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Oilseed Composition and Modification for Health and Nutrition
Abstract
The sources and production figures for the major oilseeds and commodity oils are discussed, along with technologies available to modify them for reductions in saturated and trans fatty acids. Palm, palm kernel, and soybean oils account for over 60% of the world's production and usage. Much of the soybean oil was processed by partial hydrogenation, which produces considerable amounts of trans acids, considered unhealthy because of their cholesterol-elevating properties and because they are a possible cause of coronary heart disease. Removal from the food supply is a worldwide phenomenon, and many countries have enacted legislation to limit or ban trans fats. Palm/palm kernel oils are high in saturated acids and are considered undesirable as well because of their cholesterol-elevating properties. Nonetheless, interesterification (chemical/enzymatic), fractionation, hydrogenation, and trait-modified oils (soybean, canola, sunflower) have been employed to lower both saturated and trans acids in frying, shortening, and spread oils.
... CS-O is a major product attained from CS, and its light constancy and extraordinary smoke point make it perfect for stir-fry cuisine and frying. CS-O contains omega-6 and a high amount of (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) stearic acid 1.8-3.7 1.6-2.4 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) oleic acid 14.4-23.5 13.0-44.2 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) linoleic acid 51-62 50.5-56.6 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) a-linolenic acids 0.17-4.6 0.1 ...
... ying. CS-O contains omega-6 and a high amount of (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) stearic acid 1.8-3.7 1.6-2.4 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) oleic acid 14.4-23.5 13.0-44.2 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) linoleic acid 51-62 50.5-56.6 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) a-linolenic acids 0.17-4.6 0.17-1.3 (Hamilton et al., 2004;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) Myristic acid 0.5-1.18 1.32 (Hamilton et al. ...
... 12;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) oleic acid 14.4-23.5 13.0-44.2 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) linoleic acid 51-62 50.5-56.6 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) a-linolenic acids 0.17-4.6 0.17-1.3 (Hamilton et al., 2004;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012;Yazicioǧlu & Karaali, 1983) Myristic acid 0.5-1.18 1.32 (Hamilton et al., 2004;Isaac & Ekpa, 2013;G. R. List, 2016;Quampah et al., 2012) Free gossypol 0.85 <0.005-0.66 (Bertrand et al., 2005;Hamilton et al., 2004) Vitamin E NR 59.8 (Hamilton et al., 2004) saturated fatty acids (FA), while no linolenic acid is present ...
Seed oils are the richest source of vitamin-E-active compounds, which contribute significantly to antioxidant activities. Cottonseed oil (CS-O) is attaining more consideration owing to its high fiber content and stability against auto-oxidation. CS-O has gained a good reputation in the global edible oil market due to its distinctive fatty acid profile, anti-inflammatory, and cardio-protective properties. CS-O can be extracted from cottonseed (CS) by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), aqueous/solvent extraction (A/SE), aqueous ethanol extraction (A-EE), subcritical water extraction, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO2), and enzyme-assisted extraction (E-AE). In this review, the importance, byproducts, physicochemical characteristics, and nutritional profile of CS-O have been explained in detail. This paper also provides a summary of scientific studies existing on functional and phytochemical characteristics of CS-O. Its consumption and health benefits are also deliberated to discover its profitability and applications. CS-O contains 26-35% saturated, 42-52% polyunsaturated, and 18-24% monounsaturated FA. There is approximately 1000 ppm of tocopherols in unprocessed CS-O, but up to one-third is lost during processing. Moreover, besides being consumed as cooking oil, CS-O discovers applications in many fields such as biofuel, livestock, cosmetics, agriculture, and chemicals. This paper provides a comprehensive review of CS-O, its positive benefits, fatty acid profile, extraction techniques, and health applications.
• Highlights
• CS-O is a rich source of exceptional fatty acids.
• Various techniques to extract the CS-O are discussed.
• Numerous physicochemical properties of CS-O for the potential market are assessed.
• It has a wide range of functional properties.
• Nutritional quality and health benefits are also evaluated.
... Due to the presence of higher MCFA they perform some specific functional properties (Savva & Kafatos, 2015;Srivastava et al., 2018) [23,25] that includes antiviral, antibacterial, antiplaque, antiprotozoal, healing, antiinflammatory and anti-obesity effects (German & Dillard, 2004) [12] . And VCO also has several benefits for curing some minor illnesses (List, 2016) [16] such as diarrhea, skin inflammations, gastrointestinal problems, minor wounds, injures and swelling (Nevin & Rajamohan, 2006) [19] . The VCO therefore exhibits more benefits in terms of both functional and nutritional aspects than other commercial edible coconut oil. ...
... Due to the presence of higher MCFA they perform some specific functional properties (Savva & Kafatos, 2015;Srivastava et al., 2018) [23,25] that includes antiviral, antibacterial, antiplaque, antiprotozoal, healing, antiinflammatory and anti-obesity effects (German & Dillard, 2004) [12] . And VCO also has several benefits for curing some minor illnesses (List, 2016) [16] such as diarrhea, skin inflammations, gastrointestinal problems, minor wounds, injures and swelling (Nevin & Rajamohan, 2006) [19] . The VCO therefore exhibits more benefits in terms of both functional and nutritional aspects than other commercial edible coconut oil. ...
This study aims to compare the physicochemical properties of Virgin Coconut Oil(VCO), Refined, Bleached and Deodorized(RBD) oil and Cold Pressed Oil (CPO, Chekku oil). The physicochemical properties taken for the study includes moisture content, refractive index, saponification value, iodine value, acid value, unsaponifiable matter, polenske value and % free fatty acids. The physicochemical properties of all three samples obtained are in compliance with Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) standards. Of all the samples, VCO showed 1.3% FFA which was higher when compared, that it should be consumed only to a certain limit for cooking. VCO has very low moisture content of 0.11% where the shelf life of oil can be naturally preserved. The acid value of VCO was 2.7 mg KOH/g which has the highest amount of AV whereas for other samples it was less than 1.0 mgKOH/g. These findings can be used for chemical analysis and adulteration detection.
... ***Significant at the 0.001 probability level. needed by animals (Panthee, Pantalone, Saxton, West, & Sams, 2006;Rao & Shewry, 2009). While TN09-239 was significantly higher in tryptophan than 5601T, it was also significantly lower in leucine than 5601T. ...
... While TN09-239 was significantly higher in tryptophan than 5601T, it was also significantly lower in leucine than 5601T. Cysteine is also sometimes considered an essential amino acid because it must be synthesized from methionine (Rao & Shewry, 2009). Although arginine and (usually) cysteine are considered nonessential amino acids, they do provide nitrogen (N) to be used in the synthesis of protein, and their compositions should not be completely ignored (Panthee et al., 2006). ...
Phytate (myoinositol‐1,2,3,4,5,6‐hexa‐kisphosphate) in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cannot be absorbed by livestock with monogastric digestive systems, and is often excreted in their waste. This can result in agricultural runoff pollution, as well as nutritional deficiencies in poultry (Gallus Gallus domesticus) and swine (Sus domesticus). The enzyme phytase is often applied to break the phytin‐salt bonds and allow for phosphorus (P) absorption, but is an added cost for animal producers. Therefore, we developed a low‐phytate BC4‐derived line TN09‐239 for comparison of agronomic and seed‐quality traits with the high‐yielding recurrent parent, 5601T. In a replicated, multienvironment field test in Tennessee, TN09‐239 was significantly higher for inorganic P (Pi) (P < 0.001), which is inversely correlated with the seed‐phytate concentration, but significantly lower for yield (P < 0.05) in comparison with the recurrent parent. These findings for increased Pi, but reduced yield, for TN09‐239 in comparison with 5601T were confirmed in the 2010 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Uniform Preliminary V Soybean Test grown in 10 southern US environments. 5601T and TN09‐239 differed in Pi stability across southern environments, with linear regression showing 5601T having stability across environments, while TN09‐239 showed variations based on the environments. However, in each environment TN09‐239 displayed nearly a 10‐fold increase in Pi compared to 5601T. Although the low‐phytate trait and much of the recurrent parent genome along with 85–90% of the yield have been captured, further backcrossing could help recover the remaining seed yield of 5601T and other traits desirable for southern US producers.
... Cottonseed oil is amongst the top five vegetable oils produced worldwide accounting to approximately 5 million metric tons production per year (List, 2016). It is also an indivisible part of the CentralAsian cuisine. ...
Unrefined, refined and refined-deodorized cottonseed oils from pressing or extraction technologies were screened using proton (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). GC–MS of derivarized and non-derivatized (intact oil) cottonseed oils allowed detection of nearly 100 compounds. These included fatty acids (FA), linoleic (relative percentage concentration of 51–58%), palmitic (21–24%), oleic (18–23%) and stearic acids (1.8–2.2%) in hydrolysed oils, and β-sitosterol (31–43%), linoleic acid (7–29%), γ- and α-tocopherol (11–22%), and squalene (2–4%) in intact oils. NMR spectra of intact oils contained 91 resonances and were dominated by methylene (40.7–41.4%), methyl (14.1–14.2%), and methine (6.7–6.8%) protons of FA and triglycerides. Analysis of the molecular profiles revealed a dominating effect of the processing followed by the production technology. Oil refinement reduced undesirable free FA, diglycerides and gossypol, but increased hydrocarbons and aldehydes. The refined press oil contained higher levels of steroids and less free FA compared to refined extract oil. Thus, the study showed the potential of foodomics to evaluate the in-depth molecular quality of edible oils.
... Because it is high in saturated fats, cottonseed oil can be an excellent choice for deep frying purposes, which gives the fried foods a nutty or buttery aromas. Lack of linolenic acid and high levels of potent antioxidants (i.e., tocopherols) also contribute to the stability and suitability of cottonseed oil as a frying oil [108]. ...
Plants represent a significant part of the human diet. Humans have utilized every part of plants for survival, and seeds are no exception. Seeds offer high protein, unsaturated fats, fibre, essential vitamins, and minerals for various food applications. They are also a promising reservoir of bioactive compounds, where various phytochemicals, such as polyphenolic compounds, capable of maintaining and improving well-being, are present in abundant quantities. Plants from Malvaceae and Cannabaceae families are known for their fibre-rich stems that benefit humankind by serving numerous purposes. For many centuries they have been exploited extensively for various commercial and industrial uses. Their seeds, which are often regarded as a by-product of fibre processing, have been scientifically discovered to have an essential role in combating hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, cancer, and oxidative stress. Maximizing the use of these agricultural wastes can be a promising approach to creating a more sustainable world, in accordance with the concept of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
... Soybean oil is rich in omega-6, omega-9, omega-3, and unsaturated fatty acids. This oil provides more than a quarter of the total edible oil produced globally [5]. In addition, soybeans contain several types of phenolic compounds such as isoflavones, tocopherols, and saponins that may reduce the risk of the major killer diseases, namely hormone-dependent cancers. ...
Soybeans (Glycine max) are one of the most widely grown oilseeds in the world. Soybeans are processed into several products. However, during these transformation processes, the nutritional value of the beans can be greatly affected. Therefore, it was important to find optimal conditions under which soybeans can be processed while retaining their nutritional value. The objective of the study was therefore to improve the nutritional composition of soybeans while optimizing the different processing techniques. Thus, untreated (EN), dehulled (ED), sprouted (EG), roasted (ETO,) and distilled water soaked (ET) soybeans were used to determine the proximate, bioactive and anti-nutritional composition. Sprouted (EG) and dehulled (ED) beans were subjected to temperature and time factors respectively to determine the action of these factors on the nutritional composition of soybeans. The results show that the different types of samples are rich in protein (37.98±2.75 g/100g DM), fat (20.02±1.87 g/100g DM), potassium (1838.68±2.75 mg/100g DM), and magnesium (276.45±8.47 g/100g). Sprouted seeds (ED) and hulled seeds (ED) showed the best nutritional potential. The effect of soaking temperature on shelled seeds and the monitoring of germination at 24h, 48h, and 72h allowed for optimizing the nutritional properties of soybeans. Thus, the samples germinated at 24 h showed the highest energy value while the seeds germinated at 72 h are more suitable in terms of functional foods and the hulled soybeans soaked at 40°C have a high food potential. These data are very important in food industries and for possible formulations.
... Fat is subjected to rancidity via the oxidation of fatty acids. Furthermore, soybean oil contains large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acid (List, 2016), posing it to be more readily oxidised than animal fat. To prevent rancidity, antioxidants are added to MP in addition to lowering free oxygen levels inside the container and/or the usage of nitrogen packing. ...
Milk powders (MPs) have become one of the most significant dairy products consumed globally; consequently, ensuring product quality and safety is critical. It is expected that better milk adulteration detection techniques will continue to be developed, implemented, and disseminated. In this review, we present a comprehensive snapshot production of MPs, ways of enhancing their quality, and the analytical methods used to ensure safety from adulterants and contaminants. Spray drying is a powerful tool for improving the shelf life of milk by converting it into MPs. Despite these advantages, technological processes affect the physicochemical properties of MPs in comparison with fresh milk. The many aspects such as adulterants, contaminants, authentications, etc., that impact the quality and safety of products are dissected. Finally, different analytical methods for the rapid detection of dried milk adulterants and contaminants are reported, highlighting their advantages and limitations in ensuring dried milk safety and high quality.
... The world production of corn oil is about 3.5 million tons in 2016, with the United States as the largest producer of corn oil, followed by China and Brazil (Moreau & Hums, 2020;Savva & Kafatos, 2016). Although corn oil is a minor oil that only accounts for about 5% of consumption in the oil market of the United States, it is a premium vegetable oil due to its healthy fatty acid profile and several nutritional contents (List, 2016;Moreau & Hums, 2020). ...
In keeping with emerging consumer trends, the food industry is continually searching for cheaper and sustainable resources for the production of oils as food ingredients. Corn (maize) is the leading crop all over the world and is consumed as a staple food in many countries. Although corn only contains about 3%–6% of oil, which is less than most of the oilseeds, it has been widely used as cooking oil, frying oil, salad oil, or as an ingredient to prepare other products like margarine, butter, snacks, and bakery products. Corn oil from the germ is preferred by the consumer because of its pleasant taste, light delicate flavor, healthy fatty acid content, and good physical and chemical properties. In addition, corn oil is beneficial for human health since corn oil contains up to 65.5% of linoleic acid, as well as other bioactive compounds, including sterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol), phenolic acids, and flavonoids. This chapter summarizes the necessary processing to produce corn oils from the kernels, including corn germ separation by milling, crude oil extraction, and refining. Moreover, the important physical properties and chemical characteristics that impact the quality of corn oil are also highlighted. Finally, the novel utilization of corn oil in the production of various food systems such as emulsions, oleogels, and oleofoams is highlighted.
... In past years, attempts have been made to replace saturated and hydrogenated (trans) fats from processed food products [1][2][3][4][5]. The push for the introduction of oleogels in foods has seen significant developments, foreseeing the benefits of their solid-like properties, good mouthfeel attributes, and bioactivity capabilities [6]. ...
Novel fat mimetic materials, such as oleogels, are advancing the personalization of healthier food products and can be developed from low molecular weight compounds such as γ oryzanol and β-sitosterol. Following molecular assembly, the formation of a tubular system ensues, which seems to be influenced by elements such as the oleogelators’ concentration and ratio, cooling rates, and storage periods. Sterol-based oleogels were formulated under distinct environmental conditions, and a comprehensive study aimed to assess the effects of the mentioned factors on oleogel formation and stability, through visual observation and by using techniques such as small-angle X-ray scattering, X-ray diffraction, confocal Raman spectroscopy, rheology, and polarized microscopy. The long, rod-like conformations, identified by small-angle X-ray scattering, showed that different cooling rates influence oleogels’ texture. Raman spectra showed that the stabilization time is associated with the interfibrillar aggregation, which occurred differently for 8 and 10 wt%, with a proven relationship between ferulic acid and the tubular formation. This report gives fundamental insight into the critical point of gelation, referring to the time scale of the molecular stabilization. Our results verify that understanding the structuring mechanisms of oleogelation is decisive for the processing and manufacturing of novel foods which integrate oleogels in their structure.
... Genetic improvement of oilseed crop is done using biotechnology to produce low saturated, trans-fat free oils (List, 2016). Trait enhanced oils offer a healthier composition with better functionality and stability (Msanne et al., 2020). ...
Trans fats are desired by the edible oil industry as they impart firmness, plasticity, and oxidative stability to oil. However, clinical trials have demonstrated the adverse effects of trans fats in food on human health and nutrition. Regulatory actions have been taken up by government and non‐government bodies worldwide to eliminate the presence of trans fats in the food supply. The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a “REPLACE” action plan to eliminate trans‐fat from the global food industry by 2023. A few enabling technologies are developed to mitigate trans fats namely, trait‐enhanced oils, modification in the hydrogenation process, interesterification, fractionation, blending, and oleogelation. Some of them have the drawback of replacing trans‐fat with saturated fats. Interesterification and oleogelation are in‐trend techniques with excellent potential in replacing trans fats without compromising the desired functionality and nutritional quality attributes. This review presents an overview of trans fatty acid for example, its dietary intake in food products, possible adverse health impact, regulations, and approaches to reduce the usage of trans fats for food application. The requirement for the replacement of trans fatty acids (TFAs) in food supply globally has challenged the food industry to find a novel substitute for trans fats without compromising the desired functionality and nutritional property. This review presents detailed background on trans fats, their health impacts and current trends of reformulation of oils and fats to mitigate their presence in food supply chains. Information compiled in this paper will help food scientists and technologists, chemists, food processors, and retailers as there is an urgent need to find novel technologies and substitutes to replace trans fats in processed foods.
... Soybean provides >25% of global edible oil production (>50% in U. S.) [1] and ~ 63% of global animal-feed protein sources (92% in U.S.) [2]. However, soy carbohydrate is undervalued and much of it ends up in the waste product, soy molasses. ...
Soy carbohydrate is currently underutilized and undervalued. Selectively hydrolyzing soy carbohydrate produces protein-enriched products and fermentable sugars, and increases soybean value significantly. The process involves complex carbohydrates and multi-enzyme dependency and interactions, and requires quantitative models to guide the use of optimal enzyme and process design. Here, soy flour was processed by 10 enzymes of different activity compositions. Kinetic yields of individual sugars were followed and the results modeled to gain insights into the hydrolytic effectiveness of different carbohydrase activities, their sensitivities to changing loading (activity per g carbohydrate), and their rates of declining effectiveness over time.
... The bran is usually separated from the cereal grain, during milling operations, as it might have negative effects with the final product (Rosa-Sibakov et al., 2015) such as darker colors. However, cereal brans are sources of Naczk and Shahidi (2006), Butnariu and Butu (2015), Carrillo-López and Yahia (2019), González-Pérez and Arellano (2009), Islam and Ma (2016), List (2016), Rosell and Garzon (2015), Shukla et al. (1992) Food Bioprocess Technol nutritional compounds such as polyphenols, dietary fibers, and minerals (Heiniö et al., 2016). Different studies have shown the potential of using wheat bran as a source of valuable compounds. ...
Food side streams contain useful compounds such as proteins, sugars, polyphenols, and amino acids that might get discarded during processing. The concentration of these components may be low (e.g., fruit side streams are mainly composed by water, around 90%, while polyphenol content in rapeseed meal is less than 3% dry weight) and therefore effective separation techniques should be evaluated. The aim of this review is to identify the different process steps (like pretreatment, volume reduction, phase change, solid removal, purification, and formulation) required to recover high-value products from agri-food residues. It reviews different plant-based byproducts as sources (cereal bran, fruit pomace, oilseed meals, fruit wastewater) of valuable compounds and discusses the relevant technologies required for processing (such as extraction, adsorption, crystallization, drying, among others). A structured approach to design recovery processes presented focused on high purity products. This work demonstrates that multiple high-value products can be recovered from a single agri-food side stream depending on the processing steps and the origin source (strong and soft structures and wastewater).
... Cottonseed oil was considered a waste product of cotton fiber production until the middle of the nineteenth century, but it is now considered a valuable secondary product used in food products such as mayonnaise (Gunstone 2007;Rashid et al. 2009). The worldwide cottonseed oil consumption is estimated at approximately 5.2 million metric tons, with China being both the primary consumer and producer of this oil (List 2016). Cotton is grown in warmer climates than many oilseeds; for example, in the USA, production is primarily in Texas (Steven Hague and Lori Hinze, pers. ...
As the effects of climate change continue to alter crop-growing conditions year-to-year on both prime and marginal agricultural landscapes, we must consider the effects not only on yield but also on quality. This is particularly true for oilseed crops. In this review, we explore the importance of oilseeds in general and the specific uses of major oilseed crops including soybean, sunflower, canola, peanut, and cottonseed. We review the physiology of seed oil production, from the perspective of the plant's adaptation to environmental changes. Of particular importance is the role of temperature and water availability on oil synthesis. We then discuss how this influences genetic variation, phenotype variability due to environment, and the interaction of genetics and environment to affect composition and yield of vegetable oils. The ability to predict these effects using genomics and bioinformatics is an important new frontier for breeders to maximize stability of a desired fatty acid composition for their crop over increasingly extreme agricultural environments.
... Due to the quality proteins and a high concentration of oil, soybean is a substitute for meat more than other crops (Sudarić, 2011). Soybean oil is rich in omega-3 (7-8%) and omega-6 fatty acids (55%), and thus it serves as a raw material for a large number of industrial products (List, 2016). An increase in the soybean seed use in the domestic animals feeding, the processing industry, and human diet resulted in a greater need for a larger quantity and quality of proteins and oils (Umburanas, 2018). ...
The paper presents the result of a triennial field experiment (2013‒15), aiming to determine the influence of irrigation, nitrogen fertilization, and cultivars, as well as their interactions on the yield and chemical properties of the soybean seeds. Four soybean cultivars (Lucija, Vita, Ika and Tena) of different maturity groups were investigate as a sub‐subplot factor (C). The main plot factor (A - irrigation) resulted in a statistically very significant (P≤0.01) seed yield in all three years, and it was found out by an analysis of variance. The subplot factor (B - nitrogen fertilization) had an impact on the grain yield depending on the research year, while sub‐subplot factor (C-cultivar) significantly affected all examined traits. The factor interactions and their significance varied by the research years. The seed yield achieved in 2013 (3883 kg ha-1) indicated a great importance of all factors’ interaction. The correlations between a seed yield and a protein and oil concentration were determined during the research.
... Soybean oil provides more than a quarter of the total edible oil produced globally and more than a half in the U.S. [1]. After oil extraction, the remaining bean mass (soybean flour/meal) contains mainly protein (50%) and carbohydrate (30-35%). ...
Carbohydrate is a major underutilized and undervalued resource in soybean. Its indigestibility concern causes devaluation of soy protein for some uses. Conversion of carbohydrate to monomeric sugars as fermentation feedstock can significantly increase soybean value but it involves multiple carbohydrates and multi-enzyme dependency and interactions. Sugar yields were measured for soybean flour processing using 10 different enzymes and the results modeled to gain insights into soybean carbohydrates and monomerization, including individual sugar distributions among different carbohydrates, sugar composition of each carbohydrate, and the optimal carbohydrases composition. The study is important for guiding future optimization of enzyme activities and process design.
... The cottonseed flakes remaining after oil extraction are commonly used as cattle feed for the high productivity of animals (Casteel et al., 2006). Another application of refined CSO is used in the production of edible products such as doughnuts, biscuits, chips, ice creams, etc (List, 2016). In the present study, cold-pressed (unrefined) CSO was evaluated to control R. microplus infestation to cattle. ...
The present study was performed to determine the acaricidal activity of the cottonseed oil (CSO) against cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus. CSO was analyzed using Gas Chromatograph with high-resolution Mass Spectrometer (GC-HRMS) to identify the presence of active compounds. In vitro bioassays were performed using larval packet test (LPT) and adult immersion test (AIT) by taking different concentrations of CSO (i.e. 0.1, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5%). In vivo acaricidal activity of CSO was evaluated by its topical application on red Sahiwal calves for 144 h. Clinical safety of CSO was evaluated by performing skin irritancy test and examination of hematological profile of calves'. GC-HRMS analysis of CSO revealed the presence of many fatty acids including oleic acid, lauric acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid and other components. Results exhibited that all the concentrations of CSO were effective in reducing the number of ticks and their growth. However, CSO at concentrations of 10% (CSO7) and 12.5% (CSO8) exhibited 100% mortality of R. microplus larvae and adults in LPT and AIT, respectively. In vivo acaricidal assay revealed that CSO7 and CSO8 shown 85% and 89% inhibition of ticks, respectively on calves after 144 h as compared to the control group. CSO was clinically safe on calves' skin with mild erythema up to 20 min. Hematological profile of calves revealed no sign of toxicity after treatment with CSO. Thus, CSO can be used as an alternative and safe drug therapy against R. microplus.
... Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is an oilseed crop used worldwide for the production of vegetable oils. Rapeseed oil is the third most commonly produced vegetable oil in the world after palm and soy oil (List, 2016). In turn, the quality and the quantity of the oil are determined by phenotypic traits like plant architecture, oil composition, and resistance to unfavourable environmental conditions. ...
Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is one of the most important oilseed crops used for the production of vegetable oils. The key features that directly impact the quality and the quantity of the oil are agronomically important traits. The modern and effective approach that allows such traits to be improved is marker-assisted selection which relies on the socalled molecular markers, including DNA-based ones. In turn, to date, several approaches that facilitate the identification of a molecular marker, as well as genetic association mapping of phenotypical traits, have been implemented. Here we briefly review several recent studies devoted to association mapping of agronomically important traits in rapeseed by means of high-throughput genotyping technologies.
... It was observed that as the proportion of the unsaturated component C 18:3 component of the vegetable oils increases the solubility of EFV increased. Flaxseed oil has approximately 50% C 18:3 , soybean oil approximately 9.5% C 18:3 , grapeseed, sunflower and olive oil contain C 18:3 of <2% [42][43][44]. ...
The formation, manufacture and characterization of low energy water-in-oil (w/o) nanoemulsions prepared using cold pressed flaxseed oil containing efavirenz was investigated. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to identify the nanoemulsion region(s). Other potential lipid-based drug delivery phases containing flaxseed oil with 1:1 m/m surfactant mixture of Tween® 80, Span® 20 and different amounts of ethanol were tested to characterize the impact of surfactant mixture on emulsion formation. Flaxseed oil was used as the oil phase as efavirenz exhibited high solubility in the vehicle when compared to other vegetable oils tested. Optimization of surfactant mixtures was undertaken using design of experiments, specifically a D-optimal design with the flaxseed oil content set at 10% m/m. Two solutions from the desired optimization function were produced based on desirability and five nanoemulsion formulations were produced and characterized in terms of in vitro release of efavirenz, physical and chemical stability. Metastable nanoemulsions containing 10% m/m flaxseed oil were successfully manufactured and significant isotropic gel (semisolid) and o/w emulsions were observed during phase behavior studies. Droplet sizes ranged between 156 and 225 nm, zeta potential between −24 and −41 mV and all formulations were found to be monodisperse with polydispersity indices ≤ 0.487.
... Linoleic acid helps increase insulin sensitivity and reduces the inflammatory response in hyperglycemic conditions. In addition to PUFA content, soybean oil also has 24% monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) which is useful in repairing serum glucose, blood pressure and reducing oxidative stress (List, 2015). Tempeh flour also contains 7.23 g of linoleic acid. ...
Critically ill patients are susceptible to hyperglycemia during the treatment in the hospital. This condition could reduce immunity and increase the risk of mortality. The use of commercial diabetes-specific enteral reduces blood glucose level but increase the hospitalization cost due to the long-term period. Therefore, the homemade enteral formula developed using tempeh flour and jicama flour. GLITEROS comes from glycemia, tempeh and Pachyrhizus erosus. Arginine, glycine, and isoflavone contained in tempeh flour could improve insulin secretion. Moreover, inulin in jicama flour could control the increasing of blood glucose levels. The purpose of this study was to analyze the viscosity, macro-nutrient content, food fiber and protein digestibility of GLITEROS enteral formula. GLITEROS made from tempeh flour, jicama flour, soybean oil, skim milk, maltodextrin, and sugar. This study was an experimental design with three groups formula, A1 (1:1), A2 (5:3), A3 (2:3). Variables include viscosity, energy density, energy content, carbohydrates, protein, fat, dietary fiber and protein digestibility each with 3x repetitions in duplicate. The data were analyzed using Kruskal Wallis and One-way ANOVA. A1 formula had the highest carbohydrate (62%), dietary fiber (25.59%), and fat (10.49%) lower than A2 and A3 formula. A2 formula had 0.98 kcal/mL density energy and 984 kcal energy, 11,73 cP lower than A3 and A1 formula. A3 formula had the highest density energy (1.13 kcal/ mL), energy (1132.45 kcal), 36.10 cP viscosity, and protein (14.89%) lower than A1 and A2 formula. A1 formula is the most eligible in viscosity, energy density, energy content and protein of enteral formula for hyperglycemia patient according to American Diabetes Association (ADA), Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA), American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) requirements.
... The high proportion of PUFA in the concentrate can be explained by the inclusion of cotton and sunflower seeds, as their lipids represented about 53.5% of total EE in the concentrate and both corn and sunflower oils are highly unsaturated, with about a 2:1 ratio of PUFA to SFA [35,36]. The concentrate used in our study had a 2.4/1 ratio of PUFA to SFA, and this high value can be explained by the high proportion of corn (360 g/kg), as corn contributed to 24.1% of total EE in the concentrate and its oil has high PUFA/SFA ratio (over 4.5/1; [37]). The lipids supplied by the APP mixture manufacturing, and the high content in MUFA of the blocks is consistent with the FA profile of the APP mixture. ...
Twelve Murciano-Granadina dairy goats were divided into two homogeneous groups, which were fed either a control diet composed of 40% alfalfa hay and 60% concentrate or a diet based on 40% alfalfa hay, 40% concentrate and 20% multinutrient blocks, including 14.8% avocado pulp and peels (APP). Total dry matter (DM) intake was similar (p = 0.709) for both diets, but APP-fed goats had lower (p = 0.024) concentrate intake and tended (p = 0.063) to have lower fat intake compared with those fed the control diet. The average intake of blocks was low (66.4 g DM/d), which was attributed to avocado lipids oxidation and rancidity. Neither milk yield (p = 0,921) nor the efficiency of energy and nitrogen use were affected (p = 0.909 and 0. 840, respectively) by the diet, but milk fat tended to be greater (p = 0.057) in the APP-fed goats compared with the animals fed the control diet. Other milk components were similar (p ≥ 0.110) for both diets, and only subtle changes in the milk fatty acid profile were observed. In summary, the intake of blocks containing avocado wastes by dairy goats was low probably due to avocado lipids oxidation causing off-flavors and reduced palatability.
Cotton (Gossypium sp.) is a commercially important annual fibre crop; cottonseed oil (CSO) important product extracted from one of byproducts cottonseeds. Oil yield varies with cotton species, places and season when cotton grown and extraction methods used for oil extraction. This review provides an overview on the extraction of CSO by different chemical, biochemical and mechanical methods. Functional characterization and physicochemical evaluation of CSO demonstrated the superior quality as compared to other vegetable oils. Fatty acid profile showed higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and found to have promising health effects. Various physiochemical characteristics includes iodine value, phosphorus content, moisture content, refractive index, specific gravity, saponification value, gossypol content and antioxidants are alos presented in the current review. Health benefits of CSO and its uses as edible oil in food and other industrial applications are also described. CSO with well-developed extraction method, good fatty acid profile with safe levels of gossypol is healthy and edible for human consumption.
Repeated reuse of frying oil raises health concerns due to the accumulation of oxidative products after each frying cycle. Gut microbiota is integral in lipid metabolism and immune regulation. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of thermally-oxidized corn oil and lard on gut microbiota in relation to atherosclerosis, inflammatory cytokines, and plasma lipids. Male Golden Syrian hamsters were randomly divided into four groups and fed one of four diets containing fresh corn oil (CF), oxidized corn oil (CO), fresh lard (LF), and oxidized lard (LO), for six weeks. CO and LO were prepared by deep-frying potatoes in corn oil or lard for seven days. Results indicated that oxidized oil and lard caused the loss of species diversity and richness of gut microbiota. Feeding CO and LO also reduced the body and adipose tissue weights, associated with genus Acetatifactor and Allobaculum. Plasma triacylglycerols significantly increased by 51% in the CO and 35% in the LO group compared with that in their CF and LF counterparts, respectively. CO could also affect the abundance of specific bacteria genera: Bacteroides, Barnesiella, Acetatifactor, Allobaculum, Clostridium_IV, Clostridium_XIVa, Coprococcus, Lactococcus, Paraprevotella, Parasutterella, and Oscillibacter. In addition, CO and LO could adversely remodel gut composition and affect intestinal production of short-chain fatty acids, pro-inflammatory biomarkers (LPS and IL-6), anti-inflammatory biomarker IL-10, and atherosclerotic progression. It was concluded that frying oil could adversely modulate the gut microbiota and exacerbate the atherosclerosis at least in a hypercholesterolemia hamster model.
Fats and oils can be found naturally in a wide range of animal and plant-based sources. They serve an important part of a balanced and healthy diet as they provide energy, support growth and development, provide the essential fatty acids and boost the immune system. Fats and oils are also high in fat-soluble vitamins especially vitamin E (tocopherols) which is well known for its antioxidant properties. Besides, these ingredients also help to enhance the sensory characteristics of various food products. Some fats and oils may even be used for medicinal purposes and biodiesel production. Obviously, fats and oils are essential components for both food applications and industrial uses. Based on the previous literatures, each fat and oil has its own unique fatty acid profile and physicochemical properties. Therefore, the present chapter reviews and focuses on the nutritional values and physicochemical properties of some common edible fats and oils extracted from both plant and animal sources.KeywordsAnimal fatsVegetable oilsPoultry fatLardTallowFish oilPalm oilSoybean oilSunflower oilCoconut oil
Adulteration became a serious problem to food industries as it steadily spread across the globe in the past decades, affecting several food products, but especially vegetable oils. Palm kernel oil is a highly susceptible target for adulteration due to its exceptional characteristics and several applications. Hence, this study utilized gas chromatography with flame ionization detector, and direct infusion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry combined with chemometrics to assess the authenticity of seven Brazilian brands of palm kernel oil. Results indicated adulteration with at least 30% in all brands evaluated. Furthermore, presence of a different additive was verified for PKO1, PKO5, and PKO7. Thus, the association of direct infusion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry analysis with pattern recognition methods proved to be an attractive candidate for fast routine analyses to identify adulteration in industries.
BACKGROUND
Chemical interesterification (CIE) is one of the important technological processes for the production of zero-trans fats. The aim of this study was to produce trans-free cocoa butter alternatives (CBA) from palm kernel stearin (PKS), coconut oil (CNO) and fully-hydrogenated palm stearin (FHPS) blends via CIE using sodium methoxide as a catalyst. The physicochemical properties, crystallization and melting behavior, solid fat content (SFC), crystal morphology and polymorphism of the structured lipids (SL) obtained and the corresponding physical blends (PB) were characterized and compared with commercial CBAs.
RESULTS
After CIE, randomization of fatty acid distribution within and among triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules of PKS, CNO and FHPS resulted in a modification in TAG compositions of the PKS:CNO:FHPS blends and improved the properties and crystallization behavior of the blends. SFC and slip melting points of all SLs decreased from those of their respective PBs. In particular, SLs obtained from CIE of blends with 60–70% wt. PKS (blends ratios 60:10:30 and 70:10:20) exhibited the melting characteristic, SFC curves, crystal morphology and polymorphic form most similar to the commercial CBAs. In addition, these blends melted almost completely at the body temperature, an improvement from that of the commercial CBAs.
CONCLUSION
SLs obtained from CIE of blends with 60–70% wt. PKS have high potential to be used commercially as trans-free CBAs for the confectionery industry.
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Background
The popularity of grain‐based ethanol production, especially via dry‐grind bioethanol from corn (dry milling) and subsequent accumulation of low‐value coproducts, especially dried distillers grain with solubles (DDGS), has emphasized the need to add value to the process by recovering different corn components for potential food, feed, and industrial applications prior to ethanol fermentation.
Findings
Modification in corn processing, including the fractionation process, has manifested in variation in product yield such as ethanol. However, the value‐added products thus obtained boost their quality, potentially increasing the profitability of dry‐grind corn ethanol process. Corn oil, being the most valuable corn component, presents itself as an attractive candidate for front‐end and tail‐end separation of germs. Although the corn oil does not take part in starch fermentation into ethanol, the implication of the front‐end degermination in dry‐grind corn process on downstream product recovery is an essential consideration in bioethanol yield. Process improvement has taken a further step to increase the ethanol yield and rate by processing alpha‐amylase corn, providing critical nutrients and superior yeast.
Conclusions
Corn ethanol production, quality of coproducts, germ separation, and oil recovery have been enhanced with component recovery either before or after fermentation. However, the economic aspects of the corn bioprocessing advancements need to be further evaluated for commercial implications.
Significance and novelty
This review summarizes the current knowledge about the significant corn processing methods. It critically reviews germ fractionation, its role in the processing parameters, and the potential for increased value‐added products such as corn oil.
Soybean (Glycine max), also called as soja bean or soya bean, holds tremendous economic importance owing to its high amount of oil content (18%), high-quality proteins (~40%), contribution toward soil fertility, high productivity, and profitability; and, thus, is rightly referred to as the miracle crop. Soybeans are also a significant source of polysaccharides, soluble fibers, phytosterols, lecithins, saponins, and phytochemicals mainly isoflavones which either individually or col-laboratively help in promoting health by reducing the incidence of debilitating diseases like hyperglycemia, hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity, inflammation, cancer, etc. Century-old literature shows that soybean seeds have been primarily used in Asia to prepare a variety of fresh, fermented, and dried foods, viz., soy milk, tofu, soy paste, soy sauce, miso, natto, etc. which have now become popular all over the world. Furthermore, soybean and its products find various non-food applications such as in the production of papers,
A novel technique for palm oil hydrogenation with very low trans-fatty acid formation using non-thermal dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma with parallel-plate configuration has been successfully demonstrated. This green technique does not require catalyst and is highly environmental-friendly. With 15% H2: 85% He mixed carrier gas concentration ratio and initial 31 °C (rising to 50 °C due to plasma), after 4 h of plasma hydrogenation, iodine value (IV) was reduced from 60.89 to 48.39 and detected trans-fat was 1.44%. This represents trans-fat generation rate of only 0.07% per % decrease in IV, which is about 6.12 times lower than a conventional method relying on high temperature, high pressure and catalyst. About 8 h was required to produce margarine with texture closest to commercial margarines. Acid value (AV) reduced from 0.47 to 0.27%, or 43% reduction, after 12–20 h of treatment, significantly indicating that plasma hydrogenation can also help extend shelf life of oil or margarine. Large portion of DBD plasma hydrogenated palm oil can, thus, be mixed with palm olein and interesterified palm oil to produce margarine with overall trans-fatty acid content no higher than regulatory requirement. Continuous production scheme was presented. This novel plasma hydrogenation technique offers promising possibility for commercial utilization by edible oils industry.
Structured lipids (SL) were produced from enzymatic interesterification (EIE) of palm kernel stearin (PKS), coconut oil (CNO), and fully hydrogenated palm stearin (FHPS) blends in various mass ratios. The EIE reactions were performed at 60 °C for 6 hours using immobilized Lipozyme RM IM with a mixing speed of 300 rpm. The physicochemical properties, crystallization and melting behavior, solid fat content (SFC), crystal morphology and polymorphism of the physical blends (PB), and the SL were characterized and compared with commercial cocoa butter and cocoa butter alternatives (CBA). EIE significantly modified the triacylglycerol compositions of the fat blends, resulting in changes in the physical properties and the crystallization and melting behavior. SFC and slip melting point of all SL decreased from those of their counterpart PB. In particular, SL obtained from EIE of blends 60:10:30 and 70:10:20 (PKS:CNO:FHPS) exhibited a high potential to be used as trans‐free CBA as they showed similar melting ranges, melting peak temperatures, and SFC curves to the commercial CBA with fine needle‐like crystals and desirable β' polymorph.
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is an important fibre crop of global significance. It is grown and harvested in tropical and subtropical regions of more than 80 countries. The state of Chihuahua, in Mexico, is the leader in the production of cotton covering 70% of national production. According to statistics reported in 2016, 488,000 metric tons were obtained and utilized as follows: 93% for textile industry, 2.28% as cattle feed, 1.1% was re-harvested, and the other 3.56% was discharged, and in consequence an environmental impact occurs. That remaining cottonseed constitutes a potential agroindustry residue with biotechnological applications due to its chemical composition: fibre, proteins (as well as essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, tryptophan, and other amino acids) carbohydrates, and lipids (it is important to highlight gossypol and the fatty acids profile). In this chapter, food and bioenergy applications of cottonseed in terms of bioactive compounds (phenolic content), bioactivity (antioxidant activity), and lipid content (production of biodiesel) are reviewed, as well as the chemical compounds responsible of such applications, different types of extraction methods and analytical protocols for their identification, purification, and quantification.
The present invention is directed to improving productivity of an enzymatic method for producing esterified, transesterified or interesterified fats or oils. Specifically, a method that can greatly improve the productivity of enzymatic esterification, transesterification or interesterification by purifying the substrate oil to extend the useful life of the enzyme is disclosed.
A method and system for the enzymatic treatment of a lipid containing feedstock comprises contacting the feedstock with a processing aid, then causing the feedstock to pass at a substantially constant flow rate through a treatment system comprising a plurality of enzyme-containing fixed bed reactors connected to one another in series. The fixed bed reactors can be individually serviceable, the flow rate of the feedstock remaining substantially constant through the system when one of the fixed bed reactors is taken off line for servicing. In the most preferred embodiment, the processing aid is a substantially moisture-free silica. The processing aid can be placed in one or more of the fixed bed reactors, disposed above the enzyme in the reactor, or it can be in a pre-treatment system which can comprise one or more reactors.
Panel evaluations have been made of room odors developed by edible oils and cooking fats heated to frying temperatures. Vegetable
and mixed fat shortenings, as well as oils of different iodine value and from special processing, were investigated with and
without added stabilizers. When silicones were added to frying fats, room odor scores improved markedly. Certain added autoxidative
cleavage products had little effect on odor scores at levels where they were detected easily in taste tests. To be discernible
in room odors, these additives had to be present at levels ca. 100-fold greater than their taste thresholds. Panel results
show that the undesirable frying odors contributed by unhydrogenated soybean oil in mixtures with other oils could be detected
readily at 25% levels. As the level of soybean oil was lowered further, the room odor scores of oil mixtures improved perceptibly.
Soybean oil and meal produced by extruding-expelling (E-E) are believed to have unique characteristics compared with products
produced by solvent extraction (SE). A survey was conducted to compare quality characteristics of the oils and meals produced
from different types of soybean processing methods. Soybean oil and meal samples were collected three different times within
a 1-yr period from 13 E-E mills, 8 SE plants, and 1 continuous screwpress (SP) plant. Properties of oil and meal varied considerably
between different types of plants and among plants of the same type and sampling times. In general, settled crude E-E and
SP oils had significantly greater peroxide values than those of SE oils. E-E oils contained less free fatty acid and phosphorus
than did SE and SP oils. The oxidative stability (AOM) of E-E oil was less than that of SE oil, and that of SP oil was intermediate.
E-E and SP meals had higher oil and lower protein and moisture contents than those of SE meals. Protein dispersibility indices
were lower for E-E and SP meals. Protein solubilities in KOH were similar for E-E and SE meal, but higher than that of SP
meal (62%). Rumen bypass protein values were higher for the SP meal.
Laboratory-scale treatments of canola oils similar to deodorization were carried out by applying the following conditions:
reduced pressure with nitrogen or steam stripping at different temperatures ranging from 210 to 270°C for 2–65 h. The formation
of the group of trans linolenic acid isomers follows a first-order reaction and the kinetic constant varies according to the Arrhenius’ law. Similar
results were observed for the trans isomerization of linoleic acid. Based on these experiments, a mathematical model was developed to describe the isomerization
reaction steps occurring in linoleic and linolenic acids during deodorization. The calculated degrees of isomerization are
independent of the composition of the oil but related to both time and temperature of deodorization. The degree of isomerization
of linolenic acid is unaffected by the decrease of this acid content observed during the deodorization. Deodorization at about
220–230°C appears to be a critical limit beyond which the linolenic isomerization increases very strongly. The newly established
model can be a tool for manufacturers to reduce the total trans isomer content of refined oils, and was applied to produce a special selectively isomerized oil for a European Nutritional
Project.
Developing low-cost oil refining methods is critical to business that use low-cost extrusion-expelling (E-E) to crush soybeans
so they can capture the full value-added potential by marketing finished oils. Normal commodity (CO) and high-oleic (HO) E-E
soybean oils were minimum-refined, gas-purged, and evaluated in frying applications. Degummed commodity oil (DCO) and minimum-refined
(degummed and deacidified by Magnesol® adsorption) CO and HO oils were gas-purged with N2 for 1 h at 150°C. For DCO, gas purging did not affect PV, oxidative stability index (OSI), FFA, color, and total tocopherol
content, but p-anisidine value (AV) increased. For CO, the minimum-refined, gas-purged oil did not differ from degummed, gas-purged oil
in terms of p-AV, OSI, tocopherol content, and color. PV and FFA were lower in minimum-refined, gas-purged oil. Minimum-refined, gas-purged
HO had much higher OSI, tocopherol, and FFA levels than did minimum-refined, gas-purged CO. The oils were used to fry bread
cubes at 185°C. Fried bread cubes were stored under various conditions and evaluated for flavor attributes. These oils were
different in toasty/nutty, beany/grassy, and oxidized flavors, as well as overall flavor intensity and desirability. Minimum-refined,
gas-purged oils produced fried bread cubes having initial flavor profiles similar to those fried in commercial oil; however,
when fresh oils were used they were less stable to oxidation. Longer heating times of the minimum-refined, gas-purged oils
produced bread cubes with better oxidative stabilities than those produced with commercial oil.
The sodium methoxide-catalyzed random interesterification of liquid soybean oil-soy trisaturate blends was explored as a possible
route to zerotrans margarine oils. Lipase hydrolysis of the rearranged fats showed that with 0.2% catalyst, interesterification is complete
within 30 min at 75-80 C. The glyceride structures of natural and randomized soybean oil-soy trisaturate blends are presented,
and relationships between their structure and physical properties are discussed. Organoleptic evaluations showed that randomization
of the glyceride structure had no adverse effects on flavor and oxidative stability. Flavor evaluations made against a commercially
hardened tub margarine oil showed that interesterified oil had comparable initial and aged flavor scores. X-ray diffraction
studies demonstrated that randomized soybean oil-soy trisaturate blends possess the beta-prime crystal structure desirable
for use in margarine production. Dilatometric data indicate that random interesterification of 20% by weight of soy trisaturate
into the glyceride structure of soybean oil provides a product having a solid fat index suitable for use in a soft tub margarine.
Simple, low-capital-investment oil refining techniques, which may also meet the needs of natural or organic food industries,
were explored to process extruded-expelled (E-E) soybean oils with various fatty acid compositions. Most settled E-E oils
are naturally low in phosphatides (<100 ppm phosphorus) and were easily water degummed to low phosphorus levels (<55 ppm).
Free fatty acids were reduced to 0.04% by adsorption with 3% Magnesol®. Magnesol reduced residual phosphorus contents to negligible levels. This material also adsorbed primary and secondary oil
oxidation products. Our adsorption refining procedure was much milder than conventional refining, as indicated by little formation
of primary and secondary lipid oxidation products and less loss of tocopherol. The remaining challenge to effective natural
refining is the removal of off-flavor components. Our adsorption treatment reduced the natural flavor of soybean oil but flavor
was still present, probably too strong for many consumers. Polyunsaturated oils oxidized more easily than did the other types
of oils; therefore, precautions should be taken when refining such oils. High-oleic soybean oil, on the other hand, had excellent
oxidative stability and better flavor characteristics after degumming and adsorption with Magnesol compared with other oils.
Liquid vegetable oils (VO), including cottonseed, peanut, soybean, corn, and canola, were randomly interesterified with completely
hydrogenated soybean or cottonseed hardstocks (vegetable oil trisaturate; VOTS) in ratios of four parts VO and one part VOTS.
Analysis of the reaction products by high-performance liquid chromatography showed that at 70°C and vigorous agitation, with
0.5% sodium methoxide catalyst, the reactions were complete after 15 min. Solid-fat index (SFI) measurements made at 50, 70,
80, 92, and 104°F, along with drop melting points, indicated that the interesterified fats possess plasticity curves in the
range of commercial soft tub margarine oils prepared by blending hydrogenated stocks. Shortening basestocks were prepared
by randomly interesterifying palm or soybean oil with VOTS in ratios of 1:1 or 3:1 or 4:1, respectively. Blending of the interesterified
basestocks with additional liquid VO yielded products having SFI curves very similar to commercial all purpose-type shortening
oils made by blending hydrogenated stocks. Other studies show that fluid-type shortening oils can be prepared through blending
of interesterified basestocks with liquid VO. X-ray diffraction studies showed that the desirable β′ crystal structure is
achieved through interesterification and blending.
Commodity (normal) and high-oleic soybean oils extracted by extrusion-expelling (E-E) were minimally processed using water
degumming and adsorptive deacidification to produce edible oil. Degummed and deacidified oils were deodorized at 150°C for
1 h by purging with N2, CO2, or steam. They were also conventionally deodorized for quality comparisons. Generally, the oxidative stability of the properly
gas-purged commodity oils was better than that of the conventionally deodorized oils. Total tocopherols, FFA contents, and
colors of the deodorized oils were not significantly different among the treatments. Sensory analysis of the oils showed that
the toasty/nutty flavors of the gas-purged oils, especially for the degummed oils, were more intense than those of the conventionally
deodorized oils. The beany flavors of gas-purged oils were not significantly different from those of conventionally deodorized
oils, although the flavor intensities tended to be slightly higher in gas-purged oils. The overall flavor intensities of the
gas-purged oils were similar to those of conventionally deodorized oils. Therefore, E-E soybean oil has the potential to be
minimally refined to produce edible oil with good compositional and sensory qualities.
Because of its fatty acid composition, which includes 50% saturated and 50% unsaturated fatty acids, palm oil can readily
be fractionated, i.e. partially crystallized and separated into a high melting fraction or stearin and a low melting fraction
or olein.
Three main commercial processes for fractionating palm oil are in use: the fast dry process, the slow dry process and the
detergent process. All these processes lead to specific products of different quality with different yield and operating costs.
The physical and chemical characteristics as well as the triglyceride compositions by high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) of palm oil fractions from these industrial fractionation processes are given.
Other varieties of products produced by specific fractionation are presented with analytical data: the superoleins, palm-mid-fractions
and cocoa butter substitutes.
For 2006, food processors are required to adjust to a number of regulatory initiatives. Among this is the requirement to disclose the level of trans fatty acid labeling of their products. Unknown to most Americans, the investment that food manufacturers made to reformulate their products so that the value next to the Trans Fat line on the Nutrition Facts panel now shows zero is huge. To deliver an identical-looking product with no detectable flavor or natural changes, changes have been made to the fat system, the recipe, testing the reformulated product, engineering aspects, packaging and product positioning.
This chapter presents that lipids represent one of the most important classes of components in Soybeans (SB). Economically, Soybean Oil (SBO) comprises approximately 29% of the world's fat and oil production. Soy lipids are primarily in the soybean cotyledon and comprise about 20% of its weight. Physiologically, soybean lipids have a broad spectrum of functions, including being a part of membranes, acting as an energy reserve, and serving as the solvent medium for many lipid-soluble substances. Much work has helped characterize the lipids in soybeans and the understanding of their biosynthesis. In addition, there has been great progress in breeding soybeans to contain a variety of fatty acid profiles so that soybeans can be grown to produce specific fatty acid arrangements. Although there are many reports of the minor constituents in soybeans, the interrelations of these minor constituents and their impact on lipid and oil quality, as well as their nutritional contributions are just beginning to be fully understood., The chapter suggests that future research on the lipids in soybeans should focus on these factors further to improve the overall understanding of oil quality, stability, and nutritional value so that plant breeders can incorporate these minor desired traits into soybeans, just as they have done with modified fatty acid profiles. The use of soybean, as well as other vegetable oils, in biodiesel production also will be enhanced by these types of studies.
This chapter discusses the origin, composition, properties, and utilization of canola and HEAR oils for food purposes. Canola oil (low-erucic acid rapeseed oil or LEAR) is now held by some to be the best nutritional edible oil available. This oil was developed after significant improvement and modification of the original High-Erucic Acid Rapeseed oil (HEAR). Improvements in technology and in the quality of canola seed have resulted in the modification of the definition of canola over the years. At present, the official definition for canola is a seed from B.napus (L.) or B.rapa (L.) that produces "an oil that must contain less than 2 percent erucic acid and solid component of the seed must contain less than 30 micromoles of any one or any mixture of 3-butenyl glucosinolate, 4-pentenyl glucosinolate, 2-hydroxy-3-butenyl glucosinolate, and 2-hydroxy-4-pentyenyl glucosinolate per gram of air-dry, oil-free solid". Canola oil is the only known edible oil containing one or more fatty acids with a sulfur atom as the integral part of the molecule. Triacylglycerols (TAG) are the most abundant lipid class found in canola oil. Canola oil contains relatively high levels of tocopherols; however, the amounts in finished oil are affected by refining, mainly deodorization, which can reduce the amount by 50%.
Fractionation and hydrogenation are two widely used processes which help to alter the melting profile, physical properties and chemical composition of the feed oil or fat and the products so produced are in effect new ingredients suitable for use in applications in which the original oil/fat could never have been used or would have performed poorly.
Fractionation is a thermomechanical process which eventually leads to two new products, an olein and a stearin. The olein can be used in further fractionations. Three types of fractionation systems are available, dry, solvent and detergent. Stages within each process such as nucleation and crystallisation and the conditions under which these are carried out are critical in determining the quality of the fractions. Equally, the separation efficiency of the filters also decides the yield of each fraction. Vacuum filters (e.g. Florentine, Vacuband, Stockdale) are being challenged by positive pressure membrane filters. Recent innovation with respect to the latter is a membrane filter by Krupp used in dry fractionation of fats for cocoa butter replacers. During filtration the pressure can be increased up to an end pressure of more than 50 bar.
Fractionation has enabled the introduction of many fats, particularly milkfat, into new food applications. These fats are now used to better effect in areas such as in the manufacture of stable creams, buttercreams, sauces, infant feed, ice-cream, bakery products and chocolate. The use of fractionated milkfat in yellow fat spreads is increasing, particularly in the production of spreadable butters. Fractionated fats are also used as stable frying oils and salad oils. The fractionated oils or fats can be incorporated directly into some recipes but in others they are used in blends with other oils. Some are also treated in further processes such as texturisation, in this case to make them suitable for use in bakery products.
The measurement of solid fat content at 20°C by pulse NMR is a useful aid for determining suitability of milkfats for specific food applications.
Hydrogeneration decreases the unsaturation of triacylglycerol oils and thereby increases their melting points. The chemical composition of the feed and the conditions under which the reaction is carried out, together with the type of catalyst used, help to determine the physical properties of the fat and the way in which it melts over a temperature range. The choice of the catalyst for the reaction is critical and re-use of catalyst can also generate products with interesting functional benefits.
In a number of applications such as bakery and confectionery products, it is important to have fats which remain firm at ambient temperature but which melt rapidly and are liquid at body temperature. Careful choice of oils and close control of the hydrogenation reactor are important to produce these oils. Equally, it is also sometimes necessary to lightly saturate a liquid oil to improve its oxidative stability, typically for use as a salad oil. Again, similar guidelines apply.
A number of novel processes have been described for the manufacture of stable fats with good taste and colour for use in cooking, as table oils and as base stocks for margarines. Other techniques are available to produce hard butters for bakery coatings and confectionery products. Also, non-conventional oils such as jojoba oil, fish oil, rice bran oil and cottonseed/ coconut oils have been hydrogenated under specified conditions to produce chocolate and confectionery fats. Palm oil and palm kernel oil have also been described and used in several novel processes as feed oils for the manufacture of cocoa butter substitutes.
Hydrogenated milk fat recombined with skimmed milk powder has been shown to result in a whole milk which has a more stable flavour. These fats can also partially substitute for cocoa butter in dark chocolate without loss in product quality. They have also been shown to retard fat bloom in chocolate.
Low linolenic soybean oil is the first in a series of modified oilseed products to be introduced to meet food company and consumer needs. Consumer packaged goods and foodservice companies are currently using this oil to successfully replace partially hydrogenated soybean oil, resulting in the reduction of trans fatty acids from the food supply. In addition to meeting consumer demand for healthier foods, many food processors have chosen low linolenic soybean oil based on taste, performance and cost benefits. Seed companies continue to utilize traditional breeding, marker assisted breeding and biotechnology approaches to modify oilseeds that produce oils with health and nutrition benefits. Additional modified oilseeds are at various stages of development. Soybeans with increased levels of stearic acid are being developed as an alternative to partially hydrogenated fats and high saturate fats required to provide solids and structure to food. High stability fry oils with increased levels of oleic acid, reduced levels of linolenic acid as well as a version with lower saturated fat are being developed. Soybeans are also being modified to offer more sustainable sources of omega-3s including stearidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid/docosahexaenoic acid which will result in more efficacious sources of omega-3s compared to alpha-linolenic acid-containing vegetable oil and improved functionality/stability compared to fish and algal oils.
The rapid expansion in world production of palm oil over the last three decades has attracted the attention of the oils and fats industry. Many are interested to know how palm oil has been able to compete successfully to gain an increasing share of the international oils and fats markets. The increasing importance of palm oil has naturally led to a steady buildup of scientific, techinical, and trade data and information.
Olive oil, an important component in the diet of Mediterranean people, is obtained by mechanical extraction from the fruit of Olea europaea L tree, which belongs to the Olive family. It comprises 400 species and thrives in temperate and tropical climates. Olives appeared in Israel about 45,000 years ago and olive farming and the olive oil industry appear to have been well established throughout the region bordering the Mediterranean in the middle and late Bronze age. Olive growing prospered until the fifth century AD when the Roman Empire was invaded from the north. In 1709, a new age of olive farming began when new orchards were planted in Europe to replace those destroyed by a deep cold spell. Olive farming reached a peak in the first half of the nineteenth century.
This chapter provides a background on the origin of the peanut, spreading of the peanut from its source of origin, and evolution of the peanut oil industry. A 30-year summation of world peanut production, peanut oil and meal production, and utilization of these products provides an overview of the changes in sources of production and consumption that has occurred within this time period across the 11 major peanut producing countries. Over the last 30 years (1972–2002), there has been a 22% increase in the area harvested, a 51% increase in yield, and a 92% increase in total peanut oil consumption. Advances in oil extraction procedures are presented, as are advances in the development of the high oleic peanut oil sources. Compositional aspects of peanut oil are reviewed. Other subject areas are the use of peanut oil as a seed protectant, dietary aspects, and allergenicity.
During the past two decades, canola oil, a modified rapeseed oil, has become one of the main commodity oils around the world. Rapeseed oil is still produced and used as industrial oil mainly for nonfood uses, with the exception of China and India, where it is used in food applications. In this chapter, the following aspects of canola/rapeseed oil are discussed: origin, detailed composition, physical properties, extraction, refining, processing, food utilization, nutritional properties, production of seeds and oils, canola/rapeseed as biodiesel, greases, and machine oils.
Butter is one of the oldest forms of preserving fat components of milk. Its manufacture dates back to some of the earliest historical records.
In the tropics, the coconut palm is one of the most useful trees. As a perennial provider of food, beverage, shelter, animal feed, and feedstock for the oloechemical industries, the palm is reverently described as the Tree of Life, Tree of Heaven, and other metaphors by people of coconut-producing countries. Coconut palms grow with a minimum of attention, but for commercial farms the trees must be tended and maintained in order to improve productivity.
The Oil Stability Index Analysis method was subjected to a fifteen-laboratory collaborative study in which the participants
used currently available commercial and home-built instruments to provide data to support the approval process as an Official
Method of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. The overall average coefficient of variation was 11.3% for samples from 7 to
80 h of stability testing at 110°C.
The optimal concentration for tocopherols to inhibit soybean oil oxidation was determined for individual tocopherols (α-,
γ-, and δ-tocopherol) and for the natural soybean oil tocopherol mixture (tocopherol ratio of 1∶13∶5 for α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol,
respectively). The concentration of the individual tocopherols influenced oil oxidation rates, and the optimal concentrations
were unique for each tocopherol. For example, the optimal concentrations for α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol were ∼100 and ∼300
ppm, respectively, whereas δ-tocopherol did not exhibit a distinct concentration optimum at the levels studied (P<0.05). The optimal concentration for the natural tocopherol mixture ranged between 340 and 660 ppm tocopherols (P<0.05). The antioxidant activity of the tocopherols diminished when the tocopherol levels exceeded their optimal concentrations.
Above their optimal concentrations, the individual tocopherols and the tocopherol mixture exhibited prooxidation behavior
that was more pronounced with increasing temperature from 40 to 60°C (P<0.05). A comparison of the antioxidant activity of the individual tocopherols at their optimal concentrations revealed that
α-tocopherol (∼100 ppm) was 3–5 times more potent than γ-tocopherol (∼300 ppm) and 16–32 times more potent than δ-tocopherol
(∼1900 ppm).
Operational parameters of the Rancimat method, including oil sample size, airflow rate, and temperature, were evaluated to determine their effects on the oxidative stability index (OSI), temperature coefficient, Q
10 number, and shelf-life prediction for soybean oil. Operational parameters of the Rancimat method had statistically significant effects (P < 0.05) on the OSI. Whenever the oil sample size and airflow rate at a given temperature were such that the air-saturated condition could be established, the OSIs showed no statistically significant differences. As temperature increased, OSIs decreased, while their average coefficient of variation (CV) increased. In general, the conditions where the sample was saturated with air and had a relatively lower CV were an oil sample size of 6 g at all temperatures and airflow rates, then 3-g oil sample size at low temperatures (100 and 110 °C) and low airflow rates (10 and 15 L h−1). The temperature coefficient and Q
10 number were found to be independent of the oil sample size and airflow rate, and their mean values for soybean oil were calculated to be −3.12 × 10−2 °C−1 and 2.05, respectively. Oil sample size and airflow rate showed a significant effect on shelf-life prediction for soybean oil. Therefore, choosing the right levels of these operational parameters in the Rancimat method may produce the least possible difference between predictions from long-term storage studies and the OSI test.
The fruit of the oil palm yields two types of oil. The flesh yields 20–22% of palm oil (C16∶0 44%, C18∶1 39%, C18∶2 10%).
This represents about 90% of the total oil yield. The other 10%, obtained from the kernel, is a lauric acid oil similar to
coconut oil. Palm oil is semisolid, and a large part of the annual Malaysian production of about 14 million tonnes is fractionated
to give palm olein, which is widely used for industrial frying, and palm stearin, a valuable hard stock. Various grades of
the latter are available. Formulae have been developed by straight blending and by interesterification of palm oil and palm
kernel oil to produce shortenings and margarines using hydrogenated fats to give the consistency required. Products that include
these formulations are cake shortenings, vanaspati (for the Indian subcontinent), soft and brick margarines, pastry margarines,
and reduced fat spreads. Other food uses of palm products in vegetable-fat ice cream and cheese, salad oils, as a peanut butter
stabilizer, and in confectioners fats are discussed briefly here.
A quick stability test for lard is described which depends on the peroxide content for identification of the rancid point.
By its use ordinary samples of lard can be evaluated for stability in a working day. Oleo oil also is being tested by this
method. It is applicable to edible fats and oils and hydrogenated shortenings. Typical peroxide curves for various fats and
oils are shown. The effect of copper in accelerating oxidative rancidity is discussed.
The different methods of edible oil fractionation are reviewed, and the applicability of these to the fractionation of palm
kernel and coconut oils is discussed. Crystallization from solvents such as acetone, hexane or 2-nitro-propane, is the most
easily understood and most convenient for small-scale laboratory trials, but the cost of solvents and the need to flameproof
plants makes it uneconomical for an industrial undertaking. Dry crystallization is commonly employed, and there are several
methods, described here, for subsequent separation of solid stearin from liquid olein. Chemical and physical properties of
the separated stearins and oleins depend on fractionation conditions and on the yields sought. These are reviewed. The properties
of the fractions may be further modified by hydrogenation, interesterification, blending or combinations of these techniques.
Many sophisticated confectionery fats are manufactured from lauric stearins and their methods of manufacture and product applications
are reviewed. A commercial operation must take care to find a good outlet for the secondary fractionation products (or byproducts)
however, and useful outlets for these secondary fractions are therefore considered in addition to those of the main product.
Lubricity, in particular mouthfeel, is an important factor in production of vegetable oil bases for food product formulations.
Certain functional characteristics are necessary for good texture at various temperatures. These characteristics are dependent
on degree of unsaturation, fatty acid distribution, and degree of geometrical isomerization during processing. Proper selectivity
and activity of hydrogenation catalysts used in hardening of the oils are essential. Sufficient solid fat content must be
balanced by necessary oxid ative stability. Products discussed include salad oils and their formulations in pourable and spoonable
salad dressings, mayonnaises, frying oils, imitation dairy products, margarines and bakery shortenings. Past, present and
future industry technology will be evaluated for each type of food fat product. Customer needs have greatly affected the course
of research in this area.
Edible usage of meat fats has somewhat declined over the past years. This can be attributed to several factors. First, the advancement of hydrogenation technology has led to the development of highly functional vegetable oil products. Second, there has been an increased emphasis on Kosher products. Third, various questions relating cholesterol to risks of heart disease have generated some marketing concerns over meat fat usage.
Meat fats are still a factor in the edible oils market. U.S. consumption of meat fats in 1976 was 4.1 billion pounds, approximately one billion pounds for edible usage. Because of their trigly ceride profiles, they are excellent sources of highly functional products for bakery applications. They have tended to be the “Cadillac” around which hydrogenated vegetable oil products have been developed. In addition, the economics of these products have generated significant savings for end users. Flavor attributes of meat fats have, in other cases, been the reason for their sole usage in certain specific products.
In shortening formulation, meat fats are merely one of many triglyceride sources. They can be blended with any vegetable oil source. They can be subjected to the same processing as other oils in order to modify physical chemical properties such as SFI, melting point, consistency and oxidative stability.
This paper will discuss specific applications where lard and tallow contribute unique functionality. It will then discuss various modifications which can be employed to insure more consistent performance or to customize products to specific applications.
The directed interesterification process has been put into successful factory use on lard shortenings. This process increases the fraction of high melting solids (trisaturated glycerides) and decreases the fraction of intermediate melting glycerides (disaturated glycerides) in lard. This change in glyceride composition allows the following advantages to be realized in lard shortenings:a)
an improved plastic range for any given level of oxidative stability, meaning less variation in softness and creaming properties from cold to warm temperatures, achieved without the use of relatively expensive hardstock (completely hydrogenated fat);
b)
an improved uniformity from a variable raw material, and a flexibility that makes possible a wider selection of raw materials; and
c)
an overall performance equivalent to the premium vegetable shortenings.
Objective:
Impact of mandatory trans fat labelling on US snack food introductions is examined.
Design:
Using label information, lipid ingredients and fat profiles are compared pre- and post-labelling.
Setting:
Key products in the US snack food industry contribute significant amounts of artificial trans fat. Industry efforts to reformulate products to lower trans fat may alter the overall fat profile, in particular saturates.
Subjects:
Composition data for more than 5000 chip and cookie products introduced for sale between 2001 (pre-labelling) and 2009 (post-labelling) were analysed.
Results:
One-way ANOVA was used to test for significant changes in saturated fat content per serving and the ratio of saturated to total fat. The shares of chip and cookie introductions containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oil declined by 45 and 42 percentage points, respectively. In cookies, there was an increase of 0·49 (98 % CI 0·01, 0·98) g in the average saturated fat content per 30 g serving and an increase of 9 (98 % CI 3, 15) % in the average ratio of saturated to total fat. No statistically significant changes in fat content were observed in chips.
Conclusions:
This research suggests that, holding other factors constant, the policy has resulted in a decreased use of partially hydrogenated vegetable oil in chip products without a corresponding increase in saturated fat content, but led to significantly higher levels of saturated fat and ratio of saturated fat to total fat in cookie products.
Genetically modified oils with altered functional or nutritional characteristics are being introduced into the marketplace. A wide array of analytical techniques has been utilized to facilitate developing these oils. This article attempts to review the utilization of these analytical procedures for characterizing both the chemistry and some functionality of these oils. Although techniques to assess oxidative stability in frying and food applications are covered, measurement of nutritional characteristics are not.
Phytosterols (plant sterols) are triterpenes that are important structural components of plant membranes, and free phytosterols serve to stabilize phospholipid bilayers in plant cell membranes just as cholesterol does in animal cell membranes. Most phytosterols contain 28 or 29 carbons and one or two carbon-carbon double bonds, typically one in the sterol nucleus and sometimes a second in the alkyl side chain. Phytostanols are a fully-saturated subgroup of phytosterols (contain no double bonds). Phytostanols occur in trace levels in many plant species and they occur in high levels in tissues of only in a few cereal species. Phytosterols can be converted to phytostanols by chemical hydrogenation. More than 200 different types of phytosterols have been reported in plant species. In addition to the free form, phytosterols occur as four types of "conjugates," in which the 3beta-OH group is esterified to a fatty acid or a hydroxycinnamic acid, or glycosylated with a hexose (usually glucose) or a 6-fatty-acyl hexose. The most popular methods for phytosterol analysis involve hydrolysis of the esters (and sometimes the glycosides) and capillary GLC of the total phytosterols, either in the free form or as TMS or acetylated derivatives. Several alternative methods have been reported for analysis of free phytosterols and intact phytosteryl conjugates. Phytosterols and phytostanols have received much attention in the last five years because of their cholesterol-lowering properties. Early phytosterol-enriched products contained free phytosterols and relatively large dosages were required to significantly lower serum cholesterol. In the last several years two spreads, one containing phytostanyl fatty-acid esters and the other phytosteryl fatty-acid esters, have been commercialized and were shown to significantly lower serum cholesterol at dosages of 1-3 g per day. The popularity of these products has caused the medical and biochemical community to focus much attention on phytosterols and consequently research activity on phytosterols has increased dramatically.
Trans free fats with products of the oil palm
- Berger
Method for Producing Fats or Oils. US Patent Application 0257982
- T Binder
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ADM chooses a trouble free process for trans free fats
- Anon
A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet
- Burr