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A note on the haematophagous nature of poultry shaft louse, Menopon gallinae (Amblycera: Phthiraptera)
Abstract
An analysis of the crop contents of the poultry shaft louse, Menopon gallina indicates that 67 % of adult males and 72 % of the adult females examined carried red content compatible to host blood, along with feather barbules. The percentage of nymphal instars carrying red content in the crop was quite low. On the basis of crop contents the louse does not seem to harbor any triturating agent and is also not involved in cannibalism or predation. SEM studies on the ventral side of head do not indicate the presence of any pointed structure which can be used to pierce the skin.
... Menoponids occur exclusively on birds, constituting 1 of the 2 most species-rich (> 1,050 species), most prevalent, and abundant families of avian lice (the other being Philopteridae). Several genera are known to feed partially on blood and are capable of causing economic harm to the poultry industry (for example, Menacanthus cornutus, Menopon gallinae (Figure 4), and Trinoton querquedulae) (see, for example, Saxena et al., 1985;2004;Sychra et al., 2008;Mullens et al., 2010;Kumar and Kumar, 2016;Kumar et al., 2017). The diversity of species in this group appears to be correlated with host defensive capabilities, like T-cell immune responses (Møller and Rózsa, 2005) and uropygial gland size (Møller et al., 2010). ...
... Specific information on digestive system of few selected species has contributed by Haug (1952), Waterhouse (1953), Saxena & Agarwal (1981) and Navio et al., (1986). Wilson (1933), Crutchfield & Hixson (1943), Agarwal et al., (1983), Saxena et al., (1985), Trivedi et al., (1990), Singh et al., (2010) and Kumar et al., (2017) added valuable information about haematophagous nature and feeding habits of some amblyceran and ischnoceran avian lice species. Publications on structure and role of cropteeth of some Mallophaga have also appeared from time to time (Cummings, 1913;Blagovestchensky, 1949;Agarwal & Saxena, 1978;Saxena & Agarwal, 1979;Srivastava & Agarwal, 1981;Saxena et al., 1995). ...
Circulatory system of pigeon slender louse, Columbicola columbae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) has been studied in greater details. In arthropodan insects, the circulatory system is typically open, with just one closed artery. The heart of C. columbae is a straightforward, elongated, and single-chambered organ. At its anterior, middle, and basal regions, it has three pairs of laterally positioned minute ostia. From the body wall to the heart, six sets of alariform muscles-three on the left and three on the right-extend in a fan-like pattern.
... Organized in a single file along the feathers shaft, they usually feed on feather particles ( Price and Graham 1997;Saxena et al. 1997;Sudiana et al. 2020). Although it is generally admitted that chicken body louse damages are more Despite their classification among chewing lice, Me. stramineus and M. gallinae can adopt a hematophagous behavior by grinding fledgling feathers under the skin and absorbing thus tiny blood droplets visible through their digestive tract inducing thus, in some cases, severe anemia ( Sychra et al. 2008;Kumar et al. 2017;Abdullah et al. 2018). Due to this behavior, these lice species have been suspected as potential vectors of bacteria, virus, and protozoa. ...
Due to the traditional rearing conditions in Algerian farms, a broad panel of ectoparasites can infest ruminants and domestic birds. Among them, lice (Phthiraptera) could be a severe source of discomfort, disturbance, and diseases for the infested animals and cause decreased productivity and economic losses. The current study was conducted for two years and aimed to investigate ruminant and domestic bird lice diversity in northeastern Algeria and argue their veterinary importance. The entomological field investigations were conducted on various animal species, including cattle, sheep, goats, backyard chickens, turkeys, and pigeons, in six regions of northeastern Algeria. Lice were collected manually on their hosts and kept in Eppendorf containing 70% ethanol. They were then morphologically identified according to several morphological keys. Among all 4488 collected lice, five species in ruminants and ten in domestic birds were identified. The most common lice species were Bovicola caprae in goats, Haematopinus eurysternus in cattle, Menacanthus stramineus in backyard chickens, Chelopistes meleagridis in turkeys, and Columbicola columbae in pigeons. We also identified other species with various abundance such as Linognathus africanus, Bovicola ovis, Bovicola bovis, Menopon gallinae, Goniocotes gallinae, Goniodes dissimilis, Goniodes gigas, Lipeurus caponis, Cuclotogaster heterographus, and Campanulotes bidentatus s.l.
The survey results suggest that lice infestations are widespread in the studied areas. Further investigation is needed to evaluate such pests’ impact on overall animal health and production.
... have also been found to be habitual blood feeders [20][21][22]. However, Contrary to the general belief that all the amblyceran species consume the host blood in varying degree, a common mynah louse ...
... The climatic conditions such as temperature and humidity play an important role in the life cycle of lice, favorable and optimum climatic conditions would potentiate the increase in abundance, and hence increase the infestation rate of lice while vice versa would lead to decrease the infestation rate. Notably, M. gallinae is considered a dangerous chewing louse as they have affinity to ingest blood and this can result in severe anemia [28] . ...
A free range system of poultry production is an important economical investment to most of the poor farmers as a source of income and protein, however it faces several challenges including parasitic diseases such as ectoparasite infestation. A cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of ectoparasites, as well as to assess the possible predisposing risk factors infesting free-ranging local chickens in urban and per urban areas in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Samples were randomly taken from 144 chickens and age, sex and management practice status of the study population was simultaneously recorded. An overall 53.5% (77/144) prevalence was recorded in this study and three common taxa of ectoparasites were identified, which are lice, fleas, and mites. The individual ectoparasite prevalence were as follows Menopon gallinae 48.6% (70/144) followed by Cnemidocoptes mutans 16% (23/144), Echidnophaga gallinacean 9.7% (14/144) and Goniodes gigas 5.8% (8/144). Among the potential predisposing factors assessed, age and management practice was found to be statistically significantly associated with ectoparasitic infestation (p< 0.05). However, sex was not found statistically significantly associated with the level of infestation (p> 0.05). This study reveals that ectoparasites are highly prevalent in free-ranging local chickens in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania.
... It prefers to remain on the chest, shoulders, and the backs of birds. In addition, it may also drain blood from the wounds it creates (Kumar et al., 2017). Adult females can typically glue a few hundred eggs to the shafts of the feather of host birds. ...
A preparation of essential oils to control chicken lice (Menopon gallinae) and mites (Ornithonyssus bursa) was developed. Each essential oil was effective against lice and mite in vitro. Citronella oil at the lowest concentration of 0.208 µg/cm2 resulted in a mortality rate of 100% in chicken lice, whereas a higher concentration of cloves, lemongrass, ginger, Makwan oil (0.416 µg/cm2), and Litsea oil (0.832 µg/cm2) was also found to be effective. A 100% rate of mortality for mites was observed using citronella and ginger oil at a concentration of 0.416 µg/cm2. At the same concentration, cloves, lemongrass, Litsea, and Makwan oil exhibited mortality rates in mites of 77.96%, 93.33%, 87.30%, and 93.49%, respectively. The efficacy of citronella oil and ginger oil against lice and mites was further examined in vivo. Citronella and ginger oil affected the rate of decline in lice from day 1 to day 14, whereas the number of mites living in nests declined from day 1 to day 7. The reduction of these parasitic insects may be correlated with the chemical constituents present in each essential oil. The active ingredients likely acted insecticidal agents against both parasitic insects. Moreover, the preparation developed here did not cause any side effects, such as dermatitis and respiratory disorders, during animal trials. Hence, preparations comprised of the essential oils of citronella and ginger can be further developed and used as insecticidal agents to control and/or eliminate chicken lice and mites on commercial farms. © 2021, Chiang Mai University - Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. All rights reserved.
... The mouthparts of Amblyceran lice are essentially modified to suck blood (Johnson and Clayton, 2003) and members of Menoponidae feed host blood in varying degrees or frequency (Kumar et al., 2017). This extreme has not been reported in members of the genus Colpocephalum, but a predatory behaviour of Colpocephalum turbinatum (a parasite of the domestic pigeon, Columba livia) was suggested, as adult lice were observed eating their own eggs and nymphs (Nelson, 1971). ...
Here, we describe under scanning electron microscopy (SEM) the morphology of Colpocephalum pectinatum (Phthiraptera, Menoponidae), an ectoparasite found in burrowing owls, Athene cunicularia. We devote particular attention to the morphology of the main structures of the head (antennae and mouth-parts) and legs (tarsi and femoral ctenidia). Moreover, we describe the main peripheral sensory organs, located in the labial palpi and the distal end of antennae. We also detected that the structure of antennae and antennal sensilla arrangement are very similar to that described for other Colpocephalum and Menoponid species, and we discuss the function of each type of sensilla. We suggest that SEM studies combined with other microscopy and physiological techniques could be useful for elucidate the function of each structure, lice behaviour, as well as their taxonomy.
... These variations in the prevalence rates of this species might be partly explained by differences in geography, husbandry and management system, host factors, period of study and climate conditions such as temperature and humidity which may influence ectoparasite population dynamics (Arends, 2003;Prelezov and Kolnarski, 2006). M. gallinae and M. stramineus are considered potentially dangerous species compared to other chewing lice species because of their affinity to ingest chicken blood as source of nutrients, leading to severe anaemia (Belihu et al., 2009;Kumar et al., 2017). These species were less abundant in the present study compared to the literature (Sychra et al., 2008;Salam et al., 2009), which might be due to factors such as breed, sex, age or environmental conditions (Nadeem et al., 2007). ...
Free-range backyard chicken breeding is gaining popularity in Algerian rural regions. Due to the natural rearing conditions, chickens are exposed a wide range of microbes and ectoparasites. Currently, little is known about the variety of ectoparasites infesting free-range chickens in Algeria. The present study was conducted over a two year period on 169 backyard chicken, with the aim of identifying and estimating the prevalence of ectoparasites on different body parts of the chickens, and their immediate environments in northeast Algeria. In total, 9943 ectoparasites were identified, and the seven most dominant species were: Menopon gallinae (82.84%), Goniodes dissimilis (15.97%), Menacanthus stramineus (13.60%), Goniocotes gallinae (6.50%), Lipeurus caponis (5.23%), Argas persicus (9.46%) and Dermanyssus gallinae (1.18%). Menopon gallinae was the most frequent isolated ectoparasite throughout the year. Soft ticks Argas persicus were isolated during spring and summer, mainly from crevices and cracks, while the chicken red mite Dermanyssus gallinae was detected in autumn with a low load on bird body parts and a high abundance in nests. These results list the most abundant ectoparasites in backyard chickens, which could facilitate the improvement of rearing management.
... Avian Phthiraptera exhibit considerable diversity with respect to feeding habits. Some species (mostly Ischnocera) are purely feather feeder while others are partly/ exclusively haemetophagous (Kumar et al., 2016). Amblyceran Phthiraptera are generally regarded as haemetophagous species. ...
Selected haemetophagous phthirapterans have been convicted to act as reservoir and transmitter of pathogens among their hosts. Amblyceran Phthiraptera are generally believed to exhibit varying degree of haemetophagy. The microscopic examination of 100 adults (both sexes) and 47 nymphal instars of an amblyceran louse, Colpocephalum turbinatum revealed their non haemetophagous nature as any red content compatible with host blood was not detected in their crops. The crops of the lice were found packed with only feather barbules. On seven instances the pieces of egg chorion and in 20 cases the presence of epidermal tissue were also detected in crop contents. However, the presence of any triturating agent (any structure which can help in grinding the feather contents) was not noticed. SEM studies on the ventral side of the head of the louse do not indicate the presence of any pointed gear which can be used to pierce the skin blood vessels of host. Present study suggests that few amblyceran species of Phthiraptera are not in haemetophagous in nature.
Parasitosis refers to associations between two living beings of different species, where an individual known as the host (from the Latin hospitator-oris = host) provides a source of food, shelter, or transport to the other called parasite. The types of relationships between the host and the parasite can be diverse; in some cases, the parasite can feed or live only occasionally (facultative parasite) or be totally dependent on its host (permeant parasite). The degree of affectation that the parasite causes to its host is variable and depends on many factors; it can be null or minimal (parasitism), or cause indirect and/or direct damage, and in the presence of complicating factors, it can significantly affect well-being, and the health of its host (parasitosis), or even cause death in severe cases. In general, the economic importance lies in the fact that they affect the well-being and rest of the birds by causing restlessness, nervousness, discomfort, damage to the plumage, and itching, but they can also affect the health of the bird by causing weakness, depression, anemia, loss of body weight, dermatitis, hyperkeratosis, and decreased egg production in commercial laying and breeding birds, when present in large numbers. In addition, the ectoparasites that affect domestic birds can be vectors of pathogenic viruses and/or bacteria and even act as paratenic hosts or intermediaries for other parasites such as protozoa and helminths. Its diagnosis can be made by conventional methods (macroscopic, microscopic) or molecular techniques; the latter allow analyzing the phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships between species. Although many methods have been developed to determine the size of ectoparasite populations, visual inspection is the easiest, fastest, and most practical way. The control and treatment of these ectoparasites is difficult due to the restrictions on the use of some products as well as the presence of species resistant to one or more of them. The increase of free-range rearing form does not allow the use of insecticidal products. The ectoparasites that can parasitize turkeys are mostly not specific to this avian species, in addition to the fact that their prevalence may vary with the geographical region, climate, and the production system in which they are raised. In the present chapter, we will address the most common and important ectoparasites in turkeys.
IT now appears to be established1-6 that blood-sucking arthropods feed, in the main, either from the lumen of a blood vessel or from a blood pool resulting from the laceration of blood vessels. Occasionally an insect which is a vessel feeder will take part of its nourishment from a blood pool; but, except for the mosquito, this appears to be of unusual occurrence. In vivo observations on non-sensitized hosts have shown that a considerable number of argasid and ixodid ticks, at least one horsefly and the tsetse fly are pool feeders, while several fleas, three species of triatomine bugs and the bed-bug are vessel feeders. The present consensus of opinion is that the mosquito is largely a vessel feeder, although Gordon et al.1 give reasons for believing that a proportion, at least, of the insect's blood meal is derived from haemorrhages formed in the tissues.
Haematophagous mallophagan species not only affect the vitality and growth of the hosts but are also convicted for reservoiring and transmitting pathogens among them. Dog louse, Heterodoxus spiniger exclusively feeds upon the host blood. As many as 84% of lice were found containing the host blood and not much difference is found in the feeding habits of different instars and adults of both the sexes. This species does not harbour any triturating agent and is also not involved in cannibalism or predation.
Zur Ernährung des Hundehaarlings Heterodoxus spiniger (End.) (Mallophaga, Amblycera)
Blutfressende Haarlinge beeinträchtigen nicht nur die Vitalität und das Wachstum der Wirte, sondern bilden auch Reservoire und sind Überträger von Krankheiten. Der Hundehaarling Heterodoxus spiniger saugt ausschließlich Blut. Etwa 84% der Individuen enthielten Wirtsblut. Hinsichtlich der Ernährungsweise der verschiedenen Stadien der beiden Geschlechter bestehen keine Unterschiede. Dieser Mallophage nimmt keine festen Teile auf und ist weder kannibalistisch noch räuberisch.
PHENOCOPIES are environmentally induced abnormalities which mimic the phenotype resulting from mutant genes. Pomales et al.1 have shown that 4-hydroxypyrazolo(3,4-d)pyrimidine (HPP) is an inhibitor in vivo of xanthine oxidase in mice, and we have attempted to produce phenocopies of the maroon-like (ma-l) and rosy (ry) eye colour mutants of Drosophila melanogaster with it. Xanthine dehydrogenase is undetectable in these mutants (see Glassman2 for a discussion of these loci), and as a result, there is a partial loss of the red pteridines of the eye, the eyes being a dark red-brown rather than red. In addition, the products of this enzyme's activity, isoxanthopterin and uric acid, cannot be detected, and its substrates, 2-amino-4-hydroxypteridine and hypoxanthine, accumulate. In this communication we describe the production of phenocopies of ma-l and ry by HPP in various strains of D. melanogaster.
1.In Kenya Dipetalonema reconditum is a common parasite of dogs, jackals and hyaenas. Usually microfilarial densities in the blood are very low. The adult worms are small; they can be detected at autopsy by searching the subcutaneous fascial spaces with a dissecting microscope.
2.The morphology of the adult worms is described and illustrated. The adults and microfilariae are readily distinguished from other species found in dogs in East Africa.
3.The main intermediate host of D. reconditum in dogs in Kenya is the flea Ctenocephalides felis . If fleas are kept on dogs for more than a week they can be used for xenodiagnosis to detect very low density infections.
4.The infective larvae have a characteristic caudal morphology with three terminal projections. They are very similar to the infective larvae of D. arbuta, D. vite and D. manson-bahri.
The biting louse Trinoton anserinum serves as the intermediate host in the life cycle of the filarial heartworm, Sarconema eurycerca. Microfilariae, second-, and third-stage larvae were dissected from 39 of 89 lice infesting whistling swans, Cygnus columbianus columbianus, in North America and mute swans, Cygnus olor, in the Black Sea, U.S.S.R. Infective third-stage larvae obtained from lice collected from heartworm-parasitized whistling swans were injected subcutaneously into each of two hand-reared, nonparasitized mute swan cygnets. Both of these birds developed heartworm infections, one becoming microfilaremic at 14 weeks. The results of this study provide conclusive evidence that a mallophagan serves as a natural cyclodevelopmental vector of a filarial parasite.
Hemorrhagic ulcerative stomatitis caused by the biting louse Piagetiella peralis was diagnosed in one live and three dead juvenile white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchus). The pathology of the condition is described, and the significance of infestation with this parasite is discussed.
A canine filariasis survey was made on Okinawa. Of 557 stray dogs examined 23% were found infected with Dipetalonema reconditum Grassi, 1 dog (0.17%) was infected with Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, and 1 dog was infected with both D. immitis and D. reconditum. Dog ectoparasites were examined and developing forms of D. reconditum were found in Heterodoxus spiniger Enderlein, Ctenocephalides canis Curtis, Ctenocephalides felis Bouche, Pulex irritans Linne, and Linognathus setosus Olfers. Other data relevant to the incidence of D. reconditum, recovery of adult worms, occurrence of dog ectoparasites, incidence of infection in ectoparasites and illustrations of developing filarial forms are given.
Haematophagous nature of some mallophagan species is of great concern to the scientists working in the field. Such species cause harm to the host directly by reducing vitality and productivity and indirectly by acting as reservoir and transmitter of pathogenic strains of infectious diseases. Menacanthus eurysternus infesting common myna Acridotheres tristis feeds exclusively on host blood obtained by piercing the quill of pin feathers and by gnawing through the epidermis. As much as 88.56% adults, 73.91% third instar nymphs, 66.66% second instar nymphs and 83.21% first instar nymphs were found feeding on the host blood, when examined microscopically. This mallophagan species does not harbour any triturating agent and is not involved in cannibalism or predation.
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