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The Rise of the “Gig Economy” and Implications for Understanding Work and Workers

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Abstract

Bergman and Jean (2016) include freelancers as one of the categories of workers who are understudied in the industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology literature. This neglect is particularly striking given the attention paid by the popular media and by politicians to the rise of the “gig economy,” comprising primarily short-term independent freelance workers (e.g., Cook, 2015; Kessler, 2014; Scheiber, 2014; Warner, 2015). This may be due in part to challenges involved in accessing and researching this population, as discussed by Bergman and Jean, but it may also arise from complexities in defining and conceptualizing freelance work, as well as from misunderstandings about the nature of the work now performed by many people who are considered freelancers. Major topics of interest to I-O psychologists such as organizational attraction, job satisfaction, and turnover may seem at first glance to lack relevance to the study of workers who are officially classified as self-employed. But there is substantial opportunity for I-O psychologists and other behaviorally oriented organizational researchers to contribute to our understanding of the growing number of people who earn all or some of their income by freelancing.

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... Studies indicate that as traditional employment structures become less stable, younger generations are more inclined to pursue entrepreneurial and freelance opportunities, often facilitated by digital platforms (Frey & Osborne, 2017;McAfee & Brynjolfsson, 2014). This shift is evident in the increasing number of young people who express a preference for remote or location-independent work, viewing it as a means to achieve a better work-life balance and greater personal freedom (Kuhn, 2016;Mas &Pallais, 2020).However, the allure of digital careers is not without its challenges. While digital entrepreneurship offers unprecedented opportunities for selfactualization and financial success, the reality is often more complex. ...
... The preference for flexible, non-traditional work arrangements could limit young people's willingness to commit to longterm roles or careers that require significant training and specialization. This trend is problematic in fields where continuity and accumulated expertise are critical for career advancement, such as medicine, law, or scientific research (Kuhn, 2016). Additionally, the preference for work-life balance may conflict with the demands of digital careers, which often require content creators to be constantly active on social media, producing content and engaging with their audience to maintain visibility and relevance (Marwick, 2015). ...
... There is a need for career counseling that goes beyond traditional career pathways to incorporate discussions about digital entrepreneurship, freelancing, and the gig economy. Advisors should also help young people develop a realistic understanding of the demands and risks associated with digital careers, including the challenges of income instability, content competition, and the need for continuous skill development (Kuhn, 2016).Educational institutions can play a crucial role by integrating digital literacy, entrepreneurship, and critical thinking into the curriculum. Such initiatives would equip students with the skills needed to navigate the digital economy and make informed career decisions. ...
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The career aspirations of Generation Z are increasingly shaped by digitalization, with a strong preference for flexible, digital, and location-independent careers. This mixed-methods study explores these aspirations among 87 young individuals aged 15-27, combining quantitative survey data with qualitative content analysis to provide insights into career preferences and motivations. Results reveal a significant inclination toward digital and social media-related professions, with a notable emphasis on work-life balance and autonomy. While digital careers are attractive, the perceived feasibility decreases with age, reflecting a developmental shift toward more realistic career expectations. The findings underscore the impact of social media on career aspirations and highlight the need for career counseling that addresses the risks and challenges of digital career paths. The study also discusses implications for education and policy, aiming to support young people in navigating an evolving career landscape.
... Increased competition in the gig economy forces organizations to remain competitive by cutting costs, primarily by reducing their core workforce and replacing them with periphery workers (Ashford, Caza & Reid, 2018). Gig work is as varied as organizational work Katz & Krueger, 2019;Kuhn, 2016), with some gig workers engaging in longer-term, knowledge-intensive, and creative work (such as graphic design and IT consulting) and others engaging primarily in lower-skilled, task-based work (such as food delivery and ridesharing). ...
... Such settings offer many taken-for-granted resources to workers, including a rooted sense of place and consistent interaction with colleagues and management who provide support and direction (Ashford et al., 2018). Yet, those who work independently on gigs (Katz and Krueger, 2019;Kuhn, 2016), without a long-term relationship with a particular organization, face very different working conditions and unique challenges and, as a result, are likely to have quite different experiences of their work with diverse effects on their attitudes and job satisfaction (Ashford et al., 2018;Spreitzer, Cameron, & Garrett, 2017). Recognizing the increasing importance, variety and extent of gig work, scholars have called for a deeper examination of these workers' lived experiences and attitudes (e.g. ...
... As independent workers, Ipros are paid for the stipulated period during which they are contracted by the client (McKeown & Cochrane, 2017;Way et al., 2010). While working on specific projects, they have a flexible nature of work by assuming control over the work processes, however the client controls the work deliverables (Barley & Kunda, 2006;Cappelli & Keller, 2013;Kuhn, 2016). Ipros undertake this line of work as a conscious and informed career choice to the changing labour market practices or as a response to uncontrolled circumstances like unemployment, or for an opportunity to restart their career (McKeown, 2019;McKeown & Pichault, 2021). ...
... Although the high degree of autonomy and flexibility is a key factor for individuals moving into this space (Barley & Kunda, 2006;Cappelli & Keller, 2013;Cardon, 2003;Connelly & Gallagher, 2006); they may face multiple hurdles when it comes to their career. Ipros career success rests on their expertise and goodwill, and reputation in the job market (Barley & Kunda, 2006;Kirkpatrick et al., 2019;Kuhn, 2016). In addition, personal resources such as self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional states help them maintain their status and value (McKeown & Cochrane, 2017;McKeown et al., 2011;McKeown & Pichault, 2021). ...
Article
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Independent professionals represent a highly skilled contractual based workforce. In this paper, we propose a conceptual framework that explains the career construction mechanism of independent professionals. Specifically, we theorize that their boundaryless career orientation favorably influences the perception of their marketability via their involvement in career construction activities. Additionally, we elucidate the intervening role of their career competencies, physical and psychological mobility in augmenting or dampening perceived marketability as a career outcome. Differing to traditionally employed professionals, we argue that independent professional careers can be better explained conjointly, rather than separately, by boundaryless career theory and career construction theory. This paper has practical relevance in highlighting the significance of career construction activities by independent professionals for achieving positive career outcomes while pursuing a boundaryless career.
... Nesse contexto, estudiosos destacam as vantagens da ausência dos trabalhadores submeterem-se à hierarquia funcional (STOREY et al., 2005) e liberação da necessidade de se fidelizarem por muito tempo a uma única atividade (KUHN e MALEKI, 2017;GHERARDI e MURGIA, 2013). Desse modo, o trabalho nas plataformas apresentaria vantagens para indivíduos que desejam ter controle sobre o tempo de trabalho, como aqueles que não podem desempenhar funções em tempo integral ou outro que procuram diversificar as fontes de renda (KUHN, 2016). Esses argumentos explicam por que esses tipos de trabalho têm prosperado em contexto de crise econômica continuada (MASELLI et al., 2016). ...
... O principal elemento que os oponentes ou críticos do chamado "capitalismo de plataforma" (SRNICEK, 2017) enfatizam é a precarização e instabilidade das relações de trabalho (FROST, 2017;KUHN, 2016;WOOD et al., 2019). Autores afirmam que essas atividades não propiciam oportunidades de ascensão profissional e formação de carreiras laborais ascendentes (PETRIGLIERI et al., 2019) e que o limitado potencial de que ganhem algo além de recompensas monetárias imediatas levanta sérias questões sobre a sustentabilidade e prosperidade dessas funções a médio e longo prazo (KOST et al., 2020). ...
... In order to achieve personal desires, individuals focus on additional learning resources (Ryan & Deci, 2017). A gig worker joins the economy either for the sake of money (extrinsic motivation) or by the features of the work (Kanat-Maymon et al., 2020;Kuhn, 2016;Kuhn & Galloway, 2019). Relatedness is important for emotional and social development. ...
... Uber/Lyft sürücüleri, Airbnb ev sahipleri, çağrı üzerine çalışanlar, belli koşullarda ve yarı zamanlı olarak çalışanlar, mevsimlik çalışanlar Gig ekonomisini oluşturmaktadır. Upwork ve Amazon Mechanical Turk gibi uzaktan çalışma piyasaları, site tasarımı, veri girişi yapma veya fotoğraf etiketleme gibi işler için saatlik ya da parça başına ödeme ile dünyanın farklı yerlerinden serbest çalışanları istihdam etmektedir (Kuhn, 2016'dan aktaran Ertürk, 2022. ...
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COVID-19 salgını ile havacılık sektörü daha önce benzeri görülmemiş bir kriz ile karşı karşıya kalmakla birlikte alınan önlemler sonucunda neredeyse tüm dünyada uçuş operasyonları yapılamaz hale geldi. Bu durum birçok havayolu işletmesinin geliri olmadan hayatta kalma mücadelesi içerisine girmesine neden olmuştur. Havacılık sektöründe yıkıcı sayılabilecek diğer olaylardan çok daha sert geçen COVID-19 salgınında yöneticilerin kriz yönetme becerileri “var olma” noktasında belirleyici oldu. Bu noktada bilimsel yaklaşımla temellendirilmiş kriz yönetimi uygulamaları işletmelerin yaşamlarını sürdürebilmelerini mümkün kılmıştır. Bu kitapta COVID-19 salgının havacılık sektörüne etkileri çok boyutlu olarak değerlendirilmiş ve salgına yönelik yapılmış uygulamalar bir sistematik içerisinde açıklanmıştır. Bu kitap her ne kadar COVID-19 salgınına yönelik uygulama ve önlemler üzerine kurgulansa da gerçekleşebilecek olası diğer krizlere yönelik kriz yönetimi yaklaşımlarını da içermektedir. Dolayısıyla bu kaynak hem havacılık alanında faaliyet gösteren akademisyenlerin hem de uygulayıcıların bilgi gereksinimlerini karşılamak amacıyla yazılmıştır.
... Gig work poses unique challenges to human resource management (HRM) theory and research (Kuhn, 2016;Kuhn, Meijerink, & Keegan, 2021;Meijerink & Keegan, 2019), as HRM is traditionally conceptualized as the managerial activities for maintaining employment relationships, whereas in gig economy a standard employment relationship may be absent (Meijerink & Keegan, 2019). Despite it, gig economy platforms have engaged in designing and implementing a variety of HRM practices, including workforce planning (Chen, Mislove, & Wilson, 2015), performance assessment (Rosenblat, Levy, Barocas, & Hwang, 2017), the dismissal of poor-performing gig workers (Rosenblat & Stark, 2016) and the design of reward structures (Bush & Balven, 2021). ...
Article
Purpose This study aims to explore the human resource management (HRM) practices related to training and feedback in the app work industry, specifically in online food delivery service, and investigate the emotional and behavioral responses of gig workers. Design/methodology/approach This study adopts a qualitative approach by interviewing 19 gig workers from six food delivery firms operating in different countries. Findings The results show limited training and feedback opportunities are provided to app workers, although the complexity of training and delivery methods differ across platforms. To address this shortage, app workers developed response strategies relying on social interaction. Research limitations/implications This study adds to the research on HRM practices in the gig economy by portraying the way in which training and feedback unfold in the food delivery app ecosystem and by disclosing the gig workers’ emotional and behavioral responses to it. Practical implications This study shows that the way training activities are currently designed may provide little value to the ecosystem and are likely to produce negative emotional responses in gig workers. Thus, platform providers may make use of these findings by introducing more transparent feedback and social learning opportunities. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is among the first empirical studies on online delivery gig workers addressing specific HRM practices. It reveals significant insights for training and feedback, suggesting app economy characteristics strongly affect training and feedback practices for app workers.
... Similar to small business owners, individuals who choose a career path in the arts (e.g., artists, musicians, performers) often follow a passion, lack the managerial relationships associated with other types of work, and do so at the risk of financial and job insecurity. In some ways, a career in the arts can be considered with other gig workers or freelancers, who have been studied in I-O psychology (e.g., Cropanzano et al., 2023), albeit not enough to reflect that 20-30% of the workforce works in gig arrangements (Dua et al., 2022;Kuhn, 2016). In other ways, the commitment to creative endeavors for employment (which would otherwise be pursued voluntarily) seems unique compared to other gig work. ...
... 2 | RESEARCH BACKGROUND 2.1 | Microtask crowdsourcing as an alternative work setting Online labour platforms reflect a new form of work in the digital age (Ashford et al., 2018;Caza et al., 2022;Durward et al., 2020;Howcroft & Bergvall-Kåreborn, 2019;Kuhn & Maleki, 2017;Taylor & Joshi, 2019). Workers on online labour platforms fulfil tasks remotely for financial compensation, without any formal employment relationship with the platform or the requester (Ihl et al., 2020;Kuhn, 2016). Approximately 19 million individuals have obtained work at least once through online labour platforms, and five million have completed at least ten projects (Stephany et al., 2021). ...
Article
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Micro‐task crowdsourcing (MTCS) platforms offer alternative work settings outside traditional work boundaries and thus increasingly attract crowdworkers who face exclusion from access to other work. However, we know little about these crowdworkers' perspective on MTCS and its implications for their personal life. Building on insights from three qualitative surveys with responses from 538 crowdworkers and 576 forum posts in total, we show that despite the often challenging work conditions, MTCS platforms provide these crowdworkers with a work environment in which they can participate in paid work activities without feeling excluded due to their personal circumstances. As a result, MTCS platform work provides these crowdworkers with a set of positive experiences that were not possible before. These afforded experiences go beyond work‐related experiences but relate directly to crowdworkers' personal situation and life. Our research yields implications for the literature on MTCS and also for policy makers and stakeholders concerned with the creation of more inclusive work settings.
... HRM in organizations hiring gig workers is also experiencing challenges in talents selection, utilization and education. One central point of contention revolves around the employment status of gig workers is that only stable workforce and strong culture can be seen as sources of competitive advantage by conventional management views [25]. ...
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A new era of digital technology, characterized by the advent of mobile internet, cloud computing, big data, and artificial intelligence, is reshaping human production and lifestyle, heralding a paradigm shift in the way we engage with the world around us. As a matter of fact, digital transformation is no longer a distant future but an ongoing reality faced by all enterprises alike. Within this evolving landscape, human resources management, being a pivotal component of organizational management, is undergoing profound changes driven by digitalization. This paper combs the literature from all over the world in the field of digital human resource management in the past ten years, and extracts the key discoveries. This paper sums up the four most popular research topics: digital natives, service-oriented human resource management, updated connection mode, and ensuring the status of humanity. On the basis of the review, this paper looks forward to the future by pointing out possible research directions and making relevant recommendations.
... Independent contractors have limited opportunities to develop meaningful relationships on social media and cultivate networking skills that contribute to their professional advancement, mostly because they lack direct engagement with clients and colleagues (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). This impedes their ability to engage with the gig platforms, the local community, and their own work (Boons, Stam, & Barkema, 2015;Kuhn, 2016). Social networking sites are essential in many professions since they enable people to develop their networking abilities and tap into the knowledge and resources of others. ...
Article
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The idea that individuals take ownership of their personal growth and, as a result, take control of improving their job competences has been a major tenet of proponents of what is known as the boundaryless professional view. In this provocative article, we discuss the barriers to and possible solutions for advancing boundaryless professions in the gig economy, which, although initially seeming to provide favourable circumstances for such occupations, is plagued by several variables that make these professions difficult. Therefore, it's possible that professions without boundaries exist in the gig economy. Specifically, we hypothesise that gig workers' employability is restricted by the acquisition of pertinent professional competences that are hindered by intra-and interorganizational career barriers. We then propose that, to reduce these limitations, we should think about eschewing employer-centric, conventional HRM methods and introducing new, network-based, self-organized HRM actions (in the form of collaborative communities of practice). HIGHLIGHtS m The article discusses the concept of boundaryless professionalism, which advocates for individuals taking responsibility for their work skills. m It suggests that gig workers face challenges in securing employment due to a lack of relevant professional skills, which is further complicated by career barriers within and across organizations. m This approach could potentially promote boundaryless areas in the gig economy, allowing gig workers to thrive without limitations or restrictions. m The concept of people assuming responsibility for what they learn about themselves and subsequently taking charge of enhancing their work skills has been a fundamental principle advocated by supporters associated with the boundaryless professionalism perspective. m The present piece explores the obstacles and potential remedies for promoting boundaryless areas in the economy of gigs. Despite the first appearance of favourable conditions for such occupations, they face several challenges due to various factors.
... Independent contractors have limited opportunities to develop meaningful relationships on social media and cultivate networking skills that contribute to their professional advancement, mostly because they lack direct engagement with clients and colleagues (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). This impedes their ability to engage with the gig platforms, the local community, and their own work (Boons, Stam, & Barkema, 2015;Kuhn, 2016). Social networking sites are essential in many professions since they enable people to develop their networking abilities and tap into the knowledge and resources of others. ...
Article
"The idea that individuals take ownership of their personal growth and, as a result, take control of improving their job competences has been a major tenet of proponents of what is known as the boundaryless professional view. In this provocative article, we discuss the barriers to and possible solutions for advancing boundaryless professions in the gig economy, which, although initially seeming to provide favourable circumstances for such occupations, is plagued by several variables that make these professions difficult. Therefore, it’s possible that professions without boundaries exist in the gig economy. Specifically, we hypothesise that gig workers’ employability is restricted by the acquisition of pertinent professional competences that are hindered by intra- and interorganizational career barriers. We then propose that, to reduce these limitations, we should think about eschewing employer-centric, conventional HRM methods and introducing new, network-based, self-organized HRM actions (in the form of collaborative communities of practice)."
... The algorithmic technology-based gig economy (also known as the digital platform economy) [17]is rapidly changing the way organizations are controlled [18], whereby algorithmic technology assumes management functions-breaking spatial constraints and facilitating the growth of the gig economy [19,20]. As an essential player in the gig economy, gig workers are people who solve complex problems or perform trivial daily tasks online using online intelligent platforms as a medium [21,22]. Unlike traditional forms of organization, platform companies use algorithmic systems to plan work assignments, assess constraints on gig workers, and set salaries [23], which seems to fit perfectly with the advantages of digital technology. ...
Article
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Background With the emergence of the gig economy as a new economic form, the influence of algorithmic technology control on gig workers’ perceptions and engagement has become a topic of academic concern. This study explores the emotional impact of perceived algorithmic control on gig workers and how it affects their work engagement. Methods This study takes gig workers as the research object to build a structural equation model. Based on the background of gig economy and the Job Demands-Resources model, this paper constructs a mechanism model of the influence of perceived algorithmic control on the work engagement of gig workers. The research data in this paper are collected by questionnaire, and the research hypothesis is tested by the SEM structural model. Results The gig workers in this study believed that perceived algorithmic control positively affects employee work engagement. In addition, burnout was positively correlated with employee work engagement. Burnout played a partial mediating role in the relationship between perceived algorithmic control and employee work engagement. And flow experience played a moderating role through the indirect effect of burnout on employees’ work engagement. Conclusion Perceived algorithmic control causes burnout among gig workers, but strong algorithmic technology support provides them with rich work resources that can help them meet their work needs. That is, the gig workers may still demonstrate a high level of work engagement even if they experience burnout symptoms.
... In recent years, gig economy-based labour has been on the rise (Kuhn, 2016). It is estimated that 1-3% of all paid work in advanced economies is mediated via digital platforms (Schwellnus et al., 2019). ...
Article
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Previous studies show that gig economy-based work opens up new ways in which inequalities are (re)produced. In this context , it is particularly important to look at female cleaners in private households, where gender inequalities intersect with other axes of disadvantage such as class, migratory experience, or ascribed ethnicity. This spatially and linguistically fragmented group presents challenges for scientific research, which is reflected in insufficient data available to date. The aim of the project GigClean-from which research for this article is drawn-is to address this gap. The guiding research question is: How do domestic cleaners in the informal labour market experience working in the gig economy? The methodological design consists of 15 problem-centred interviews with platform-based cleaning labourers in private households in Vienna, who predominantly operate in the informal economy. Our results suggest that undeclared domestic work via online platforms is associated with increased power gaps between workers and clients as well as changing working conditions to the detriment of cleaners. Specifically, three recurring themes could be identified: reserve army mechanisms; lookism, objec-tification, and sexual harassment; and information asymmetry and control.
... Most I-O psychologists focus their work on organizations that are part of the "formal economy" (Mullins et al., 2021). The "informal economy," which includes both the "gig economy" (Kuhn, 2016) and various legal (if unregistered) organizations (Nichter & Goldmark, 2009), employs the majority of the world's workers (ILO, 2019). Shutting down the informal economy, however, is difficult; organizations that are unregistered and unregulated are not answerable to those who order such shutdowns, so if an organization that is part of the informal economy shuts down during a pandemic, it is less likely because of what a virus like COVID-19 might do than what it has already done (Cox, 2020). ...
Article
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Even before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, and especially since, I-O psychology has demonstrated its ability to adapt and to make meaningful contributions to how work is accomplished in tumultuous environments. Such contributions reflect the ongoing evolution of the field and an increased awareness of the potential for I-O psychologists to effect meaningful societal change. We believe that I-O psychology must embrace this evolution and, using the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals to help us target our efforts, become a resource and a voice for workers and organizations around the world, and a force for the greater good.
... Se ha señalado igualmente, que las empresas desarrollarían "culturas de plataforma", con normas y valores compartidos análogas a las culturas organizacionales, las cuales tendrían efectos importantes en las actitudes y la moral de sus trabajadores/as (Kuhn 2016). Así, las identidades de los/as trabajadores/as tenderían a estar principalmente vinculadas a la plataforma laboral que utilizan (Wood et al., 2018), desarrollando escasos vínculos con personas similares a ellas por características, como la edad, el género o la educación, profesión o redes asociativas que puedan servir como espacios de socialización (Jabagi et al., 2019;Cameron, 2021). ...
Article
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The COVID-19 pandemic and the associated confinement, produced a significant increase in the demand for their services based on virtual platforms, known as gig jobs, highlighting the delivery of food. This research explores the identity and organizational identification of this group of gig workers through qualitative methodology, conducting semi-structured interviews with 14 food delivery workers, who work for different companies in the industry. Consistent with what is reported in the literature, the findings show that organizational and work role identity tends to be situational, fleeting and transactional, and the valuation of work, ambivalent. The presence of artifacts associated with work also plays a role in the role identifications and the virtual platforms for which they work. It is broadly concluded that labor flexibility and labor deregulation are detrimental to work and organizational identification.
... From a public and policy perspective, there is increasing interest in the gig economy, with discussions emerging around the gig economy and its impact on the future of work (e.g., Ashford et al., 2018;Kuhn, 2016). The gig economy has existed since the mid-to-late 1800s (e.g., gig working for direct-selling companies such as Tupperware; Gleim et al., 2019) but has recently gained more attention. ...
Article
A critical but often overlooked road safety concern is gender differences in road safety issues. The limited investigations have reported gender differences in road safety issues such as traffic accident rates and crash injuries. An emerging road safety issue is the safety of gig workers. Despite the exponential growth of the gig economy, little is known about road safety issues faced by gig workers, including gender‐specific road safety issues. The present study aimed to investigate whether there are gender differences in gig workers' involvement in road safety incidents and the likelihood of reporting incidents when gig working. Gig workers who provide, or have provided, ride‐hailing, courier, and food delivery services via digital platforms in Australia were invited to participate in an online survey on their involvement in road safety incidents and the likelihood that they would report road and personal safety incidents when gig working. Data from 71 gig workers (35 female gig workers; 36 male gig workers) were reported in the study. No gender differences were found in their involvement in road safety incidents and the likelihood of reporting road and personal safety incidents when gig working. Despite the lack of gender differences observed, findings from the study contributed to the research field and to closing the gender data gap. A research agenda is proposed for further data collection in gig work using a systems thinking approach to better our understanding of factors influencing the gendered participation in the gig workforce, and the health, safety, and wellbeing of gig workers.
... As gig work increased during the pandemic, both public and governmental entities pushed for new laws focused on protecting gig workers (Friedland and Balkin, 2023). However, research on collaborative consumption has largely focused on consumers (e.g., Lawson et al., 2016;Haz ee and Vaerenbergh, 2021;Wirtz et al., 2019), or the management of freelance workers with only tangential applicability to gig work (e.g., Kuhn, 2016;Burtch et al., 2018). Our work addresses this gap and answers calls for service research to investigate the changing services landscape, specifically with regards to how new technologies, such as emerging digital platforms, may impact frontline actors (e.g., Donthu et al., 2021;. ...
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Purpose The unique employment status of gig workers as independent contractors and their impact on consumers provide an important opportunity for the current research to understand gig workers' perceptions of their employment and how that affects job performance outcomes. These gig workers serve as the frontline service providers for platforms like Airbnb hosts, Lyft drivers and Wag walkers performing customer-facing services. However, their status as gig workers, not traditional employees, presents challenges to platforms. The purpose of this research is to gain insights into the profiles of gig workers, examine the challenges platforms have in retaining high-performing workers and provide a research agenda on this important group of frontline service providers. Design/methodology/approach Incorporating variables deemed important in examining self-determination theory, a large-scale data collection via an online survey was administered, yielding 447 completed surveys. A two-step cluster analysis procedure was conducted to categorize sample respondents into four distinct groups. Findings Four groups emerged from the cluster analysis, labeled “Ambivalent Outsider,” “Competent Cog,” “Independent Insider” and “Committed Comrade.” The results suggest that there are significant differences across all variables and groups based on gig worker responses and self-reported customer satisfaction scores. The gig worker profiles developed are then utilized to formulate research propositions that are the basis for the research agenda presented. Practical implications The goal of many collaborative consumption platforms may be to hire Independent Insiders or Committed Comrades; however, that is difficult to attain with every hire. Thus, the segmentation results provide insights for companies seeking to hire, retain, and successfully motivate their workforce. Originality/value Given the freedom and flexibility afforded to gig workers, and the importance they have on the service experience for customers, understanding their own perceptions of employment and performance is critical to ensuring a positive experience for all parties. Research on collaborative consumption has largely focused on consumers or the management of freelance workers with only tangential applicability to gig work. This paper offers a comprehensive research agenda for gig worker management based on the typology of gig workers created.
... As an additional, fast-growing labor market, the gig economy has changed the way people work and is attracting increasing numbers of academic investigations (Jabagi et al. 2019;Kuhn 2016). In 2020, about 36% of the U.S. labor force (59 million people) worked as freelancers (Upwork 2020). ...
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When IT work is performed through digital labor markets, IT professionals have a high degree of personal responsibility for their careers and must use appropriate strategies to be successful. This paper investigates the success of IT freelancers on digital labor platforms. Drawing on signaling theory, a dataset of 7166 IT freelancers is used to examine how activating, pointing, and supporting signals lead to success. Analysis was carried out using negative binomial regression. The results indicate that the three signaling types positively influence the objective career success of IT freelancers. This paper contributes to the literature by testing signaling theory in the new context of digital labor platforms, investigating IT specifics, and proposing support as a new type of signal for IT professionals on digital labor platforms. In practice, the results provide guidelines for IT freelancers to improve their success within their careers.
... For example, these platform enterprises transfer the risk of work to platform workers and classify them as independent contractors to decrease labour costs by ignoring their lawful rights like retirement pensions and minimum salary (Bornstein, 2015;Veen, et al., 2020). Also, workers often accomplish missions for various employers, and this unusual employment relationship decreases the responsibility and commitment usually required of an employer through deconstructing the original connection between employer and worker (Hoang, et al., 2019;Kuhn, 2016). However, in some areas like Nordic countries, platform workers are not treated as independent contractors because unions, strict welfare policies, and regulated labour markets effectively protect them from exploitation (Azzellini, et al., 2022;Ilsøe & Larsen, 2021). ...
Article
The rapid expansion of the platform economy has generated concerns about its economic and social consequences (Lei, 2021; Vallas, 2019). As independent contractors provided with little or no employee rights and managed by algorithms, the job insecurity of platform workers is significant. This damages employment relations, complicates the function of HR departments, and as a result is driving governments and relevant organisations to regulate the platform economy more heavily. This can provide platform workers with more benefits but can also result in gender discrimination and hinder the achievement of gender equality by increasing the gender pay gap. This report discusses three possible solutions to job insecurity among platform workers. Firstly, governments could provide them with similar rights to employees by creating a new category besides employees and independent contractors within existing law, although this would worsen labour market segmentation and social inequality. Secondly, alternative unions which are more flexible could effectively help platform workers to fight for their legal rights, but limited resources would reduce their ability to deal with the problems of every worker. Finally, platform workers could devote themselves to improve their bargaining power to strive for higher income to reduce insecurity, however, it would be hindered by many factors like oversupply of labour force. After analysing and comparing these three solutions, it is recommended that the job security of platform workers could be increased by incorporating them in a special labour law protecting non-standard workers. However, the effectiveness of this could vary from depending on country.
... Gig-Economy so far is difficult to define, measure, and interpret (CIPD, 2017). Gig-Economy, in general, is a change from permanent workers to temporary workers, freelancers, or temporary workers facilitated by third parties or firms without actually being employed or having a working relationship with the organization (Kuhn, 2016;Zimmer, 2015). This form of work is usually work done on a short-term contract or work that can be done as needed only or on-demand (Kessler, 2014). ...
... Other scholars have similarly questioned if fit can be assessed in the rudimentary and seemingly hyper-efficient recruitment processes of digital platforms (Duggan et al., 2020;Howcroft & Bergvall-Kåreborn, 2019). Building on an earlier paper about the relevance of HR practices to digital platform businesses (Kuhn, 2016), Kuhn and Maleki (2017) conceptualised how the constructs of employee satisfaction, commitment, organisational support, turnover and organisational citizenship behaviour might pertain to platform work, drawing attention to the need for a nuanced application of HR practices in this context. Duggan et al. (2020) relatedly explore how activities such as performance management and work assignment are incorporated into digital platform work through algorithmic management. ...
... Gig work has not captured much attention of researchers may be due to widespread areas like attraction and retention of workforce and their satisfaction levels hardly matters for gig employments (Kuhn, 2016). As determinedly, the workers are labelled 'independent contractors' with ulterior motives to circumvent the employment benefits . ...
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Purpose This research aims to describe the gig worker challenge and opportunity including job quality in India remembering that gig work is spreading rapidly among nations and has been the source of earning for most of the destitute population. Design/methodology/approach This research uses qualitative method with descriptive approach. Author used semi-structured interview to 10 (ten) informants by using purposive sampling with snowballing technique. The informants are the GIG worker who work around Indian metro cities. Findings The way their economic, psychological and social aspects are grilled with least positive chances of betterment has been our concern. The three aggregate dimensions mainly focussing towards, economic, psychological and social well-being of employees. Research limitations/implications This research may use for government to improve the job quality of GIG worker. If nations could not come up with formal and permanent employment opportunities, the job quality of gig economy can at least be enhanced. Originality/value This study describes comprehensively by using interview to reveal challenge and opportunity in gig worker job quality in India.
... Because a competent pool of experts generates demand for platforms, freelancing platforms must consider these parttime employees. It is simple for freelancers to migrate from one platform to another because the cost of switching is little [21]. In order to be competitive in the freelancing business, the platform must build strong and long-term relationships with freelancers, as well as establish tactics for attracting and retaining freelancers. ...
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This paper aims at supporting freelancing and self-employment among information technology service providers, particularly newcomers, by allowing them to use the internet's broad reach to find jobs both inside and outside their location. The ongoing growth in unemployment in Nigeria has impacted every sector of the economy, including the delivery of information technology services. There are many skilled persons in the industry, but possibilities appear to be limited. This is due to the lack of specific platforms for information technology service providers to offer their services, which makes it difficult for potential clients to find a service provider to accomplish their work. This dilemma prompted the construction of a dedicated platform, which would serve as a one-stop shop for both an information technology service provider and a potential client, bridging the gap between them. The object oriented analysis and design methodology (OOADM) was employed in this research, and HTML, CSS, PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript were used to design the application in order to achieve a high level of scalability and platform performance. It is simple to use and allows service providers on the platform to operate freely without being charged a percentage of their earnings. This paper will be of immense benefit to the unemployed, masses and the Government.
... Because a competent pool of experts generates demand for platforms, freelancing platforms must consider these parttime employees. It is simple for freelancers to migrate from one platform to another because the cost of switching is little [21]. In order to be competitive in the freelancing business, the platform must build strong and long-term relationships with freelancers, as well as establish tactics for attracting and retaining freelancers. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper aims at supporting freelancing and self-employment among information technology service providers, particularly newcomers, by allowing them to use the internet's broad reach to find jobs both inside and outside their location. The ongoing growth in unemployment in Nigeria has impacted every sector of the economy, including the delivery of information technology services. There are many skilled persons in the industry, but possibilities appear to be limited. This is due to the lack of specific platforms for information technology service providers to offer their services, which makes it difficult for potential clients to find a service provider to accomplish their work. This dilemma prompted the construction of a dedicated platform, which would serve as a one-stop shop for both an information technology service provider and a potential client, bridging the gap between them. The object oriented analysis and design methodology (OOADM) was employed in this research, and HTML, CSS, PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript were used to design the application in order to achieve a high level of scalability and platform performance. It is simple to use and allows service providers on the platform to operate freely without being charged a percentage of their earnings. This paper will be of immense benefit to the unemployed, masses and the Government.
... Technological development promotes the formulation of new organization structuring, such as project-based organizations, which consist of a problem-solving approach (Bredin & Söderlund, 2011). This type of organization encourages the establishment of e-lancing or an online platform that hires short-term independent freelance as contractual employe (Kuhn, 2016;Waschull et al., 2022). It allows organizations to form a new structure, such as a virtual workplace or virtual organization (Hertel et al., 2005) also known as digital platforms (Harris, 2017). ...
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Technological changes have transformed the way organizations used to operate. The gig economy and digital labor have made it easier for employers to find cheap labor; it becomes essential to understand how this might influence workers' livelihoods. This employment relationship between an employee (gig worker) and the employer has reduced the bargaining power of a digital worker (contractual employee) and left them at the mercy of the employer or digital labor platform. This paper aims to identify that the traditional role of HR is no longer viable. After finalizing an initial list of search words, a literature review was carried out to achieve the study objective. Search terms include 'digitalization', 'gig worker', 'digital worker', 'online digital platform'. The researchers independently reviewed the titles and abstracts of all the identified articles and critically examined the article information. Hence, in the light of the HR Role Model and Technology Acceptance Model, it is proposed that HR needs to take the initiative as a strategic business partner, understand their role as a change agent and develop technological expertise. Future researchers are invited to explore HR attitudes and behavior towards technology acceptance and their ability to adapt and accept the gig economy. The practical implication of this study is to help HR in formulating new policies and procedures to act as an employee advocate and ensure that the digital platform would not exploit employees by realizing their potential as HR personnel.
... Even though it is difficult to calculate the gig economy's size (CIPD, 2017), the sharing economy or gig economy term has been studied widely in many fields, especially in business and economics (Sutherland & Jarrahi, 2018). The gig economy usually refers to short-term independent freelance work with an organisation (Kuhn, 2016). With technological advancement, the e-hailing company creates many opportunities for gig workers to work with them flexibly. ...
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The negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has given people the opportunity to move forward. The increasing number of app-based online ordering systems creates significant job opportunities for freelancers and the jobless impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The scenario has brought about a Gig-economy in the Malaysian context. This study aims to examine and explain consumers’ behavioural usage of e-hailing food delivery applications in Malaysia using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). One hundred respondents completed the structured survey questionnaires. The study found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively affect the behavioural intention to use e-hailing food delivery applications. Besides, behavioural intention also positively affects actual usage. The study suggests that the government or policymakers could give more attention to this fast-growing industry.
... JMP These platforms offer a new way of organizing productive work by acting as the digital intermediary between several parties in the gig economy, such as the employer, workers, suppliers (like restaurants in the case of UberEats) and consumers (Gramano, 2019). With various types of gig work currently existing in the gig economy, prior literature has classified them as contingent work types and forms of contract work (Kuhn, 2016). The current discussion of gig work is limited to those that fall into two classifications offered by Duggan et al. (2020) namely, appwork (in which the platform is a service-providing intermediary where algorithms mediate work and customers pay for services offered locally, e.g. ...
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Purpose As conventional practices of working continue to be modified in the gig economy, more theoretical work examining the experiences of gig workers is needed. Relying on person-based fit and levels of analysis literature, this paper proposes an adaptation to the traditional Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) framework to the gig economy. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the ASA framework, this conceptual paper explores how gig workers join, leave and could be retained by gig employers. Findings The authors recognize an intermediary “organizing” phase within the ASA framework for gig workers. Using examples of appwork and crowdwork, the authors show that workers tend to self-organize through third-party websites to help gig work become economically sustainable, avoid being exploited and enhance gig workers' sense of community and identity. Practical implications The practical implications of this research lie in gig employers understanding how workers experience gig employment and in helping employers be successful in attracting, selecting and retaining quality workers and thereby lowering permanent attrition. Originality/value The authors propose a novel adaptation to the conventional ASA framework to include organizing as a phase in gig worker employment. This research defines gig attraction and attrition at the individual-level, selection at the individual- and task-levels based in person-job (PJ)-fit and the various aspects of gig organizing as encompassing fit with one's job, organization, and environmental (i.e., PJ-, PO-, PE-fit) at the individual-, task-, and network-levels.
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This study investigates the complex relationships between social comparisons, benign and malicious envy, and job performance using the CSS and IWPS scales combined to represent positive aspect of job performance, and the CWP scale to delve into the negative aspects of job performance in modern work settings. Benign envy has been recognized as a motivator for improved performance, motivated by a desire to observe successful peers, whereas malicious envy is associated with poor performance and unproductive behaviours. These psychological dynamics are becoming increasingly important in today's growing professional arena, which is exacerbated by gig and remote work dynamics. Our work emphasizes the importance of organizational tactics to mitigate the negative effects of malicious envy while utilizing the positive motivational drive of benign envy, aiming for an optimized performance environment.
Article
BACKGROUND: e-lancing rapid growth poses new challenges in talent management. Gig workers have become an alternate workforce to the organization, which offer technical skills, flexible working hours and cost-effective solutions. This study extends the conceptualization of employee value proposition in the context of freelancers. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of freelancer value preposition and platform trust in shaping platform usage intentions. The reflective-formative model is designed to comprehend the freelancer value proposition. METHODS: Online survey method was used and data was collected from 454 freelancers with the help of an adapted questionnaire. PLS-SEM is applied to test the hypothesis. RESULTS: The results exhibit that the Developmental Value (DV), Economic Value (EV) and Social Value (SV) contribute positively in the Freelancer Value Proposition. Furthermore, it shows that attitude towards the use of platform partially mediate platform usage intentions; Moreover, Platform trust has a positive impact on platform usage intentions. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the freelancer value proposition, the study emphasizes on the need to develop relationship with gig-workers in order to fulfil the rising demand of sustainable workforce and to remain competitive in the dynamic business environment.
Chapter
The gig economy has emerged as a work arrangement, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world. The need to adapt to the new situation while struggling to meet financial burdens has made online gig work the best option for the affected groups. This new work structure has grown rapidly in Malaysia, reshaping the standard employment system that previously dominated the labour market. This study explored the implementation of gig work in Malaysia and its implication to HRM practices. The study delved into the world of gig work in Malaysia through the lens of Ability, Motivation and Opportunity AMO theory using semi-structured interviews to gather data from the gig workers. The findings show a good interplay of AMO elements in understanding the configuration of the gig work structure through HRM practices. The study's findings offer multifaceted implications. Theoretically, the study demonstrates the applicability of AMO theory in unboxing the black box between HRM and performance. Practically, the study sheds light on the need to reconfigure the HRM practices that can cater for the uniqueness of flexible work arrangements and the potential of gig work for social sustainability in society.
Chapter
In this chapter, we investigate the application of humanistic management to the gig economy, where flexible digital work is supplanting traditional employment. The study analyzes a South Korean gig platform’s rating and review system, revealing that higher ratings and detailed reviews correlate with reduced worker turnover. These findings suggest that incorporating well-being, ethics, and meaningful work into performance evaluations can improve gig workers’ job satisfaction and retention. The chapter advocates for platform-based organizations to adopt human-centered strategies, addressing the gig economy’s inherent challenges, such as income instability and information asymmetry. By prioritizing ethical practices and meaningful engagement, platforms can foster a more equitable and sustainable work environment. This chapter presents a synthesis of empirical data and theoretical perspectives, highlighting the importance of humanistic management in enhancing the gig economy’s HR practices for the benefit of all stakeholders.
Article
In light of the covid-19 pandemic, it is often assumed that working at home represents a fundamental transformation in the way managers work. But is managerial homeworking that new? To answer this question, we draw on labour process theory and three empirical studies to place post-pandemic homeworking in historical sociological perspective. Overall, we find that homeworking is not a novel phenomenon, but has been driven by various logics. Explaining these, we contend initially that recent studies of managers working at home have focussed on the mandated temporal present of the practice under covid-19, which has resulted in homeworking being portrayed idiosyncratically. In contrast, and to attain a more comprehensive understanding of what homeworking means for managers, we argue it is necessary also to understand both the underappreciated past of the phenomenon as well as options for its projected future. A comparative – past, present, future – inquiry therefore portrays how a range of explicit (e.g., corporate restructuring, digital technology, government legislation) and implicit (e.g., responsible autonomy; cultural resistance; work-life balance) factors have influenced and affected the practice of managers working at home in recent times. Through content analysis, these factors are related to broader forces of strategic change, technological innovation, and political regulation in describing the ‘contested terrain’ of modern managerial work. Amid a context of economic neoliberalism, work extensification, and shifting spatio-temporal (home/work) boundaries, the paradoxical nature of homeworking – symptomatic of managers’ contemporary ‘struggle for a normal working day’ (Marx, 1887: 252) – is documented through a series of interview-based narrative investigations (conducted 2002-2006, 2015-2019 and 2020-2021). Ultimately, the paper makes a case not only for greater historical retrospection, but also for deeper critical reflection, in studies of managerial homeworking, and notably when considering whether the practice will likely be extended, ended or otherwise in the coming decades.
Article
More and more workers in Western economies are operating as freelancers in the so-called “gig economy”, moving from one project – or gig – to the next. A lively debate revolves around the question as to whether this new employment relationship is actually good for innovation in the 21 st century economy. Proponents argue that in this gig process valuable knowledge is created and transferred from one organization to the next via freelancers through their sequence of temporary gigs or projects. Antagonists reason that freelancers are only hired as one-trick ponies on a transactional basis, where knowledge is neither created nor shared. In this study, we focus on the characteristics of gigs. Which project characteristics lead to increased engagement of freelancers, and hence to knowledge-sharing behavior? Our study suggests that the gig economy can indeed lead to increased knowledge sharing by and engagement of freelance workers, provided that organizations and freelancers structure and shape gigs in such a way that they: (1) not only suit the task requirements at hand and (2) fit with the acquired skills of the freelancer, but that these gigs also (3) leave ample of room for the freelancer’s individual growth and development of new skills. This suggests that innovative organizations will need to shape gigs in such a way that freelancers are not only hired for their expertise, but rather that gigs also provide a learning opportunity for freelancers.
Article
Recent developments in technology and shifting societal patterns threaten to upend norms surrounding the world of work. The present paper introduces the idea of an emerging entrepreneurial economy and describes how it is reshaping our understanding of work, provides a framework for understanding whether and why individuals with dark personality traits may be attracted to careers in this new occupational frontier. Specifically, we will discuss how dark traits shape interest in remote work, the gig economy, social media and podcasting careers, and occupations related to cryptocurrencies, blockchain technologies, and crowdfunding. We also note how technologies enhanced by artificial intelligence (AI) might contribute to uncertainty concerning how individuals with dark traits may function in these vocational contexts. We finish by making arguments for how future research can be improved in order to attain a more comprehensive understanding of dark personality in the entrepreneurial economy.
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Esports are competitive video games that are typically played online. League of Legends (LoL) is an esport with a ranking system that measures player performance in temporary teams. Qualitative studies have suggested there are behavioural differences between ranks, with lower ranking players being more entitled and communicating antisocially. This study attempts to quantify this relationship of behaviour and ranking, using trait Narcissism and five-factor model personality traits to measure these tendencies in behaviour. 444 players were recruited across paid and unpaid sampling. Narcissism was the only trait to be significantly associated with LoL ranking. This result may suggest Narcissism is slightly beneficial to success in LoL’s temporary teams, potentially through better emotional regulation while playing. However, as personality traits only predicted 2.8% of variance in LoL ranking, it is likely that player skill and other contextual factors have a larger influence on performance.
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The aim of the article is to present the idea of Gig Economy as a flexible form of employment, which may serve as an opportunity to break the cycle of professional passivity among women in a macroeconomic scale. The author presents data on unemployment and access to employees on the labor market, and compares them with a relatively low level of professional activity among women. The article explores the issue of motivation to undertake professional activity, discusses the barriers to building a professional path by women, and indicates the potential influence of flexible forms of employment, based on the example of gig economy, on the improvement of the professional situation of women. Based on the available reports, secondary data and source literature the author identifies the basic social factors which impact the growth of professional activity among women, indicating the relationship between flexible forms of employment and the state of the labor market, expressed through the activeness of women.
Article
Understanding how and why firms concurrently compete and cooperate with each other represents an important and growing area of study. This research centres on how firms engage in coopetition. However, this does not account for how much of the modern world works – independently. Through an inductive field study of 80 New Orleans street performers, we explore how and why independent creative workers engage in competition and/or cooperation . In so doing, we advance theory on coopetition by extending its explanations to the individual level. We theorize the well‐established nature of creative industries encourages the belief in the need for deviating from the status quo by engaging in creativity and innovation, which we refer to as a trailblazing mindset. At the same time, we find that the accumulation of a long history of creative practices also fosters traditions. We theorize that tradition encourages the belief in the need to act as vested actors, or custodians, by passing work traditions from one generation to the next to allow the tradition to endure, which we refer to as the torchbearing mindset. Thus, torchbearing fosters cooperation while trailblazing fosters competition.
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The aim of this paper is to explore the impact of freelancing and remote work on HR departments, specifically in recruitment, training and development, and employee engagement. The discussion highlights the innovative strategies and tools HR departments can use to manage a decentralized workforce, including online recruitment platforms, virtual training programs, and collaboration tools, as well as recognizing the challenges associated with these strategies, such as the lack of face-to-face interaction and engagement. The paper emphasizes the importance of adapting to a more decentralized workforce and the development of new strategies to remain competitive in the evolving business landscape.The paper concludes by highlighting the theoretical and practical implications of the growth of freelancing and remote work for companies such as the need for companies to adapt and innovate in their recruitment, training and development, and management strategies to remain competitive. Additionally, the need for HR departments to find practical ways to keep remote workers engaged and connected to the company culture while also considering legal and ethical implications. The paper suggests that companies must be proactive in addressing these challenges, as failure to do so may result in the loss of the best talent.KeywordsFreelancingRemote workHuman Resource Management
Chapter
The construct of job insecurity has captured the attention of researchers for nearly five decades. Yet, in that time, the nature of what is meant by a “job” (particularly throughout the Global North) has shifted (e.g., the rise in gig workers, short-term contracts, and freelancing), with concurrent implications for how we might best conceptualize “insecurity” in those jobs. Thus, in our chapter, we propose to describe some of the most prevalent employment arrangements (i.e., what do we mean by a “job”?) and unpack the meaning of “insecurity” across a range of modern employment contexts. In doing so, we ask: for whom, where and how is job insecurity a relevant stressor? Moreover, what are the conceptual and methodological implications of these answers for future research on job insecurity? In doing so, we hope to offer suggestions for adapting job insecurity research to account for the changing meaning and context of work in many parts of the world.
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Malaysia’s unemployment rate increased dramatically from 3.2% in early 2020 to 5.3% in May 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic. The government needs to overcome unemployment, especially among youth, specifically among graduating iGeneration. The gig economy sector could help in reducing the number of unemployment among GiGen. Through an elicitation survey, this paper aims to elicit the salient outcome, injunctive normative, descriptive normative, and efficacy beliefs among GiGen towards adopting gig works after graduation. Eight questions were used to elicit the salient beliefs among 35 final-year undergraduate students. Purposive and snowballing sampling was used, and 617 beliefs were elicited and categorised into themes. The trade-off approach was implemented to choose the final set of salient outcomes, normative and efficacy beliefs. It was found that four salient outcome beliefs, two injunctive normative beliefs, three descriptive normative beliefs and four efficacy beliefs were chosen as the final set of salient beliefs towards gig works. This study could contribute to the body of knowledge and act as guidelines to study the behaviour among GiGen towards Gig works after graduation using the integrative model of behavioural prediction theory.KeywordsGig economyIntegrative model of behavioural predictionSalient beliefsiGenerationGiGen
Article
This article studies social perceptions of gig work and its conditions through the lenses of visual humour created and shared in digital environments. Food delivery services have thrived in cities, and riders – gig workers associated with such services – have become popular urban figures, easily recognisable through light means of transport and backpacks. These iconic elements have spread to forms of visual humour like memes and cartoons in social media. We aim to analyse the depiction of food delivery services and riders through graphic humour in digital environments, and its role as critical stances of gig work conditions. We draw from the literature on gig work, as well as critical humour in the workplace, approaching the phenomenon from the perspective of critical visualities and the memetic qualities of digital visual humour. Thus, we have conducted an analysis of rider memes, and carried out a focus group with Spanish cartoonists to better understand each form. From our analysis, we have observed that a) memes showcase less explicit critical stances but reflect a shared understanding of the hurdles associated to rider work; b) cartoons place riders in a contextualised, wider critique of platform economy and capitalism; c) while most graphic humour on riders takes an external, observational position, there is also an ‘inner look’ to the rider work, emphasising the promises and deceptions associated with the gig economy.
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This study examines the relationship between the online labour force and real economic factors. Since the Online labour index is one of the main determinants of the GIG economy, this study also reveals which macroeconomic variables the GIG economy is based on. The aim of the study is to determine the effect of real economic factors (unemployment, economic growth, inflation) on the count of online platform users. As a result of the econometric analysis conducted with Turkey's data set for the period of June 2017 -January 2021, it has been determined that real economic factors have a statistically significant effect on the count of online platform users. According to the results of the analysis, the increase in unemployment rate and economic growth will cause an increase in the count of online platform users, while increase in inflation will cause an opposite effect.
Chapter
Organizations are increasingly boundaryless and relying on external workers—such as freelancers who are temporarily employed in an organization on a project basis. Because freelancers are multiple jobholders and navigate the work environment as independent workers, their opportunities to build work-related relationships are typically different from conventional, full-time employees. Yet, little is known about how freelancers forge the social relationships giving them access to the knowledge needed to perform their daily tasks. We advance knowledge on this topic by suggesting that freelancers are the catalysts of knowledge-seeking relationships involving colleagues at the (temporary) employer, contacts in work-like environments (i.e., coworking spaces) and personal work-related ties accumulated over time. We discuss how freelancers’ identity—schematic knowledge about who they are at the workplace—influences their engagement in different relationships. We investigate these issues using cross-sectional data that we have collected in a sample of 38 freelancers employed in the media industry. We combine text data consisting of freelancers’ description of their professional identity with ego-network data capturing the freelancers’ professional and personal knowledge-seeking relationships. We derive and discuss the practical implications of our study for both freelancers and organizations.
Conference Paper
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Software algorithms are changing how people work in an ever-growing number of fields, managing distributed human workers at a large scale. In these work settings, human jobs are assigned, optimized, and evaluated through algorithms and tracked data. We explored the impact of this algorithmic, data-driven management on human workers and work practices in the context of Uber and Lyft, new ridesharing services. Our findings from a qualitative study describe how drivers responded when algorithms assigned work, provided informational support, and evaluated their performance, and how drivers used online forums to socially make sense of the algorithm features. Implications and future work are discussed.
Article
The rapid growth of online labor platforms such as Uber and TaskRabbit has been accompanied by substantial controversy. These firms view themselves as technology companies that provide opportunities for micro-entrepreneurs to have their own small service businesses, but many of those who find work via these platforms are portrayed, and characterize themselves, as workers lacking both the benefits of entrepreneurship and of traditional employment. This paper explores the liminal state of these service providers, demonstrating how third-party institutional trust based on IT-enabled features and other factors distinguish them from traditional conceptualizations of independent contractors. Based on an integration of relevant theories across business disciplines, we develop a framework for assessing service providers’ perceived status under this novel business model. This status and their dependency on a particular platform are argued to shape their psychological contract and corresponding expectations of the platform firm. Implications for effective decision-making about providers’ recruitment, selection, and evaluation are discussed.
Article
In this article, we demonstrate that samples in the industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology literature do not reflect the labor market, overrepresenting core, salaried, managerial, professional, and executive employees while underrepresenting wage earners, low- and medium-skill first-line personnel, and contract workers. We describe how overrepresenting managers, professionals, and executives causes research about these other workers to be suspect. We describe several ways that this underrepresentation reduces the utility of the I-O literature and provide specific examples. We discuss why the I-O literature underrepresents these workers, how it contributes to the academic–practitioner gap, and what researchers can do to remedy the issue.
Article
Recent evidence shows that the frequently proclaimed collapse of the traditional career model is actually not supported by job tenure data. This paper argues that the observed stability of job tenure might be explained by an increasing number of shamrock organizations. This organizational form has three types of workers: core employees, professional freelancers, and routine workers. In such an organization, two very different career models coexist. The organization largely determines the career of the core employee, whereas the individual essentially shapes that of the professional freelancer. This paper studies extensively the career of this second group: the professional freelancer, a growing phenomenon in many developed countries but not yet the focus of many career studies. We develop a freelance career success model on basis of the intelligent career framework augmented by insights from literature on entrepreneurship. Data are from a web survey with responses from about 1600 independent professionals in the Netherlands, in combination with 51 in-depth interviews. We provide two main contributions. First, we report findings from the first large-scale quantitative study into freelance career success. Second, this study enhances our understanding of the success of the modern career by building bridges between career and entrepreneurship literatures. We conclude that the external environment in which an individual freelancer operates is the most important factor determining career success. The study therefore suggests that more work needs to be performed on the relationship between the environment and individual career success. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
eLancing, or Internet freelancing, is spreading at an incredibly fast pace worldwide. The eLancing work environment is called a “marketplace,” which is a website where individuals interested in being hired and employers looking for individuals to perform some type of work meet. eLancing allows individuals from literally anywhere in the world to sign up and complete work using the Internet for an employer who literally can also be anywhere in the world. eLancing boasts millions of users and billions of dollars in transactions and it involves fundamental changes in the nature of work and in the employer–worker relationship. We discuss eLancing and challenges and opportunities it creates for human resource management (HRM) research and practice. Also, we offer a research agenda with the goal of understanding eLancing and its effects, particularly pertaining to the core HRM areas of job design and analysis, workforce planning, recruitment, selection, training and development, performance management, compensation, and legal issues. Given the increased importance of eLancing worldwide and its implications for worldwide work arrangements in the 21st century's international society, results of such scholarly research have the potential to help narrow the science–practice gap and also elevate the status, perceived value-added, and organizational and societal influence of HRM and related fields.
Article
This article compares violations of minimum wage laws and other labour standards in New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago. Los Angeles has the highest violation rates, due to such factors as its industrial composition and disproportionately large number of small establishments, as well as its vast unauthorised immigrant population. In addition, Los Angeles’ higher rates reflect the stricter legal standards in California. We conclude that, although stronger workplace laws and regulations are crucial, in the absence of effective enforcement, they may fail to prevent workplace violations.
Article
In the context of the changing nature of work and the continuing growth of contingent employment contracts, this article examines the consequences associated with various forms of individually-negotiated, fixed-term contracts. This article first draws a distinction between what can be labeled as independent contracting arrangements, where the workers are autonomous and mobile, and other situations where contractors are more “dependent” on their clients. This investigation then provides an overview of the consequences associated with the employment of “independent” and “dependent” contractors. Based on a review of the existing research literature, the article examines the prescribed and realized benefits of individual contracting from the perspectives of the organization, the permanent employees, and the contractors themselves. Finally, the article concludes with some suggestions for human resource management (HRM) practice as well as areas in need of future research attention.
Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that freelancing is neglected by researchers as a form of small business activity. It aims to consider whether it is possible and useful for researchers to distinguish freelancers from other types of small business owner. Design/methodology/approach The paper does this in three ways: first, by conceptualising freelance status; second, by examining the research literature on freelance workers; and, third, by estimating the size of the UK freelance workforce to demonstrate their importance. Findings The definition proposed permits identification of many types of freelancer hitherto neglected by researchers. Freelancers are a large and growing proportion of the UK business stock and the recent recession has led to a further expansion. Originality/value Given the size and distinctiveness of the freelance workforce, researchers might explore the similarities and differences between freelancers and other small business owners with regard to: their motivations for starting and continuing to operate on a freelance basis; experiences of business ownership and management; the heterogeneity of the freelance workforce; and the wider social, economic and political causes and consequences of freelance working.
Asking tough questions about the gig economy
  • Warner
What Airbnb gets about culture that Uber doesn't
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Proof of a “gig economy” revolution is hard to find
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5th Annual State of Independence Report: The independent workforce and America's new economy
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Pixel and dimed: On (not) getting by in the gig economy
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There are probably way more people in the gig economy than we realize
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Why many New York drivers prefer Lyft to Uber
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Breaking down the freelance economy
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More freelancers fight to be paid
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Your job success score on Upwork
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Corporate America is using the sharing economy to turn us into temps. The New Republic
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The insecure world of freelancing. The Atlantic
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