and had not received a contraceptive.
RESULTS 7 of 13 wolves had or developed reproductive tract disease during the study. Ranges for measurements of reproductive tract structures overlapped between ultrasonographically normal and abnormal tracts, but measurements for abnormal tracts were generally greater than those for normal tracts. The ultrasonographic diagnosis was consistent with the histologic diagnosis for reproductive tracts obtained from wolves that were sterilized, were euthanized, or died during the study. Cytologic results for fine-needle aspirate samples of the uterus and serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations were unable to distinguish wolves with and without reproductive tract disease. Reproductive tract disease was not associated with parity or contraceptive administration.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The ultrasonographic images, reproductive tract measurements, and descriptions of reproductive tract lesions provided in this study can be used as diagnostic guidelines for the treatment and management of red wolves with reproductive tract disease.
... Association of Zoos and Aquariums and related facilities, the incidence of CEH or endometrial hyperplasia was 75% and the incidence of pyometra was 11.1%. Results of a 2009 retrospective mortality review 4 indicate that 2 of 64 (3.1%) red wolves died of pyometra over a 4-year period, whereas results of a 2016 review 5 of mortality records from 1997 to 2012 indicated that 8.8% of female red wolves died of reproductive tract disease and 11.8% of female red wolves had ancillary reproductive lesions such as suppurative endometritis or CEH. Additionally, Veterinary Advisor Reports a from 2009 to 2013 identified 8 female red wolves that were treated for, died of, or were euthanized because of pyometra. ...
... Factors that contribute to that increased risk include red wolf management, limited space available for breeding, and possibly a species predilection. 2,3,5,14 As the current population of red wolves ages, an increase in the frequency of age-associated diseases such as CEH and pyometra is expected. Results of a study 15 [3] 10.73 (7.14-18.67) ...
... Results of a study 15 [3] 10.73 (7.14-18.67) [5] 8.86 (7.14-12.85) [3] 16.31 (8.57-18.67) ...
OBJECTIVE
To describe ultrasonographic characteristics of the reproductive tract and serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations in captive female red wolves (Canis rufus) with and without reproductive tract disease.
DESIGN
Prospective study.
ANIMALS
13 adult female red wolves.
PROCEDURES
Wolves with varying parity and history of contraceptive treatment were anesthetized to facilitate ultrasonographic examination and measurement of the reproductive tract and blood collection for determination of serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations in December 2011 and June 2012. Additionally, during the December evaluation, fine-needle aspirate samples of the uterus were obtained for cytologic evaluation. Measurements were compared between wolves with and without reproductive tract disease and between wolves that had and had not received a contraceptive.
RESULTS
7 of 13 wolves had or developed reproductive tract disease during the study. Ranges for measurements of reproductive tract structures overlapped between ultrasonographically normal and abnormal tracts, but measurements for abnormal tracts were generally greater than those for normal tracts. The ultrasonographic diagnosis was consistent with the histologic diagnosis for reproductive tracts obtained from wolves that were sterilized, were euthanized, or died during the study. Cytologic results for fine-needle aspirate
samples of the uterus and serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations were unable to distinguish wolves with and without reproductive tract disease. Reproductive tract disease was not associated with parity or contraceptive administration.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
The ultrasonographic images, reproductive tract measurements, and descriptions of reproductive tract lesions provided in this study can be used as diagnostic guidelines for the treatment and management of red wolves with reproductive tract disease. ( J Am Vet Med Assoc 2018;252:343–352)
... Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and pyometra are commonly identified in aged red wolves and African wild dogs (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). Although spontaneous disease occurs, it is thought that the use of synthetic progestagin contraceptives, such as melengestrol acetate, may increase the risk for severe CEH and mineralization (Moresco and Agnew, 2013). ...
... Gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV) has been reported a number of times in captive red wolves, in several maned wolves, and in a red panda. As in domestic dogs, conformation may be a predispositing factor (Acton et al., 2000;Seeley et al., 2016). Additionally, wolves may develop GDV immediately after a struggle associated with capture, and dietary factors have been suggested, but not conclusively proven, to predispose to GDV. ...
... This could suggest that the genetic and environmental characteristics associated with moderately long leg length can be achieved during prolonged evolutionary processes without increasing osteosarcoma risk, while the accelerated modern breeding of dogs for extreme conformational traits has increased the risk of certain cancers, including osteosarcoma. However, a significant cause of death in geriatric captive wild canids is neoplasia, meaning that whilst natural selection is likely to select against inheritance of risk alleles for cancers which occur in early life, cellular aging can inevitably lead to cancer in any population, even those at low heritable risk [60,61]. The complexity of association between various conformational traits and osteosarcoma risk perhaps supports the idea of polygenic risk in many breeds, with associated environmental influences, and therefore the biology of bone in disparate breeds should be explored using further genetic and phenotypic analyses. ...
Background:
Osteosarcoma is a malignant bone neoplasia that has high welfare consequences for affected dogs. Awareness of breed and canine conformational risk factors for osteosarcoma can assist with earlier diagnosis and improved clinical management. Study of osteosarcoma in dogs also offers translational value for humans. Anonymised clinical data within VetCompass on dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK were searched for osteosarcoma cases. Descriptive statistics reported overall and breed-specific prevalence. Risk factor analysis used multivariable logistic regression modelling.
Results:
From 905,552 study dogs, 331 osteosarcoma cases were confirmed yielding a one-year period prevalence of 0.037% (95% CI: 0.033-0.041). Breeds with the highest annual prevalence were the Scottish Deerhound (3.28%, 95% CI 0.90-8.18), Leonberger (1.48%, 95% CI 0.41- 3.75), Great Dane (0.87%, 95% CI 0.43- 1.55) and Rottweiler (0.84%, 95% CI 0.64-1.07). The median age at diagnosis was 9.64 years (IQR: 7.97-11.41). Following multivariable modelling, 11 breeds showed increased odds of osteosarcoma compared with crossbred dogs. Breeds with the highest odds included Scottish Deerhound (OR 118.40, 95% CI 41.12-340.95), Leonberger (OR 55.79, 95% CI 19.68-158.15), Great Dane (OR 34.24, 95% CI 17.81-65.83) and Rottweiler (OR 26.67, 95% CI 18.57-38.29). Compared with breeds with mesocephalic skull conformation, breeds with dolichocephalic skull conformation (OR 2.72, 95% CI 2.06-3.58) had increased odds while breeds with brachycephalic skull conformation showed reduced odds (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.32-0.80). Chondrodystrophic breeds had 0.10 times the odds (95% CI 0.06-0.15) compared with non-chondrodystrophic breeds. Increasing adult bodyweight was associated with increasing odds of osteosarcoma.
Conclusions:
The current study cements the concept that breed, bodyweight and longer leg or longer skull length are all strong risk factors for osteosarcoma in dogs. With this awareness, veterinarians can update their clinical suspicion and judgement, breeders can select towards lower-risk animals, and researchers can robustly define more useful study populations for fundamental and translational bioscience.
... A suspected hereditary retinal degenerative disorder has also been identified in red wolves (Canis rufus) (Acton et al. 2000;Seeley et al. 2016;Ring and Kearns 1997). Red wolves are a critically endangered species, and only approximately 300 remain in captive or managed populations throughout North America. ...
The diverse family Canidae has spread across many continents and contains species with different habitats and feeding behaviors. The family includes the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), and the majority of studies into canid ocular anatomy, physiology and clinical medicine have been performed in this species. In this chapter, normal ocular and retinal anatomy, ophthalmic examination techniques, and reported disorders of the ocular system in wild canid species are discussed, with comparisons to findings in domestic dogs where applicable. Superimposed on a common ocular blueprint, there are species-specific differences, e.g., in pupil shape, photoreceptor properties and retinal ganglion cell topographies that indicate evolutionary adaptations to different habitats and lifestyles. Ocular disorders described in canid species other than domestic dogs are summarized, along with a brief description of pertinent disorders of the domestic canine.
... However, environmental factors are also likely to be important [91]. It has even been suggested that only individuals in captivity experience immunopathology as a result of dysbiosis associated with the artificial environment (e.g., in marmosets [92], red wolves [93], and cheetahs [94]). This idea in turn suggests that a wide variety of mammals might be prone to immunopathology in certain environments, due to their own legacies of coevolution with symbionts (as outlined above). ...
The mammalian immune system packs serious punch against infection but can also cause harm: for example, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) made headline news of the simultaneous power and peril of human immune responses. In principle, natural selection leads to exquisite adaptation and therefore cytokine responsiveness that optimally balances the benefits of defense against its costs (e.g., immunopathology suffered and resources expended). Here, we illustrate how evolutionary biology can predict such optima and also help to explain when/why individuals exhibit apparently maladaptive immunopathological responses. Ultimately, we argue that the evolutionary legacies of multicellularity and life-history strategy, in addition to our coevolution with symbionts and our demographic history, together explain human susceptibility to overzealous, pathology-inducing cytokine responses. Evolutionary insight thereby complements molecular/cellular mechanistic insights into immunopathology.
... Sometimes, animals in captivity exhibit abnormal behaviour such stereotypies (Vaz et al., 2017) or aggressiveness ( Salas et al., 2016) due to poor welfare, as behaviour is an animal's ''first line of defence'' in response to environmental change, i.e., what animals do to interact with, respond to, and control their environment (Mench, 1998). Moreover, in literature, the pathologies affecting captive animals have been shown to be different from the ones affecting wild populations (Seeley et al., 2016;Strong et al., 2016). ...
Background
The zoo is a unique environment in which to study animals. Zoos have a long history of research into aspects of animal biology, even if this was not the primary purpose for which they were established. The data collected from zoo animals can have a great biological relevance and it can tell us more about what these animals are like outside the captive environment. In order to ensure the health of all captive animals, it is important to perform a post-mortem examination on all the animals that die in captivity.
Methods
The causes of mortality of two hundred and eighty two mammals which died between 2004 and 2015 in three different Italian zoos (a Biopark, a Safari Park and a private conservation center) have been investigated.
Results
Post mortem findings have been evaluated reporting the cause of death, zoo type, year and animal category. The animals frequently died from infectious diseases, in particular the causes of death in ruminants were mostly related to gastro-intestinal pathologies. pulmonary diseases were also very common in each of the zoos in the study. Moreover, death was sometimes attributable to traumas, as a result of fighting between conspecifics or during mating. Cases of genetic diseases and malformations have also been registered.
Discussion
This research was a confirmation of how conservation, histology and pathology are all connected through individual animals. These areas of expertise are extremely important to ensure the survival of rare and endangered species and to learn more about their morphological and physiological conditions. They are also useful to control pathologies, parasites and illnesses that can have a great impact on the species in captivity. Finally, this study underlines the importance of a close collaboration between veterinarians, zoo biologists and pathologists. Necropsy findings can help conservationists to determine how to support wild animal populations.
... The etiology remains unclear in most cases and it would seem that protein-rich nutrition possibly favours the condition. Moreover, acquired infectious (such as leptospirosis) or noninfectious (such as autoimmune) diseases or congenital factors might be involved [45,89,90]. Mild bacterial or viral infections are primarily suspected of causing the inflammation. ...
Anthropogenic landscape changes contributed to the reduction of availability of habitats to wild animals. Hence, the presence of wild terrestrial carnivores in urban and peri-urban sites has increased considerably over the years implying an increased risk of interspecies spillover of infectious diseases and the transmission of zoonoses. The present study provides a detailed characterisation of the health status of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), stone marten (Martes foina) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in their natural rural and peri-urban habitats in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany between November 2013 and January 2016 with focus on zoonoses and infectious diseases that are potentially threatening to other wildlife or domestic animal species. 79 red foxes, 17 stone martens and 10 raccoon dogs were collected from traps or hunts. In order to detect morphological changes and potential infectious diseases, necropsy and pathohistological work-up was performed. Additionally, in selected animals immunohistochemistry (influenza A virus, parvovirus, feline leukemia virus, Borna disease virus, tick-borne encephalitis, canine adenovirus, Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii and Listeria monocytogenes), next-generation sequencing, polymerase chain reaction (fox circovirus) and serum-neutralisation analysis (canine distemper virus) were performed. Furthermore, all animals were screened for fox rabies virus (immunofluorescence), canine distemper virus (immunohistochemistry) and Aujeszky’s disease (virus cultivation). The most important findings included encephalitis (n = 16) and pneumonia (n = 20). None of the investigations revealed a specific cause for the observed morphological alterations except for one animal with an elevated serum titer of 1:160 for canine distemper. Animals displayed macroscopically and/or histopathologically detectable infections with parasites, including Taenia sp., Toxocara sp. and Alaria alata. In summary, wildlife predators carry zoonotic parasitic disease and suffer from inflammatory diseases of yet unknown etiology, possibly bearing infectious potential for other animal species and humans. This study highlights the value of monitoring terrestrial wildlife following the “One Health” notion, to estimate the incidence and the possible spread of zoonotic pathogens and to avoid animal to animal spillover as well as transmission to humans.
... Dingo Lymphoma, thymoma, lipoma of subcutis, fibromatous epulis, perianal adenoma, sebaceous adenoma, squamous cell carcinoma, bronchial adenoma Ladds (2009) Canis mesomelas Black-backed jackal Osteoma, hemangiosarcoma Chu et al. (2012) Canis rufus Red wolf Adenocarcinoma, carcinomas Snyder and Ratcliffe (1966); Seeley et al. (2016) Capra hircus Domestic goat Lymphoma Ratcliffe (1933) Cercopithecus aethiops African green monkey Hepatoma, mixed hepatocellular and cholangiocellular carcinoma, uterine leiomyoma Porter et al. (2004); Chu et al. (2012) Cercopithecus diana Diana monkey Cholangiocarcinoma Porter et al. (2004) Cercopithecus mitis Blue monkey Biliary adenoma/cystadenoma Porter et al. (2004) ...
Neoplasia has been recorded in the vast majority of metazoans. The frequent occurrence of cancer in multicellular organisms suggests that neoplasia, similar to pathogens/parasites, may have a significant negative impact on host fitness in the wild. This is supported by the fact that wildlife cancers have recently been shown to result in significantly increased levels of mortality and concomitant reduction in fitness. By thorough searches of the available literature we provide a comprehensive and an updated list of cancer prevalence and etiology in the wild. We were, however, unable to find data on nontransmissible cancer prevalence in invertebrates and consequently this chapter focuses on cancer in wild vertebrates. Although single cases of cancer are frequently encountered in the wildlife, we were only able to retrieve robust data on cancer prevalence for 31 vertebrate species (12 fish, 3 amphibians, 2 reptiles, 2 birds, and 12 mammals). Cancer prevalence among these vertebrates ranged from as low as 0.2% observed in Canada geese (Branta canadensis) to more than 50% recorded in both Santa Catalina Island foxes (Urocyon littoralis catalinae) and Cape mountain zebras (Equus zebra zebra). The high prevalence recorded in some vertebrates strongly suggests that cancer in wildlife may indeed carry significant fitness costs. In spite of this, the low number of published comprehensive studies clearly shows that so far cancer in wildlife has received insufficient attention by biologists. We hope that this chapter will act as a catalyst for further studies focusing on the impact of cancer in wild animals. The chapter additionally compares cancer recorded in French zoological parks to those obtained at other zoological parks. Finally, we provide an updated list of cancer recorded as single cases in the wild, as well as in captive animals.
... Though the importance of viable ex situ populations for both maned and red wolves is becoming increasingly apparent, both species suffer health (Phillips & Scheck 1991, Gilioli & Silva 2000 and reproductive difficulties (Ginsberg 1994, Rodden et al. 1996, Rabon 2011, Johnson et al. 2014). Gastrointestinal disease is a major factor in mortalities in both red and maned wolves and has a high prevalence in both ex situ populations (Acton et al. 2000, Maia & Gouveia 2002, Stirling et al. 2008, Seeley et al. 2016. ...
Characterizing Toll-like receptors across taxa can lead to an increasingly accurate documentation of the evolutionary processes acting within this receptor class, as well as a greater understanding of the diseases associated with these receptors. This study examines 2 sequenced portions of the Toll-like receptor 5 (TLRS5) protein coding gene in 2 imperiled canid species: the Near Threatened maned wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus and the Critically Endangered red wolf Canis rufus, to characterize genetic variation and investigate the presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously associated with canine inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Both maned and red wolves suffer from inflammatory bowel disease, threatening the sustainability of their crucial ex situ populations. Here we report novel polymorphic positions found in maned and red wolf TLR5, differences in variation with regard to nucleotide polymorphisms and resulting amino acid variation among maned wolves, red wolves, gray wolves and domestic dogs. Domestic dog SNPs associated with IBD were not found to be polymorphic in maned wolves and red wolves. Samples of both focal species and gray wolves lack the protective alleles present in many dog breeds, suggesting a potential genetic predisposition for IBD in these 2 wild canid species and a possible development of these protective alleles post domestication. This potential predisposition informs ex situ management practices and treatment for IBD.
Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) is one of two extant neotropical species of the family Megalonychidae. Despite their being commonly kept under managed care, the digestive physiology of sloths remains poorly understood. Gastrointestinal disease has been reported as a primary or contributing cause of morbidity and mortality in captive two-toed and three-toed (Bradypus spp.) sloths. Gastric dilatation due to gas accumulation ("bloat") has been reported in sloths; however, a literature search failed to yield any published mention of gastric volvulus in any sloth species. Following an inquiry sent to the electronic mailing lists of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, and the LatinVets community, three cases of fatal gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV) were identified in one male and two female Linnaeus's two-toed sloths from institutions in the United States, Canada, and Germany. All cases occurred in juvenile sloths <1 yr of age. Two animals were primarily hand reared, whereas one was reared primarily by its dam. Two animals were found dead with no overt premonitory signs, whereas one animal died following a 3-wk course of waxing and waning clinical signs consistent with gastric gas accumulation. In all cases, GDV was diagnosed on postmortem examination. Similar to other species, the condition is likely subsequent to a combination of host- and husbandry-related contributing factors. Further research into sloth husbandry is required in order to take an evidence-based approach to their management.
Neoplastic diseases are rarely described in wild carnivores; only a few reports have been published on this topic. Here, we describe the histological and immunohistochemical features of a haemangioma in the spleen of a grey wolf (Canis lupus lupus) and we compare the results with the dog (Canis lupus familiaris). Additionally, we list the different publications found in the literature with neoplastic lesions in wolves. Our results show similar immunohistochemical features to dogs, in which neoplastic cells express Vimentin, von Willebrand factor, alpha smooth muscle actin antibody, vascular endothelial growth factor C and low vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3. Toluidine blue special stain shows moderated increased numbers of mast cells infiltrating the tumor, a feature observed in benign vascular tumors in domestic dogs, but not in the malignant counterparts. To our knowledge, this is the first article describing the gross, histological and immunohistochemical features of a splenic haemangioma in a wolf.
Although there are many obstacles to perform post mortem exams in wild animals, important information can be gathered to improve the knowledge of the species and implement good conservation measures. Also, wild animals are excellent bioindicators, that can provide information about the health of the ecosystems and the human impact of Man in those. The main objective of this study was to describe the major pathological lesions observed during the necropsy of wild mammals, reptiles and amphibians in a Centre for Rehabilitation of Wild Animals in the North of Portugal, and its main causes of mortality. A total of 79 animals were analysed. From this 60.75 % belonged to Class Mammalia, 31.64% to Class Reptilia and 7.59% to Class Amphibia. The main causes of admission were: found with trauma (41.77%) and found weakened (13.92%). In the Class Mammalia respiratory system was the main system affected (n = 30) whereas in Classes Reptilia and Amphibia musculoskeletal and integumentary systems were the most affected. This type of study on this species is quite scarce and, as far as we know, this the first study made in Portugal. The knowledge obtained from post-mortem examination of this animals, preferably supplemented with complementary exams, is an important tool for wildlife preservation specially in those species that are in risk of extinction.
Neoplasia has been recorded in the vast majority of metazoans. The frequent occurrence of cancer in multicellular organisms suggests that neoplasia, similar to pathogens/parasites, may have a significant negative impact on host fitness in the wild. This is supported by the fact that wildlife cancers have recently been shown to result in significantly increased levels of mortality and concomitant reduction in fitness. By thorough searches of the available literature we provide a comprehensive and an updated list of cancer prevalence and etiology in the wild. We were, however, unable to find data on nontransmissible cancer prevalence in invertebrates and consequently this chapter focuses on cancer in wild vertebrates. Although single cases of cancer are frequently encountered in the wildlife, we were only able to retrieve robust data on cancer prevalence for 31 vertebrate species (12 fish, 3 amphibians, 2 reptiles, 2 birds, and 12 mammals). Cancer prevalence among these vertebrates ranged from as low as 0.2% observed in Canada geese (Branta canadensis) to more than 50% recorded in both Santa Catalina Island foxes (Urocyon littoralis catalinae) and Cape mountain zebras (Equus zebra zebra). The high prevalence recorded in some vertebrates strongly suggests that cancer in wildlife may indeed carry significant fitness costs. In spite of this, the low number of published comprehensive studies clearly shows that so far cancer in wildlife has received insufficient attention by biologists. We hope that this chapter will act as a catalyst for further studies focusing on the impact of cancer in wild animals. The chapter additionally compares cancer recorded in French zoological parks to those obtained at other zoological parks. Finally, we provide an updated list of cancer recorded as single cases in the wild, as well as in captive animals.
An 18-mo-old male red wolf (Canis rufus) presented with footpad hyperkeratosis, suppurative paronychia, distal limb pyoderma, and peripheral lymphadenopathy. Diet for the previous 11 mo consisted of a mixture of two commercially prepared dog foods with a mineral supplement containing primarily calcium. Culture of the draining tracts on the distal limbs yielded a mixed population of opportunistic bacteria. Histopathologic findings were consistent with a diagnosis of zinc deficiency. Medical therapy consisted of 15 mg/kg amoxicillin p.o. b.i.d. and 10 mg/kg zinc sulfate p.o. s.i.d. Calcium supplementation was discontinued. Clinical signs resolved by 10 wk after the initiation of treatment.
The gross and histopathologic findings for a primary tonsillar squamous cell carcinoma in a captive 11-yr-old male polar wolf (Canis lupus arctos) are described. The carcinoma had metastasized to regional lymph nodes of the pharynx, the precardial mediastinum, and the lungs. Tumor suppressor protein TP53 was detected by immunohistochemistry in the nuclei of poorly differentiated, cytokeratin-positive cells of the primary neoplasm and the metastases. Canine oral papillomavirus DNA was not detectable by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).