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Life cycle assessment of sodium-ion batteries
Abstract
Sodium-ion batteries are emerging as potential alternatives to lithium-ion batteries. This study presents a prospective life cycle assessment for the production of a sodium-ion battery with a layered transition metal oxide as a positive electrode material and hard carbon as a negative electrode material on the battery component level. The complete and transparent inventory data are disclosed, which can easily be used as a basis for future environmental assessments. Na-ion batteries are found to be promising under environmental aspects, showing, per kWh of storage capacity, environmental impacts at the lower end of the range published for current Li-ion batteries. Still significant improvement potential is given, especially by reducing the environmental impacts associated with the hard carbon production for the anode and by reducing the nickel content in the cathode active material. For the hard carbons, the use of organic waste can be considered to be promising in this regard. Nevertheless, when looking at the energy storage capacity over lifetime, achieving a high cycle life and good charge–discharge efficiency is fundamental. This represents the main challenge especially when competing with LFP–LTO type Li-Ion batteries, which already show extraordinarily long lifetimes.
... Several previous life cycle assessments (LCAs) of SIBs and their components have been conducted, none of which covers the exact same cells as this study. Peters et al. (2016) assessed an SIB pack with cylindrical cells (128 Wh/kg at cell level), containing a layered oxide cathode (Na 1.1 (Ni 0.3 Mn 0.5 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.05 )O 2 ), a hard carbon anode, and a sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF 6 )-based organic electrolyte. Several hard carbon precursors were assessed: sugar, starch, cellulose, organic waste, and petroleum coke. ...
... Several hard carbon precursors were assessed: sugar, starch, cellulose, organic waste, and petroleum coke. Jasper et al. (2022) assessed the life cycle impacts of a battery home storage system powered by the SIB considered by Peters et al. (2016), using data from that study. Peters et al. (2021) evaluated prismatic SIB cells with a hard carbon anode from petroleum coke, an NaPF 6 -based organic electrolyte, and five different cathode materials with different specific energy densities: Na Trotta et al. (2022) assessed a glucose-based hard carbon anode for SIBs. ...
... Pouch and aluminum tabs are also similar to those of current LIB cells, thus their production data was obtained from a previous LCA of LIBs (Ellingsen et al., 2014), with the aluminum modeled as primary for these two components as well. For NaPF 6 , data was obtained from a previous LCA of an SIB cell (Peters et al., 2016), which in turn is a modified Ecoinvent dataset for the production of the corresponding lithium salt (LiPF 6 ). Data for the CMC binder and the polyolefin-based separator was obtained from Ecoinvent, and the PVdF binder was approximated using the Ecoinvent process for the similar fluoropolymer polyvinylfluoride. ...
Batteries are enablers for reducing fossil‐fuel dependency and climate‐change impacts. In this study, a prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) of large‐scale production of two different sodium‐ion battery (SIB) cells is performed with a cradle‐to‐gate system boundary. The SIB cells modeled have Prussian white cathodes and hard carbon anodes based only on abundant elements and thus constitute potentially preferable options to current lithium‐ion battery (LIB) cells from a mineral resource scarcity point of view. The functional unit was 1 kWh theoretical electricity storage capacity, and the specific energy density of the cells was 160 Wh/kg. Data for the cathode active material come from a large‐scale facility under construction and data for the SIB cell production is based on a large‐scale LIB cell gigafactory. For other SIB cell materials, prospective inventory data was obtained from a generic eight‐step procedure developed, which can be used by other LCA practitioners. The results show that both SIB cells indeed have considerably lower mineral resource scarcity impacts than nickel‐manganese‐cobalt (NMC)‐type LIB cells in a cradle‐to‐gate perspective, while their global warming impacts are on par. Main recommendations to SIB manufacturers are to source fossil‐free electricity for cell production and use hard carbon anodes based on lignin instead of phenolic resin. Additionally, since none of the assessed electrolytes had clearly lower cradle‐to‐gate impacts than any other, more research into SIB electrolyte materials with low environmental and resource impacts should be prioritized. An improvement of the SIB cell production model would be to obtain large‐scale production data specific to SIB cells.
... In this perspective, the carbon footprint of batteries production, operation, and waste treatment should be evaluated using a life cycle approach [23]. Several Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies applied to different types of batteries are available in the scientific literature so far; Peters et al. [24][25][26] and Weber et al. [27] performed environmental impact assessment of lithium-ion batteries, vanadium redox batteries, and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs); Deng et al. [28,29] and Wang et al. [30] focused on the environmental analyses of lithium-air (Li-air) and lithium-sulphur (LiS) cells. These studies pointed out the main environmental issues related to the life cycle of investigated batteries and the importance of reducing the release of GHGs during manufacturing. ...
... However, when considering the potential environmental impacts that emerging technologies can have in the future, a prospective approach is necessary. According to our knowledge, a few studies have addressed prospective LCA (pLCA) analysis of battery systems so far [24,[35][36][37], and none of them is based on the most advanced tool for pLCA provided by Beltran et al. [38]. ...
... Moreover, using 365 cycles per year as a multiplication factor, the most probable lifespan values of NCA and LFP batteries, namely 5000 [25,69] and 6000 cycles [25,68], can be respectively converted to 16 and 13.33 years. The lifespan of the most innovative technologies considered in this study, namely SIBs [24], LiS and Li_air [28][29][30], is still much shorter than LIBs. Nevertheless, research is putting a lot of effort into enhancing the cyclic duration of LiS and Li_air batteries and, according to the scenarios proposed by Xu et al. [16], these technologies could be employed in electric vehicles starting in 2030. ...
... In this perspective, among different batteries' components, electrode materials, and in particular cathode ones, are the most critical components for batteries because they determine the electrochemical performance [10]. Moreover, cathode production processes are responsible for a high contribution to the overall environmental impacts associated with the batteries' production process [11][12][13]. Consequently, during the development of the technology phase, the evaluation of the environmental performance relating to the use of different types of materials and advanced synthesis techniques through the LCA methodology [14,15] can constitute a valid support for an eco-oriented design and, therefore, for the choice of solutions characterized by a lower environmental impact with the same electrochemical performance [12]. ...
... Moreover, cathode production processes are responsible for a high contribution to the overall environmental impacts associated with the batteries' production process [11][12][13]. Consequently, during the development of the technology phase, the evaluation of the environmental performance relating to the use of different types of materials and advanced synthesis techniques through the LCA methodology [14,15] can constitute a valid support for an eco-oriented design and, therefore, for the choice of solutions characterized by a lower environmental impact with the same electrochemical performance [12]. ...
... Peters et al. [12] performed one of the first LCA studies on sodium-ion batteries, whereby the authors studied a sodium-ion cell in which the cathodic active material is a layered transition metal oxide (Na 1.1 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.5 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.05 O 2 -NMMT), while the anodic active material is hard carbon, obtained from a carbohydrate (sugar). The cathodic material was prepared with the "solvent casting" method by mixing the active material with a carbon black additive and the polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). ...
Sodium-ion batteries are considered promising alternatives to lithium-ion technology; however, the diffusion on a commercial scale is hindered by the struggle to identify materials with high electrochemical performances. Studies available in the literature are mainly focused on electrochemical performance and neglect aspects related to the environmental sustainability. In fact, the current state-of-the-art (presented in this study) shows that life cycle assessment (LCA) studies related to the production processes of electrode materials for Na-ion batteries are still very limited. The LCA methodology applied during the development of a technology phase can constitute a valid support for an eco-oriented design and, therefore, to the choice of solutions characterized by a lower environmental impact with the same electrochemical performance. In this context, a life cycle-based environmental–economic assessment was performed to evaluate the environmental impacts of the production process of cathode and anode materials for sodium-ion batteries. The study is focused on the cathodic active material Na0.66MnO2, considering two synthesis paths, and the anodic material consisting of tin (Sn) and Sn-carbon nanofiber (Sn-Cn) active material, binder, and other additives. Results illustrate the environmental performance of the different materials and constitute a useful input for their selection within an eco-design view.
... Introduction 26 The emergence of energy storage technologies has the potential to mitigate transport sector-related 27 greenhouse gas emissions but also poses a threat due to adverse environmental impacts (Pehl et al., 28 2017). Sustainability assessment methodologies can be used to gauge the potential and adversity of 29 emerging technologies (Hauschild et al., 2017;Hellweg & Canals, 2014;Kara et al., 2018). ...
... The herein presented study is unique in that it provides inventory data at the resolution necessary to 26 determine recovery rates and product quality at a material-specific level. And whether the recovered 27 material meets the purity specification for re-use as battery-grade material. ...
... The breakdown of the carbon footprint is as follows: fossil impacts indicate that NMC production, cell 25 manufacturing (excluding NMC), and the battery pack contribute 31.2%, 17.3%, and 45.5% of the total 26 impacts, respectively ( Figure 2B). The impact of recycling the battery pack was found to be 275.5 kg 27 CO2-eq, which constitutes 6.0% of the total impacts of the NMC622 battery pack. ...
... It is known that lightness is of great importance to the battery industry, and sodium is the second lightest alkali metal in the periodic table, with a theoretical specific capacity of 1166 mAh g −1 , a theoretical volumetric capacity of 1131 mAh cm −3 , and an electrical potential of −2.714 V. Although these values are relatively lower than lithium, sodium is more abundant and affordable than lithium, and it is preferred for conditions in which cost is more important than energy density, including in stationary applications such as solar and wind [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. ...
... Hou et al. demonstrated the effects of anions in the solvated shell on Na storage kinetics and the SEI evolution process. In contrast to Ponrouch et al. [41] and Dugas et al. [46], they showed that PF 6 − anions and a 1% FEC additive formed a thin, compact, and protective SEI with layered morphology. They have also produced a 5 Ah pouch-cell including Na 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 3 -HC in 1 M NaPF 6 /EC:DEC (1% FEC) electrolyte with superior cycling stability and a retention of 85.6% at 1 C after 800 cycles [47]. ...
... Similarly, Reber et al. used a hybrid aqueous electrolyte by mixing 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMImTFSI) ionic liquid with water to improve the solubility of NaTFSI by up to 30 mol kg −1 . A full cell composed of a Na 2 Mn[Fe(CN) 6 ] cathode and a NaTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3 anode contacting with a gel-like hybrid aqueous electrolyte (80 mol NaTFSI 0.375 EMImTFSI 0.625 ) showed a 77 Wh kg −1 energy density at 1 C with a Coulombic efficiency of >99.5% after 300 cycles [67]. Recently, Ge et al., produced an aqueous potassium ion battery by using a surface engineered PBA cathode paired with a 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic diimide anode in 21 M KOTf/ 0.2 M FeOtf in water. ...
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are one of the recent trends in energy storage systems due to their promising properties, the high abundance of sodium in the Earth's crust, and their low cost. However, the commercialization process of SIBs is in the early stages of development because of some challenges related to electrodes and electrolytes. Electrolytes are vital components of secondary batteries because they determine anode/cathode performance; energy density; operating conditions (electrochemical stability window, open circuit voltage, current rate, etc.); cyclic properties; electrochemical, thermal, mechanical, and dimensional stability; safety level; and the service life of the system. The performance of the battery is based on the structural, morphological, electrical, and electrochemical properties of the electrolytes. In this review, electrolytes used for SIBs are classified according to their state and material, including liquid, quasi-solid, solid, and hybrid, and recent advances in electrolyte research have been presented by considering their contributions and limitations. Additionally, future trends and recent cutting-edge research are highlighted.
... Figure 2 summarizes the findings from these studies in terms of GHG emissions of battery cell production in comparison to the current range set by LIB. [39] published the first comprehensive LCA of SIB, assessing six environmental impact categories. SIBs were found to display promising environmental performance already at the lower end of those reported for existing LIBs. ...
... A subsequent study by [38] confirmed this finding by assessing different types of hard carbons. Their study focused on the anode materials and used a simple battery cell model with optimistic assumptions regarding energy densities, obtaining very favorable results on a battery cell level (same Na-NMT cathode as in [39]). Again, the organic waste and coke precursors scored best, reducing impacts by up to 29% (from 12.73 to 9.04 per kg of battery cell, assuming identical performance of the different hard carbons; the former due to minimum impacts from feedstock production (waste product), the latter due to high yields and thus low energy requirements in the carbonization process. ...
... In fact, the LIB used by Schneider et al. as a benchmark show lower emissions than those used by Peters et al., and the SIBs also demonstrate GHG emissions about 45-78% above those of LIBs. Consequently, the authors find that the differences to [39] might stem from a lack of consistency in battery performance assumptions (e.g., energy densities) of LIBs and SIBs in the more prospective earlier work. As a result, the authors state that SIBs can only compete with LIBs if similar energy densities can be achieved for them. ...
Among the current post‐lithium‐ion battery (LIB) developments, sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) are considered as the most advanced, with several start‐ups already aiming to commercialize their developments on the free market. SIBs are based on essentially the same principle as LIB sharing major parts of their electrochemistry. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive review of the current state of the art within the field of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for LIBs and SIBs, offering an idea on the potential competitiveness of SIB in comparison with currently prevailing LIB technologies, based on previously published studies. LCA is a standardized methodology to quantify the potential environmental impacts of a product, process, or service over its complete life cycle. The chapter provides a brief overview on the environmental impact of state‐of‐the‐art LIBs and SIBs and discusses the most relevant parameters for the environmental performance of SIBs.
... 194 Replacing LIB chemistries with equivalent sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) can avoid the supply chain issues with lithium compound availability and open up pathways towards GHG emission reduction, as has been shown by LCA studies. 195 Na is more abundant than Li and can be extracted readily from sea water, for instance, making the raw material extraction a more sustainable and cost-effective step. Moreover, in contrast to LIBs, NIBs do not require a copper current collector at the anode, but can use cheaper Al, avoiding the need for copper mining and significantly decreasing cost. ...
... Moreover, in contrast to LIBs, NIBs do not require a copper current collector at the anode, but can use cheaper Al, avoiding the need for copper mining and significantly decreasing cost. 195 The Na-salts used for the liquid electrolyte are less toxic than their Licounterparts, improving the lifetime safety of NIBs, when compared with LIBs. 16 ...
... Like LIBs, SIBs have a high energy density and long cycle life and with the correct intervention possess superior operability in a wide range of temperatures (Liu et al. 2016). Importantly SIBs appear to have lower environmental impacts than LIBs based on a recent life cycle assessment (Peters et al. 2016). Both metals are found in the alkali group on the periodic table and share similar chemical properties, indicating that sodium chemistry can be applied to the battery system (Kim et al. 2012). ...
... Despite this, the energy density of materials remains paramount when calculating costs. Peters et al. (2016) report on the economic benefits of sodium ion technology showed that NMCtype LIB cells are the most competitive in terms of cost, as they require less battery cells to provide a certain amount of storage capacity. Even with high raw material prices, considering the storage capacity of the NMC-type LIBs the price is far below those of other LIB types and SIBs (Peters et al. 2019). ...
Electrifying passenger transportation has been a topic of interest for several decades as a method of reducing carbon emissions and promoting a more sustainable society. Globally, nations are implementing policies and regulations, promoting and setting goals for carbon neutrality, lowering carbon emissions, and doing away with combustion vehicles. The electric vehicle (EV) industry has seen significant growth over the past few decades due to increased environmental awareness, political influences, and economic benefits. Even so, before they can become a reliable mode of transportation, significant changes need to be implemented to improve the EV ecosystem. Previous literature has explored issues such as lack of charging infrastructure, charging times, and range anxiety that hinder the mass adoption of EVs. However, to our knowledge, there is no literature that discusses the interdependencies of the EV ecosystem holistically and how many of the aforementioned elements interact. Additionally, there is little discussion on sustainable materials which could be instrumental to EV ecosystem development. This paper attempts to discuss many ecosystem components, present trends, difficulties, and possible frameworks for sustainable advancement. Through this research, we found that the EV ecosystem development will be a collective effort and will rely on the collaboration of multiple actors.
Graphical abstract
... For Na-ion batteries, the cell is assembled using a Prussian white cathode and hard carbon anode with thicknesses of approximately 90 and 120 mm. 25,31 The anode thickness will be reduced by 20 mm when paired with 20% excess Na metal, and the removal of anode materials, which occupy 44.7% of the overall thickness, would boost the volumetric energy density by 81%. 32 Significantly, anode-free configurations still suffer from large volume changes during the reversible electrochemical process, especially for Na-ion-based strategies. ...
... In addition, nearly 11.77 kg 1,4-DCV-eq and 0.29 kg SO 2 -eq emissions will be eliminated, accounting for 7% and 19% of the total human toxicity potential (HTP) and terrestrial acidification potential (TAP). 31 Furthermore, the anode-free configuration is well compatible with the current applied Li-ion battery manufacturing infrastructure, avoiding the waste of haphazard investment and redundant construction. ...
With the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown, global supply chain crisis, and Russo-Ukrainian war, an energy-intensive society with sustainable, secure, affordable, and recyclable rechargeable batteries is increasingly out of reach. As demand soars, recent prototypes have shown that anode-free configurations, especially anode-free sodium metal batteries, offer realistic alternatives that are better than lithium-ion batteries in terms of energy density, cost, carbon footprint, and sustainability. This Perspective explores the current state of research on improving the performance of anode-free Na metal batteries from five key fields, as well as the impact on upstream industries compared to commercial batteries.
... In the case study, the VPP of SYK included Li-ion batteries of 100 kWh to increase the capacity of the system for down-and up-regulation. Several LCA studies on different Li-ion-based batteries have been conducted [64][65][66], but the authors found only one that estimates the impacts for the DR perspective. ...
The transition towards zero-carbon energy production is necessary to limit global warming. Smart energy systems have facilitated the control of demand-side resources to maintain the stability of the power grid and to provide balancing power for increasing renewable energy production. Virtual power plants are examples of demand–response solutions, which may also enable greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions due to the lower need for fossil-based balancing energy in the grid and the increased share of renewables. The aim of this study is to show how potential GHG emission reductions can be assessed through the carbon handprint approach for a virtual power plant (VPP) in a grid balancing market in Finland. According to our results, VPP can reduce the hourly based GHG emissions in the studied Finnish grid systems compared with the balancing power without the VPP. Typical energy sources used for the balance power are hydropower and fossil fuels. The reduction potential of GHG emissions varies from 68% to 98% depending on the share of the used energy source for the power balancing, thus VPPs have the potential to significantly reduce GHG emissions of electricity production and hence help mitigate climate change.
... Besides, the desolvation energy for Li + in organic solvents is roughly 30% larger than Na + leading to the smaller charge transfer resistance of sodium and this might enhance the electrode kinetics [4]. Also, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have a bright future in the environmental aspect assessed from the perspective of the life cycle [5]. Although SIBs stand a good chance, the restrictions cannot be ignored. ...
Na2Ti3O7/C prepared by a simple acrylamide-assisted sol–gel method shows promising electro-chemical performance as an anode material for sodium-ion batteries. It maintains ca. 100 mAh·g⁻¹ capacity after 100 cycles at 0.1C rate. What’s more, it displays about 206.4, 181.2, 151.8, 129.0, 100.3, and 63.4 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5 C current rate, respectively. A capacity of 156.4 mAh·g⁻¹ is recovered when the current density is back to 0.2 C. Density functional theory (DFT) together with molecular dynamics (MD) is used to reveal the Na⁺ intercalation and diffusion mechanism. Theoretical calculation shows highly active Na⁺ migration on the b–c planes, with a minimal 0.22 eV energy barrier and the highest diffusion coefficient of 3.8 × 10⁻⁷ cm² s⁻¹ along the b-axis, at the fully charged state. The high vitality of Na⁺ is maintained until the intercalation level x is more than 0.5. After that, the mobility of Na⁺ is greatly prohibited, leading to an energy barrier of more than 0.7 eV and a diffusion coefficient within the range 10⁻¹⁴–10⁻¹⁵ cm² s⁻¹ at the fully discharged state of Na4Ti3O7. The formation energy convex hull determined by means of cluster expansion enables the calculation of voltage profile and the variation of cell parameters, which reveals the low strain (< 1%) feature during the battery cycles. The calculation of electronic structure also reveals an insulator–metal transition upon the sodiation of the Na2Ti3O7 material.
... For instance, the NMC batteries are often investigated, as this LIB chemistry has evolved and demonstrated positive results for use in EVs [21][22][23][24][25][26][27]. In addition, the LCA studies focusing on LTO-based LIBs do not provide detailed information on the production of the battery and its components, i.e. the material and energy input to produce the LTO anode [28][29][30][31][32][33]. Given the growing battery market and the need for LCA studies assessing the potential environmental impacts of those technologies, a detailed inventory of the materials and processes to manufacture battery components becomes essential. ...
... For instance, the NMC batteries are often investigated, as this LIB chemistry has evolved and demonstrated positive results for use in EVs [21][22][23][24][25][26][27]. In addition, the LCA studies focusing on LTO-based LIBs do not provide detailed information on the production of the battery and its components, i.e. the material and energy input to produce the LTO anode [28][29][30][31][32][33]. Given the growing battery market and the need for LCA studies assessing the potential environmental impacts of those technologies, a detailed inventory of the materials and processes to manufacture battery components becomes essential. ...
... For example, the application of solar, nuclear, and wind power can reduce the emission factor of electricity by 835 g CO2eq/kWh in China, which is higher than that in the USA (609 g CO2eq/kWh) (Qiao et al. 2017). Therefore, the energy efficiency and centralized transportation of HWC wardrobe production should be considered an important research target for furniture development to reduce the environmental impact of HWC wardrobe production (Peters et al. 2016). ...
The environmental performance was assessed for a wardrobe made from hybrid modified ammonium lignosulfonate/wood fiber composites (HWC). The HWC wardrobe system involved four subsystems, namely the raw materials supply, energy consumption, wardrobe manufacturing, and transportation. A comparative life cycle assessment of a wardrobe built from conventional medium-density fiberboard with three primary damage categories was also performed. The results suggested that the HWC composites were a more sustainable material compared with conventional boards. The raw materials supply and energy consumption influenced the three primary damage categories. Climate change on human health, particulate matter formation, fossil depletion, and human toxicity had a dominant contribution to the overall environmental impact. Also, a sensitivity analysis was performed with a focus on using wood waste as a raw material and on the different conditions for the modification of lignosulfonate for manufacturing HWC. The results indicated that the use of wood waste and an appropriate amount of unmodified lignosulfonate as a binder aids in efficient HWC production for wardrobes. These results can help to improve HWC wardrobe technology and in choosing the appropriate wardrobe system.
... The common environmental side effects of metals mining to produce the batteries are increased salinity of rivers, contaminated soil and toxic waste, ground destabilisation and water and biodiversity loss [49]. The substitution of these batteries for more environmentally friendly alternatives can be a strategy to mitigate their associated impacts [50,51]. For about a decade, scientists and engineers have been developing sodium batteries, which replace the metals used in current batteries [52]. ...
Human milk banks (HMB) are responsible for screening and recruiting milk donors with surplus milk to their own infant's needs, followed by transporting, heat-treating (pasteurising) and microbiologically confirming the donor human milk (DHM) is safe to issue to vulnerable infants. Maintaining the safety and quality of DHM are vital requirements in HMB operations. DHM must be maintained in ideal temperature conditions throughout the whole period-from expression until delivery. In this regard, monitoring technologies (e.g., sensors, Big Data and the Internet of Things) have become a viable solution to avoid food loss, allowing prompt corrective action. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the trade-offs between optimising DHM transportation and the environmental impact of implementing such technologies. The environmental performance was carried out through an Organisational Life Cycle Assessment (O-LCA). The electricity consumed during milk storage is the main driver for the environmental impacts in this organisation, responsible for up to 82% of the impacts in ionising radiation. The transportation stage and the treatment of discarded DHM were also relevant for ozone formation and marine eutrophication, respectively. Considering the strategy to integrate monitoring technologies to control the temperature conditions during transportation and the reduction of milk discarded by 3%, an environmental impact reduction can be also observed. In some categories, such as global warming, it could avoid around 863 kg of CO2-eq per year. The sensitivity analysis showed that the impacts of the HMB depend highly on the transport distance. In addition, changing the transportation mode from motorcycles to drones or electric vehicles can affect the environmental performance of this organisation. Therefore, human milk transport logistics must be studied in a multidisciplinary way to encompass all possible impacts of these strategies.
... [51] Additionally, "Human toxicity" is also included as the result reflects a significant difference in the two scenarios and often discussed in battery LCA studies. [6,56] The detailed descriptions of each indicator and its unit are provided in the Supporting Information. The modelling of foreground system is based on primary data that are measured directly in the laboratory during the HC synthesis, covering the energy consumption as well as the material inputs and outputs. ...
The Cover Feature shows the sustainable cycle of hard carbon, the anode of choice for sodium‐ion batteries, produced from hazelnut shell bio‐waste, which is a highly abundant material in Europe. The developed hard carbon offers improved electrochemical properties, such as initial coulombic efficiency, specific capacity, long‐term stability, and rate capability in sodium‐ion batteries. More information can be found in the Research Article by H. Moon et al.
... This means that water consumption could be effectively cut down if product yields are raised by technological advance, and it is also important for an LCA practitioner to carefully examine product yields as much as possible in his LCA study. This conclusion is also obscurely drawn by other LCA studies and is seemingly universal [28,[44][45][46]. The process water is also the main contributor to water use, and a ±20% variation of process water consumption leads to around 7%-9% or 6%-8% changes in life cycle water consumption in bio-oil direct or indirect fermentation. ...
Life cycle water consumption of bio-ethanol production via bio-oil direct fermentation or indirect fermentation based on a distributed-centralized model was investigated. The life cycle water consumption results separately are 202 and 888 L water per GJ bio-ethanol for bio-oil indirect fermentation, and 206 and 2200 L water per GJ bio-ethanol for bio-oil direct fermentation when the economic value-based allocation method and the process purpose-based method are separately used. 32 different parameters related to material use, energy consumption, waste emission, and product yields were varied in a sensitivity analysis. The sensitivity analysis shows bio-ethanol yield and co-product yield have the greatest impact on the life cycle water consumption results. According to an uncertainty analysis, the maximum and minimum water consumption results separately are 1225 (the process purpose-based method) and 156 L water per GJ bio-ethanol (the economic value-based allocation method) for bio-oil indirect fermentation. A contribution analysis shows that the distributed-centralized model can really contribute to a slight reduction in water consumption in comparison with the non-distributed model. Overall, bio-ethanol production via bio-oil indirect fermentation based on the distributed-centralized model is green and clean from the standpoint of water resource consumption.
... The cycle lives of LIBs employing LFP-C, LFP-LTO, LMO-C, NCA-C, and NCM-C combinations deliver 2960, 13,850, 1070, 2200, and 1650 cycles for 80 % DOD. A recent report on cylindrical 18,650 SIB provided an energy density of 90 Wh kg − 1 for 2000 cycles [116] comparable to the current commercially available LIBs. The cycle life of SIBs with 2000 or more cycles at 80 % capacity retention can make negligible ecological impacts per kWh of charge storage over a lifetime. ...
The growth of renewable energy generation has been unprecedented in the last two decades. Although renewable energy generation offers an alternative to the growing energy needs, the intermittency in power supply and demand makes energy storage an inevitable part of energy generation and distribution. Here, battery energy storage systems (BESS) play a significant role in renewable energy implementation for balanced power generation and consumption. A cost-effective alternative in electrochemical storage has led us to explore sustainable successors for Li-ion battery technology (LIBs). The rechargeable batteries mainly include Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca2+, and Zn²⁺ ion technologies. High-temperature sodium storage systems like NaS and Na-NiCl2, where molten sodium is employed, are already used. In ambient temperature energy storage, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered the best possible candidates beyond LIBs due to their chemical, electrochemical, and manufacturing similarities. The resource and supply chain limitations in LIBs have made SIBs an automatic choice to the incumbent storage technologies. Shortly, SIBs can be competitive in replacing the LIBs in the grid energy storage sector, low-end consumer electronics, and two/three-wheeler electric vehicles. We review the current status of non-aqueous, aqueous, and all-solid-state SIBs as green, safe, and sustainable solutions for commercial energy storage applications.
... large-scale systems that store electricity for the power grid is expected to be dominated by more eco-friendly sodium-based rechargeable batteries [10,11]. ...
Climate change and energy crises require the development of new sustainable materials to realise new electrochemical energy storage devices. Spinel-type Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 (LTO) is one of the most promising anode material not only for Li-based batteries, but also for those relying on sodium. While Li ⁺ ion dynamics at the early stages of lithiation has been studied earlier, almost no data on the dynamic properties of Na ⁺ ions can be found in literature. Here, we used nucleus-specific ⁷ Li and ²³ Na NMR spectroscopy to quantify the motional processes in mixed-conducting Li 4 Na x Ti 5 O 12 with x = 0.1, 0.5 and 1.5 on the angstrom length scale. Most importantly, our results reveal a strong increase in Li ⁺ diffusivity in the early stages of sodiation that is accompanied by a sharp decrease in activation energy when x reaches 0.5. The two-component ⁷ Li NMR spectra revealed the evolution of an interfacial solid solution at very low sodiation levels ( x = 0.1). At x = 0.5, these regions emerge over almost the entire crystallite area enabling highly rapid 8 a -16 c -8 a Li ⁺ exchange (0.4 eV) which leads to facile long-range ion transport. We direct the attention of the reader towards the initial formation of solid solutions in LTO-based anode materials and their capital impact on overall ion dynamics. In contrast to macroscopic electrochemical testing, NMR is uniquely positioned to detect and to resolve these exceptionally fast ion dynamics during the early stages of sodiation. As these processes crucially determine the fast-charging performance of LTO-type batteries, our study lays the atomistic foundations to establish a universal understanding of why two-phase materials such as Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 can act as an impressive insertion host for Li and Na.
... From an economic standpoint, sodium is inexpensive and abundant in the Earth's crust [16]. Furthermore, preliminary research suggests that NIBs are more environmentally friendly [17]. When used as an anode for NIBs, graphite shows a storage capacity of<35 mAh g −1 , which is lower than that of LIBs [18]. ...
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as a technological game-changer. Due to the rising price of lithium and the environmental concerns LIBs pose, their use is no longer viable. Sodium (Na) may be the best contender among the alternatives for replacing lithium. Conventional graphite has a limited capacity for Na storage. Hence, α-graphyne, an allotrope of carbon, was studied here as a potential anode material for Na-ion batteries (NIBs), employing density functional theory (DFT). In-plane Na atom adsorption results in a semi-metallic to metallic transition of α-graphyne. Electronic transport calculations show an increase in current after Na adsorption in graphyne. The successive adsorption of Na atoms on the surface of graphyne leads to a theoretical capacity of 1395.89 mA h/g, which is much greater than graphite. The average open circuit voltage is 0.81 V, which is an ideal operating voltage for NIBs. Intra- and inter-hexagon Na diffusions have very low energy barriers of 0.18 eV and 0.96 eV, respectively, which ensure smooth operation during charge/discharge cycles. According to this study, the α-graphyne monolayer thus has the potential to be employed as an anode in NIBs.
... [51] Additionally, "Human toxicity" is also included as the result reflects a significant difference in the two scenarios and often discussed in battery LCA studies. [6,56] The detailed descriptions of each indicator and its unit are provided in the Supporting Information. The modelling of foreground system is based on primary data that are measured directly in the laboratory during the HC synthesis, covering the energy consumption as well as the material inputs and outputs. ...
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are postulated as sustainable energy storage devices for light electromobility and stationary applications. The anode of choice in SIBs is hard carbon (HC) due to its electrochemical performance. Among different HC precursors, bio-waste resources have attracted significant attention due to their low-cost, abundance, and sustainability. Many bio-waste materials have been used as HC precursors, but they often require strong acids/bases for pre-/post-treatment for HC development. Here, the morphology, microstructure, and electrochemical performance of HCs synthesized from hazelnut shells subjected to different pre-treatments ( i.e. , no pretreatment, acid treatment, and water washing) are compared. The impact on the electrochemical performance of sodium-ion cells and the cost-effectiveness are also investigated. The results reveal that hazelnut-shell derived-HCs produced via simple water washing outperform those obtained via other processing methods in terms of electrochemical performance and cost-ecological-effectiveness of a sodium-ion battery pack.
... In terms of large-scale energy storage, the stable discharge performance of SIBs makes it easy to manage the depth of discharge [7]. The production of SIBs can follow the existing production processes and equipment associated with LIBs [8]. Based on the above-recognized advantages, SIBs have maintained high research interest in recent years. ...
With the rapid development of electric power, lithium materials, as a rare metal material, will be used up in 50 years. Sodium, in the same main group as lithium in the periodic table, is abundant in earth’s surface. However, in the study of sodium-ion batteries, there are still problems with their low-temperature performance. Its influencing factors mainly include three parts: cathode material, anode material, and electrolyte. In the cathode, there are Prussian blue and Prussian blue analogues, layered oxides, and polyanionic-type cathodes in four parts, as this paper discusses. However, in the anode, there is hard carbon, amorphous selenium, metal selenides, and the NaTi2(PO4)3 anode. Then, we divide the electrolyte into four parts: organic electrolytes; ionic liquid electrolytes; aqueous electrolytes; and solid-state electrolytes. Here, we aim to find electrode materials with a high specific capacity of charge and discharge at lower temperatures. Meanwhile, high-electrical-potential cathode materials and low-potential anode materials are also found. Furthermore, their stability in air and performance degradation in full cells and half-cells are analyzed. As for the electrolyte, despite the aspects mentioned above, its electrical conductivity in low temperatures is also reported.
... Most of the studies on SIBs only focus on electrochemical performance and do not assess the environmental burdens associated with the production of SIBs. For closing this gap, Peters et al. (2016) reported the first LCA study on the production of SIBs by using layered transition metal oxide and hard carbon as electrode materials. They found that the environmental impacts of SIBs are competitive with LIBs when delivering a similar lifetime. ...
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are lower cost and more sustainable alternatives for lithium-ion batteries. However, despite the high research attention to the development of the synthesis procedures of the electrode materials for SIBs, there has been less focus on the environmental burdens of each production route which is a vital aspect for large-scale industrial applications. A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) with a cradle-to-gate approach was performed here to evaluate the environmental impacts of the production phase of a promising cathode material with the chemical formula of Na3MnCO3PO4 (NMCP), which was previously studied in SIBs. LCA was used to compare the environmental impacts of three strategies for the production of NMCP nanomaterials, including ball milling, hydrothermal, and stirring-assisted hydrothermal. Results demonstrated that in hydrothermal-based methods, sodium carbonate showed a considerably high impact in almost all categories owing to its high consumption in these processes. In ball milling and stirring-assisted hydrothermal methods, electricity is one of the main environmental weaknesses. By scaling the results for an equivalent functionality and considering 1 kWh of energy storage capacity as the functional unit, ball milling showed the least environmental impact in all seven categories except acidification, eutrophication, and carcinogenics. Furthermore, Global warming impact as the most investigated category in the field of batteries was in the range of 14–20 kg CO2-eq. per kg of the synthesized NMCP nanomaterials prepared via the three studied methods which suggest the appropriate design of the applied procedures.
Graphical abstract
Although hard carbon (HC) demonstrates superior initial Coulombic efficiency, cycling durability, and rate capability in ether‐based electrolytes compared to ester‐based electrolytes for sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs), the underlying mechanisms responsible for these disparities remain largely unexplored. Herein, ex situ electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra and in situ Raman spectroscopy are combined to investigate the Na storage mechanism of HC under different electrolytes. Through deconvolving the EPR signals of Na in HC, quasi‐metallic‐Na is successfully differentiated from adsorbed‐Na. By monitoring the evolution of different Na species during the charging/discharging process, it is found that the initial adsorbed‐Na in HC with ether‐based electrolytes can be effectively transformed into intercalated‐Na in the plateau region. However, this transformation is obstructed in ester‐based electrolytes, leading to the predominant storage of Na in HC as adsorbed‐Na and pore‐filled‐Na. Furthermore, the intercalated‐Na in HC within the ether‐based electrolytes contributes to the formation of a uniform, dense, and stable solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) film and eventually enhances the electrochemical performance of HC. This work successfully deciphers the electrolyte‐dominated Na ⁺ storage mechanisms in HC and provides fundamental insights into the industrialization of HC in SIBs.
Sodium metal with a ~1166 mA h g−1 high theoretical specific capacity and a −2.71 V low redox potential shows tremendous application prospects in the sodium metal batteries (SMBs) field....
This paper provides significant new insights into Sodium-ion and Lithium-ion batteries’ environmental impact. Lithiumion batteries are used in commercials on a large scale. However, lithium-ion batteries are used less than sodium batteries. Considering that Sodium-ion batteries technology is not as advanced as Lithium. Sodium-ion batteries may have the potential to replace Lithium-ion batteries. According to commercial data, batteries are widely used in different areas because of their significant use in the renewable field, such as electric cars or energy storage projects. The battery has become a significant component in the renewable area. In that case, we will discuss which kind of battery will be better, especially the environmental impact. If the public cloud analyzes which battery is better, we will benefit from replacing batteries. First, the paper will discuss the environmental impact of five aspects: water pollution, Solid pollution, Raw material, Recycling, and Gas emissions. Second, according to the five aspects, we will use method AHP to analyze which battery is better. After AHP, the conclusion of which batteries are better regarding environmental impact will be given.
By 2030, 12–13 million tons of used electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) will reach the end of their service life, after 1st life cycle of these batteries still 60–70% of their energy storage capacity and can be first is reused for “2nd life” purpose (SLB) up to 5 to 10 years as stationary instruments before sending to recycling and extracting of valuable contents in the end-life processes (ELB). This research used bibliometrics analysis, combine with social and S-curve analysis to quantitatively analyze 4,810 SCI and SSCI databases articles from 2001 to 2021 related to SLBs and ELBs of used EVBs. Results reveal that: (1) In last 20 years publications on SLBs and recycling have been continually increasing. (2) China had highest 645 publications, secondly Germany with 635 publications, and U.S.A at thirdly with 634 publications. Several countries are providing facilities and finding ways to commercialize SLBs after 1st used. Our assessment on application of SLBs in stationary purposes the storage of solar and wind energy are promising systems, (3) keywords and S-Curve analysis for ELB articles illustrate that hydrometallurgy and biometallurgical were the top recycling technologies and attached with great potential soon. According to the EU commission and release battery directive, hydrometallurgical is the powerful and best recycling method. Finally, we provide comprehensive assessment of both SLBs and ELBs such as economic and environmental benefits, commercial and domestic applications, recycling steps, and low GHGs (i.e., greenhouse gas) emission. Our analyses and information will benefit for decision makers and researchers for present and future opportunities in this field.
Solid-state electrolytes (SEs) have attracted overwhelming attention as a promising alternative to traditional organic liquid electrolytes (OLEs) for high-energy-density sodium-metal batteries (SMBs), owing to their intrinsic incombustibility, wider electrochemical stability window (ESW), and better thermal stability. Among various kinds of SEs, inorganic solid-state electrolytes (ISEs) stand out because of their high ionic conductivity, excellent oxidative stability, and good mechanical strength, rendering potential utilization in safe and dendrite-free SMBs at room temperature. However, the development of Na-ion ISEs still remains challenging, that a perfect solution has yet to be achieved. Herein, we provide a comprehensive and in-depth inspection of the state-of-the-art ISEs, aiming at revealing the underlying Na+ conduction mechanisms at different length scales, and interpreting their compatibility with the Na metal anode from multiple aspects. A thorough material screening will include nearly all ISEs developed to date, i.e., oxides, chalcogenides, halides, antiperovskites, and borohydrides, followed by an overview of the modification strategies for enhancing their ionic conductivity and interfacial compatibility with Na metal, including synthesis, doping and interfacial engineering. By discussing the remaining challenges in ISE research, we propose rational and strategic perspectives that can serve as guidelines for future development of desirable ISEs and practical implementation of high-performance SMBs.
Free-standing hard carbon electrodes are produced from cotton biomass using a low-cost, one-step pathway. The free-standing feature of the electrode eliminates the use of binders and toxic solvents. The electrochemical performance of the electrodes is tested to study the correlation between Na storage and the structural properties of the hard carbon material. A remarkable specific capacity of 272 mAh g-1 at a current density of 50 mA g-1 is obtained with a high initial Coulombic efficiency of 75% for the cotton fabric (CF) sample pyrolyzed at 1000°C for 5 minutes (CF5min). The excellent performance of the free-standing electrode is attributed to a large interlayer spacing between the graphene layers, and a high number of oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) surface characterisation shows that a thin and uniformly distributed SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) layer, mainly composed of NaF and Na2O, is formed on the CF5min surface, whereas a thick SEI layer with a long Na+ diffusion pathway is formed on the sample pyrolyzed at 1000°C for 10 hours (CF10h), which leads to slower reaction kinetics and poor electrochemical performance. This work proposes a scalable and economically feasible strategy to produce sodium ion anode materials with a focus on environmental sustainability and value addition to waste streams.
Prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) was introduced with the goal to evaluate the environmental sustainability of eco-design solutions (i.e., ideas, prototypes, immature products, emerging technologies) prospectively rather than existing products, at the present time, as in traditional LCA. The main difference lies in the inventory, which is foreground and is based solely on the extraction of data from prospective documents, including patents, although this task, is tricky and can make the final result uncertain. This study proposes a systematic method to collect all the flows about a specific function of the product lifecycle from patent literature for building the foreground inventory of prospective LCA, ensuring comparability, data quality and scale-up. This was done by studying the intersections between patent analysis techniques and LCA requirements for reducing the uncertainty, prescribed by ISO 14040, ISO 14044, Pedigree Matrix and Data Quality Indicators for Life Cycle Inventory Data. The application of the proposed method to a case study related to the production of titanium powders using an innovative process revealed its main advantages in collecting patents and extracting data. Patent search recall and precision are increased. Patents are filtered by seeking a trade-off to ensure time consistency and avoid anomalous fluctuations in the data resulting from predatory patenting strategies. Data reliability and significance are controlled. Results can be expressed without levelling them around the average value, but adding time evolution and forecasting considerations. For example, the global warming potential (GWP) of the innovative process is 1.5 % lower than the GWP of the current process, considering the average patent data of the last 10 years. In addition, this value showed a 1 % increase for each year.
Potassium ion batteries (PIBs) have promising prospects for next-generation energy storage. However, the advanced anode materials needed for these systems are challenging because normal graphite cannot store the large-radius potassium...
Energy storage is crucial for solar energy utilisation. This chapter provides an introduction into different energy storage types and focuses on batteries, their operation and applications, battery technologies, characteristics and management.
Developments in battery technology are essential for the energy transition and need to follow the framework for safe-and-sustainable-by-design (SSbD) materials, chemicals, products, and processes as set by the EU. SSbD is a broad approach that ensures that chemicals/advanced materials/products/services are produced and used in a way to avoid harm to humans and the environment. Technical and policy-related literature was surveyed for battery technologies and recommendations were provided for a broad SSbD approach that remains firmly grounded in Life Cycle Thinking principles. The approach integrates functional performance and sustainability (safety, social, environmental, and economic) aspects throughout the life cycle of materials, products, and processes, and evaluates how their interactions reflect on SSbD parameters. 22 different types of batteries were analyzed in a life cycle thinking approach for criticality, toxicity/safety, environmental and social impact, circularity, functionality, and cost to ensure battery innovation has a green and sustainable purpose to avoid unintended consequences.
Polymeric binders are important components in maintaining the structural integrity of electrodes in energy storage devices. The emergence of alloy‐ and conversion‐type materials (e.g. silicon anodes and lithium–sulfur batteries) as next‐generation energy storage materials has attracted notable scientific and commercial interest in binder research. This interest is significantly motivated by the critical roles of binders in addressing the fundamental issues of these emerging systems, such as the large volume change of silicon anode and the shuttling effect of lithium–sulfur batteries. Considering the inherent drawbacks of traditional polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders, it is necessary to develop binders with excellent mechanical and electrochemical properties to facilitate the next‐generation battery systems. Herein, in this chapter, we review the fundamental binding theory and emerging binders in energy storage systems. Then, the binder design strategies and applications are summarized. Finally, the challenges and future opportunities of binder research are proposed.
Nickel (Ni) in batteries (e.g., nickel-metal hydride battery (NiMH), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC)) aim to ensure higher energy density and greater storage capacity. Two typical layered nickel-rich ternary cathode materials, NCA and NMC, are commercialized as advanced lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) for electric vehicles (EVs). The technology of those batteries has been improving by steadily increasing the nickel content in each cathode generation. In this study, we consider two types of batteries having a composite cathode made of Li[Ni0.80Co0.1Al0.1]O2, and Li[Ni0.33Mn0.33Co0.33]O2, which are the most common cathode materials for LiBs in EVs since 2010 and their functional recycling is performed. The increasing use of nickel in battery technologies has resulted in the continuous growth of demand for nickel over recent years. Nickel was added to the list of critical materials by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) already in 2021. Unfortunately now, the sustainable supply of nickel is even at higher risk due to the sanctions-related disruption of supplies from Russia. Therefore, enhancing the circularity of nickel starts to be vital for many economies. Demand for recycled nickel is growing, however, a systematic analysis of the sustainability of its recycling is still missing. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive assessment of the sustainability of the global primary and secondary production of nickel. Using system dynamics modelling integrated with geometallurgy principles and by analyzing the processing routes (pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes), we quantify the key environmental concerns across the life cycle of primary and secondary nickel required for sustainable mobility transition. Energy consumption, water use, and related emissions are assessed for all stages of the nickel supply chain, from mining to recycling. Our analysis shows the possibility of reducing the emissions by around 4.7 mt for GHG, 6.9 kt for PM2.5, 34.3 t for BC, 2.8 kt for CH4, 7.5 kt for CO, 3.3 mt for CO2, 169.9 t for N2O, 3.8 kt for NOx, 11.8 kt for PM10, 104.8 t for POC, 1.6 mt for SOx, and 232.5 t for VOC by engaging in the secondary production of nickel through the recycling of batteries. However, identical growth rate of energy consumption and water use compared to nickel mass flows means no technical progress has been achieved in different stages of the nickel supply chain towards sustainability over the period 2010-2030. Therefore, an improvement in technology is needed to save energy and water in nickel production processes. The results and findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of the necessity for improving closed-loop supply chain policies for nickel.
The market dynamics, and their impact on a future circular economy for lithium-ion batteries (LIB), are presented in this roadmap, with safety as an integral consideration throughout the life cycle. At the point of end-of-life, there is a range of potential options – remanufacturing, reuse and recycling. Diagnostics play a significant role in evaluating the state of health and condition of batteries, and improvements to diagnostic techniques are evaluated. At present, manual disassembly dominates end-of-life disposal, however, given the volumes of future batteries that are to be anticipated, automated approaches to the dismantling of end-of-life battery packs will be key. The first stage in recycling after the removal of the cells is the initial cell-breaking or opening step. Approaches to this are reviewed, contrasting shredding and cell disassembly as two alternative approaches. Design for recycling is one approach that could assist in easier disassembly of cells, and new approaches to cell design that could enable the circular economy of LIBs are reviewed. After disassembly, subsequent separation of the black mass is performed before further concentration of components. There are a plethora of alternative approaches for recovering materials; this roadmap sets out the future directions for a range of approaches including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, short-loop, direct, and the biological recovery of LIB materials. Furthermore, anode, lithium, electrolyte, binder and plastics recovery are considered in the range of approaches in order to maximise the proportion of materials recovered, minimise waste and point the way towards zero-waste recycling. The life-cycle implications of a circular economy are discussed considering the overall system of LIB recycling, and also directly investigating the different recycling methods. The legal and regulatory perspectives are also considered. Finally, with a view to the future, approaches for next-generation battery chemistries and recycling are evaluated, identifying gaps for research.
The intervention of renewable energy for curbing the supply demand mismatch in power grids has projected the added advantage of having lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Non-depleting sources are characterised by variability and unpredictability. This necessitates the adequate design and sizing of Energy Storage Devices (ESD). This study focusses on life cycle study of three different types of storage devices, Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (LAB), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP-G) Battery and Polysulphide Bromine Flow Battery (PSB). It has been concluded that the PV-VRLA system has an Energy Pay Back Time (EPBT) of 4.3 years, PV-LFP-G system having 4.56 years and PV-PSB system with a value of 8.2 years. The environmental impact of the systems is measured by the GHG emission factor expressed in kgCO2eq/kWh of energy generated. The PV-PSB system has the highest value owing to the material production and operating energy component, the values being 0.321, 0.343 and 0.70 kgCO2eq/kWh for the LAB, LFP-G and PSB, respectively. The impact of the generation mix for the present, Business as Usual (BAU) and a future Renewable Energy Intensive has also been studied. It has been concluded that emission metrics of the PSB system is more sensitive to generation mix characteristics.
Considering the wide abundance and low cost of sodium resources and their similar electrochemistry to the well-established lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been regarded as potential alternatives to lithium-ion batteries. Iron-based materials have attracted considerable attention as promising electrode materials for SIBs due to their high theoretical capacitance, natural abundance, and low cost. However, their sluggish reaction kinetics, accompanied with severe volume change during cycling sodiation/desodiation process and their unsatisfied electric conductivity, always leads to inferior long-term cycling stability and rate performance. To resolve these issues, significant and effective efforts have been made to improve their electrochemical performance, and great processes have been achieved. In this review, some recent progress on the development and design of nanostructured iron-based anodes, including oxides, chalcogenides, phosphides, nitrides, alloys, etc., are summarized, mainly focusing on the relationship between their structural features and sodium storage performance to understand the mechanisms behind the improvement of their sodium storage performance. In addition, the current challenges and future directions upon improving iron-based anodes for SIBs are briefly reviewed. These iron-based electrode materials are expected to be competitive and attractive electrodes for next-generation energy storage devices.
Transient batteries are expected to lessen the inherent environmental impact of traditional batteries that rely on toxic and critical raw materials. This work presents the bottom-up design of a fully transient Zn-ion battery (ZIB) made of nontoxic and earth-abundant elements, including a novel hydrogel electrolyte prepared by cross-linking agarose and carboxymethyl cellulose. Facilitated by a high ionic conductivity and a high positive zinc-ion species transference number, the optimized hydrogel electrolyte enables stable cycling of the Zn anode with a lifespan extending over 8500 h for 0.25 mA cm−2 – 0.25 mAh cm−2. On pairing with a biocompatible organic polydopamine-based cathode, the full cell ZIB delivers a capacity of 196 mAh g−1 after 1000 cycles at a current density of 0.5 A g−1 and a capacity of 110 mAh g−1 after 10 000 cycles at a current density of 1 A g−1. A transient ZIB with a biodegradable agarose casing displays an open circuit voltage of 1.123 V and provides a specific capacity of 157 mAh g−1 after 200 cycles at a current density of 50 mA g−1. After completing its service life, the battery can disintegrate under composting conditions.
As the demand for energy storage is expanding rapidly, concerns have been raised about critical raw materials used in lithium-ion batteries. Post-lithium batteries have the potential to provide a more sustainable option for energy storage by taking advantage of raw materials that are more abundant and unrestricted by supply chains. Sodium-ion batteries are one type that is currently the most widely discussed candidate in light of the approaching commercialization. The most promising anode material for commercial sodium-ion batteries that can be applied in large quantities in the near future is expected to be hard carbon (HC). However, neither the current state of HC's commercialization nor the trend in technology development has been investigated. This work uses an approach that combines literature investigation, expert surveys, and patent analysis to track the growth route of HC and identify potential obstacles. The analysis of 352 HC-related patents and existing production operations shows that the HC market is still in the early phase of market development. As of now, production capacities are limited due to a lack of market forces and uncertain demand. Uneven distribution of market and research activities, lack of information transparency of the upstream supply chain, and potential hype stemming from market immaturity are highlighted as potential challenges in the HC market. To accelerate the commercialization of HC, as a prerequisite for a successful introduction of sodium-ion batteries to the future market, more investment and efficient market conversion of R&D efforts are required. This article offers recommendations to promote the sustainable design and marketing plans of HC-based battery systems.
In this study, we address the most recent innovations in the field of sustainable and environment friendlier binders for electrochemical energy storage devices such as, supercapacitors and batteries accompanied by the explanation, how they could reduce the impacts of environment and cost and enhance the efficiency of the energy equipment. Hitherto, the number of sustainable and environment friendlier binders are categorized according to their chemical composition, processability and natural availability. Different electrochemical devices are being employed to investigate their wide‐ranging advantages. Among them the most commonly employed devices are lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) and electrochemical double layer supercapacitors (ECDSs). A detailed insight into the anodic half as well as cathodic half has been presented. The Si derived anodes exhibit enhanced capacitive performance as a result of increased cycling ability. This feature owes from the greater interactions between the functionalities and surface of the active particles of the anode material for example, polysaccharides such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)/nanocellulose (NC). On the other hands the transition to water‐processable cathodes is more complicated compared to anodes. Among various polysaccharides, the NC has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and environment friendlier class of greener materials. Herein, we have discussed the role of NC based electrode materials with applications in supercapacitors and batteries. Finally, a comprehensive overview based on the documented work and current views for the further development of NC based aqueous electrodes in the field of electrochemical energy storage devices are discussed. Sustainable and environment friendly binders for electrochemical energy storage devices such as, supercapacitors and batteries. The review also elaborates on ways to reduce the environmental impacts, cost and enhance the energy efficiency.
Sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are considered as a promising alternative to overcome existing sustainability challenges related to Lithium-ion batteries (LIB), such as the use of critical and expensive materials with high environmental impacts. In contrast to established LIBs, SIBs are an emerging technology in an early stage of development where a challenge is to identify the most promising and sustainable cathode active materials (CAM) for further research and potential commercialization. Thus, a comprehensive and flexible CAM screening method is developed, providing a fast and comprehensive overview of potential sustainability hotspots for supporting cathode material selection. 42 different SIB cathodes are screened and benchmarked against eight state-of-the-art LIB-cathodes. Potential impacts are quantified for the following categories: i) Cost as ten-year average; ii) Criticality, based on existing raw material criticality indicators, and iii) the life cycle carbon footprint. The results reveal that energy density is one of the most important factors in all three categories, determining the overall material demand. Most SIB CAM shows a very promising performance, obtaining better results than the LIB benchmark. Especially the Prussian Blue derivatives and the manganese-based layered oxides seem to be interesting candidates under the given prospective screening framework.
Novel sodium-ion battery technologies have emerged in recent years and are considered as potential alternatives to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale stationary storage applications. Among different sodium-ion cell chemistries, Prussian blue analogues (PBA) have advantages of excellent electrochemical stability, low cost, and high-rate capability, thanks to their open-framework lattice suitable for sodium-ion intercalation. The present study assesses the first commercial Prussian blue-based sodium-ion pluggable battery module developed and refined in a joint design effort between Natron Energy and ABB, offering insights into the competitiveness and maturity of sodium-ion technologies. Both single cells and battery modules (32 cells in series) are evaluated and compared with other commercial batteries. Natron's sodium-ion battery cells possess performance characteristics between lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors in terms of power capability, energy density, and cycle life. In addition, the Natron sodium-ion battery technology shows excellent safety and sustainability features that are not dependent on rare earth elements, critical mining processes, or questionable supply chain implications.
Calcined coke is the best material for making carbon
anodes for smelting of alumina to aluminum. Petroleum coke is
usually calcined in a gas-fired rotary kiln or rotary hearth at high
temperatures, around 1200 to 1450 °C, to remove moisture, drive off
volatile matters, increase the density of the coke, increase physical
strength, and electrical conductivity of the material. Rotary kilns have
been used successfully for many years to produce calcined coke for
the aluminium industry and they offer a high level of automation,
performance and flexibility. Shaft calciners make a high bulk density,
coarse particle size product and several papers have been published
recently highlighting these benefits. This paper presents a comparison
of the operation of two different kiln and calcining technologies as a
product quality and process performance. Several misconceptions
about the technologies related to operability, product quality and
their ability to handle a wide range of green coke and calcinations
processes. All technologies used in a complimentary manner in the
future. Density, Size and Reactivity of coke and Impurity are most
effective parameters on calcined coke quality.
This report covers the changes to the ecoinvent database between version 3.1, released in 2014
and version 3.2, released in 2015. It describes both the database-wide changes that affect the whole
database as well as the specific changes in the different sectors. These changes consist in the addition
of new datasets, in the deletion of outdated ones, and in the re-modelling or corrections of others.
All changes described in this report potentially affect or modify impact assessment results, even
when they seem as minor as changing an activity link. The description of the changes has been
provided to help the users with the interpretation and understanding of the possible changes in results
they might encounter.
Herein, the synthesis of new quaternary layered Na-based oxides of the type Na
x
Mn
y
Ni
z
Fe0.1Mg0.1O2 (0.67≤ x ≤ 1.0; 0.5≤ y ≤ 0.7; 0.1≤ z ≤ 0.3) is described. The synthesis can be tuned to obtain P2- and O3-type as well as mixed P-/O-type phases as demonstrated by structural, morphological, and electrochemical properties characterization. Although all materials show good electrochemical performance, the simultaneous presence of the P- and O-type phases is found to have a synergetic effect resulting in outstanding performance of the mixed phase material as a sodium-ion cathode. The mixed P3/P2/O3-type material, having an average elemental composition of Na0.76Mn0.5Ni0.3Fe0.1Mg0.1O2, overcomes the specific drawbacks associated with the P2- and O3-type materials, allowing the outstanding electrochemical performance. In detail, the mixed phase material is able to deliver specific discharge capacities of up to 155 mAh g-1 (18 mA g-1) in the potential range of 2.0-4.3 V. In the narrower potential range of 2.5-4.3 V the material exhibits high average discharge potential (3.4 V versus Na/Na+), exceptional average coulombic efficiencies (>99.9%), and extraordinary capacity retention (90.2% after 601 cycles). The unexplored class of P-/O-type mixed phases introduces new perspectives for the development of layered positive electrode materials and powerful Na-ion batteries.
With increasing quantities of biomass being combusted in coal fired power stations, there is an urgent
need to be able to predict the grindability of biomass in existing coal mills, but currently no standard biomass
grindability test exists. In this study, the applicability of the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) and
Bond Work Index (BWI) as standard grindability tests for biomass were investigated for commercially
sourced wood pellets, steam exploded pellets, torrefied pellets, sunflower pellets, eucalyptus pellets, miscanthus
pellets, olive cake and Colombian La Loma coal. HGI predicts the behaviour of fuels in vertical
spindle mills and BWI for tube and ball mills. Compared to La Loma (HGI of 46), all biomasses tested performed
poorly with low HGI values (14–29). Miscanthus pellets had the highest BWI or Wi at 426 kW h/t.
Despite similar HGI values, some untreated biomasses showed lower BWI values (Eucalyptus pellets Wi
87 kW h/t, HGI 22) compared to others (sunflower pellets Wi 366 kW h/t, HGI 20). Torrefied pellets had
the lowest Wi (16 kW h/t), with La Loma coal at 23 kW h/t. Wood, miscanthus and sunflower pellets
exhibited mill choking during the BWI test, as the amount of fines produced did not increase with an
increasing revolution count. An approximate correlation between HGI and BWI was found for the biomass
samples which did not experience mill choking in the BWI test. Milling results in this paper suggest
that biomass pellets should be composed of pre-densified particles close to the target size in order to
minimise the energy use in mills and possibility of mill choking. Our findings would also suggest that
the BWI is a valid test for predicting the potential for mill choking of biomass in a tube and ball mill.
HGI, however, appears to be a poor method of predicting the grindability of biomass in vertical spindle
mills. A new standard grindability test is required to test the grindability of biomasses in such mills.
Li-ion batteries play an ever-increasing role in our daily life. Therefore, it is important to understand the potential risks involved with these devices. In this work we demonstrate the thermal runaway characteristics of three types of commercially available Li-ion batteries with the format 18650. The Li-ion batteries were deliberately driven into thermal runaway by overheating under controlled conditions. Cell temperatures up to 850 °C and a gas release of up to 0.27 mol were measured. The main gas components were quantified with gas-chromatography. The safety of Li-ion batteries is determined by their composition, size, energy content, design and quality. This work investigated the influence of different cathode-material chemistry on the safety of commercial graphite-based 18650 cells. The active cathode materials of the three tested cell types were (a) LiFePO4, (b) Li(Ni0.45Mn0.45Co0.10)O2 and (c) a blend of LiCoO2 and Li(Ni0.50Mn0.25Co0.25)O2.
Room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries have attracted great attention particularly in large-scale electric energy storage applications for renewable energy and smart grid because of the huge abundant sodium resources and low cost. In this article, a variety of electrode materials including cathodes and anodes as well as electrolytes for room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries are briefly reviewed. We compare the difference in storage behavior between Na and Li in their analogous electrodes and summarize the sodium storage mechanisms in the available electrode materials. This review also includes some new results from our group and our thoughts on developing new materials. Some perspectives and directions on designing better materials for practical applications are pointed out based on knowledge from the literature and our experience. Through this extensive literature review, the search for suitable electrode and electrolyte materials for stationary sodium-ion batteries is still challenging. However, after intensive research efforts, we believe that low-cost, long-life and room-temperature sodium-ion batteries would be promising for applications in large-scale energy storage system in the near future.
Purpose
The purpose of this review article is to investigate the usefulness of different types of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of electrified vehicles to provide robust and relevant stakeholder information. It presents synthesized conclusions based on 79 papers. Another objective is to search for explanations to divergence and “complexity” of results found by other overviewing papers in the research field, and to compile methodological learnings. The hypothesis was that such divergence could be explained by differences in goal and scope definitions of the reviewed LCA studies.
Methods
The review has set special attention to the goal and scope formulation of all included studies. First, completeness and clarity have been assessed in view of the ISO standard’s (ISO 2006a, b) recommendation for goal definition. Secondly, studies have been categorized based on technical and methodological scope, and searched for coherent conclusions.
Results and discussion
Comprehensive goal formulation according to the ISO standard (ISO 2006a, b) is absent in most reviewed studies. Few give any account of the time scope, indicating the temporal validity of results and conclusions. Furthermore, most studies focus on today’s electric vehicle technology, which is under strong development. Consequently, there is a lack of future time perspective, e.g., to advances in material processing, manufacturing of parts, and changes in electricity production. Nevertheless, robust assessment conclusions may still be identified. Most obvious is that electricity production is the main cause of environmental impact for externally chargeable vehicles. If, and only if, the charging electricity has very low emissions of fossil carbon, electric vehicles can reach their full potential in mitigating global warming. Consequently, it is surprising that almost no studies make this stipulation a main conclusion and try to convey it as a clear message to relevant stakeholders. Also, obtaining resources can be observed as a key area for future research. In mining, leakage of toxic substances from mine tailings has been highlighted. Efficient recycling, which is often assumed in LCA studies of electrified vehicles, may reduce demand for virgin resources and production energy. However, its realization remains a future challenge.
Conclusions
LCA studies with clearly stated purposes and time scope are key to stakeholder lessons and guidance. It is also necessary for quality assurance. LCA practitioners studying hybrid and electric vehicles are strongly recommended to provide comprehensive and clear goal and scope formulation in line with the ISO standard (ISO 2006a, b).
Electric vehicles (EVs) have no tailpipe emissions, but the production of their batteries leads to environmental burdens. In order to avoid problem shifting, a life cycle perspective should be applied in the environmental assessment of traction batteries. The aim of this study was to provide a transparent inventory for a lithium-ion nickel-cobalt-manganese traction battery based on primary data and to report its cradle-to-gate impacts. The study was carried out as a process-based attributional life cycle assessment. The environmental impacts were analyzed using midpoint indicators. The global warming potential of the 26.6 kilowatt-hour (kWh), 253-kilogram battery pack was found to be 4.6 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents. Regardless of impact category, the production impacts of the battery were caused mainly by the production chains of battery cell manufacture, positive electrode paste, and negative current collector. The robustness of the study was tested through sensitivity analysis, and results were compared with preceding studies. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the most effective approach to reducing climate change emissions would be to produce the battery cells with electricity from a cleaner energy mix. On a per-kWh basis, cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas emissions of the battery were within the range of those reported in preceding studies. Contribution and structural path analysis allowed for identification of the most impact-intensive processes and value chains. This article provides an inventory based mainly on primary data, which can easily be adapted to subsequent EV studies, and offers an improved understanding of environmental burdens pertaining to lithium-ion traction batteries.
Owing to almost unmatched volumetric energy density, Li-ion batteries have dominated the portable electronics industry and solid state electrochemical literature for the past 20 years. Not only will that continue, but they are also now powering plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles. In light of possible concerns over rising lithium costs in the future, Na and Na-ion batteries have re-emerged as candidates for medium and large-scale stationary energy storage, especially as a result of heightened interest in renewable energy sources that provide intermittent power which needs to be load-levelled. The sodium-ion battery field presents many solid state materials design challenges, and rising to that call in the past couple of years, several reports of new sodium-ion technologies and electrode materials have surfaced. These range from high-temperature air electrodes to new layered oxides, polyanion-based materials, carbons and other insertion materials for sodium-ion batteries, many of which hold promise for future sodium-based energy storage applications. In this article, the challenges of current high-temperature sodium technologies including Na-S and Na-NiCl2 and new molten sodium technology, Na-O2 are summarized. Recent advancements in positive and negative electrode materials suitable for Na-ion and hybrid Na/Li-ion cells are reviewed, along with the prospects for future developments.
Energy production and storage have become key issues concerning our welfare in daily life. Present challenges for batteries are twofold. In the first place, the increasing demand for powering systems of portable electronic devices and zero-emission vehicles stimulates research towards high energy and high voltage systems. In the second place, low cost batteries are required in order to advance towards smart electric grids that integrate discontinuous energy flow from renewable sources, optimizing the performance of clean energy sources. Na-ion batteries can be the key for the second point, because of the huge availability of sodium, its low price and the similarity of both Li and Nainsertion chemistries. In spite of the lower energy density and voltage of Na-ion based technologies, they can be focused on applications where the weight and footprint requirement is less drastic, such as electrical grid storage. Much work has to be done in the field of Na-ion in order to catch up with Li-ion technology. Cathodic and anodic materials must be optimized, and new electrolytes will be the key point for Na-ion success. This review will gather the up-to-date knowledge about Na-ion battery materials, with the aim of providing a wide view of the systems that have already been explored and a starting point for the new research on this battery technology.
Within the framework of this publication, a brief motivation for hydrogen as an automotive energy carrier is provided and recent technology status and activities in the field of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and hydrogen infrastructure are described. To do so, current hydrogen vehicles by General Motors and Opel (such as the HydroGen4) as well as current and upcoming technologies are presented. In addition, well-to-wheel efficiencies considering different energy mixes and driving profiles for various electric powertrains (including E-REV vehicles like the Chevrolet Volt and its VOLTEC system) are briefly discussed.
This paper is a follow-up study to a previous article on the same topic published in 2007: “Fuel Cell Vehicles: Technology Status 2007” by R.v.H. und U.E. [1]. Although providing also an overall picture, that publication was focused on issues of hydrogen storage and vehicle demonstration programs. The current publication, on the other hand, will illustrate the progress made in the meantime, and will primarily deal with the fuel cell system and the planned hydrogen infrastructure roll-out for the early FCEV commercialization in the 2015-2020 timeframe. For that reason, some insight into the hydrogen infrastructure and recent results of infrastructure and technology readiness studies will be presented, including those of the “H2Mobility” coalition, which comprises major automotive, energy, and technology companies.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C2EE22596D
The main aim of the study was to explore how LCA can be used to optimize the design of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Two lithium-ion batteries, both based on lithium iron phosphate, but using different solvents during cell manufacturing, were studied by means of life cycle assessment, LCA. The general conclusions are limited to results showing robustness against variation in critical data. The study showed that it is environmentally preferable to use water as a solvent instead of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, NMP, in the slurry for casting the cathode and anode of lithium-ion batteries. Recent years’ improvements in battery technology, especially related to cycle life, have decreased production phase environmental impacts almost to the level of use phase impacts. In the use phase, environmental impacts related to internal battery efficiency are two to six times larger than the impact from losses due to battery weight in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, assuming 90% internal battery efficiency. Thus, internal battery efficiency is a very important parameter; at least as important as battery weight. Areas, in which data is missing or inadequate and the environmental impact is or may be significant, include: production of binders, production of lithium salts, cell manufacturing and assembly, the relationship between weight of vehicle and vehicle energy consumption, information about internal battery efficiency and recycling of lithium-ion batteries based on lithium iron phosphate.
Batteries are a major technological challenge in this new century as they are a key method to make more efficient use of energy. Although today's Li-ion technology has conquered the portable electronic markets and is still improving, it falls short of meeting the demands dictated by the powering of both hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles or by the storage of renewable energies (wind, solar). There is room for optimism as long as we pursue paradigm shifts while keeping in mind the concept of materials sustainability. Some of these concepts, relying on new ways to prepare electrode materials via eco-efficient processes, on the use of organic rather than inorganic materials or new chemistries will be discussed. Achieving these concepts will require the inputs of multiple disciplines.
Die Anode einer Lithium Ionen Batterie besteht in der Regel aus einer dünnen Kupferfolie als Stromableiter, welche beschichtet ist. Die Beschichtung besteht zum Großteil aus Aktivmaterial und wenigen Gewichtsprozenten an Binder und gegebenenfalls Leitfähigkeitsadditiven. Als Aktivmaterial wird in der Regel synthetischer Graphit oder Naturgraphit verwendet. Neben Graphit werden in sehr geringem Umfang amorphe Kohlenstoffe, Lithiumtitanat oder Silizium- bzw. Zinn-haltige Materialien eingesetzt.
The increasing presence of Li-Ion batteries (LIB) in mobile and stationary energy storage applications has triggered a growing interest in the environmental impacts associated with their production. Numerous studies on the potential environmental impacts of LIB production and LIB-based electric mobility are available, but these are very heterogeneous and the results are therefore difficult to compare. Furthermore, the source of inventory data, which is key to the outcome of any study, is often difficult to trace back. This paper provides a review of LCA studies on Li-Ion batteries, with a focus on the battery production process. All available original studies that explicitly assess LIB production are summarized, the sources of inventory data are traced back and the main assumptions are extracted in order to provide a quick overview of the technical key parameters used in each study. These key parameters are then compared with actual battery data from industry and research institutions. Based on the results from the reviewed studies, average values for the environmental impacts of LIB production are calculated and the relevance of different assumptions for the outcomes of the different studies is pointed out. On average, producing 1 W h of storage capacity is associated with a cumulative energy demand of 328 W h and causes greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 110 gCO2eq. Although the majority of existing studies focus on GHG emissions or energy demand, it can be shown that impacts in other categories such as toxicity might be even more important. Taking into account the importance of key parameters for the environmental performance of Li-Ion batteries, research efforts should not only focus on energy density but also on maximizing cycle life and charge-discharge efficiency.
We report a systematic investigation of Na-based electrolytes that comprise various NaX [X=hexafluorophosphate (PF6 ), perchlorate (ClO4 ), bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI), fluorosulfonyl-(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (FTFSI), and bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FSI)] salts and solvent mixtures [ethylene carbonate (EC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC), EC/diethyl carbonate (DEC), and EC/propylene carbonate (PC)] with respect to the Al current collector stability, formation of soluble degradation compounds, reactivity towards sodiated hard carbon (Nax -HC), and solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer formation. Cyclic voltammetry demonstrates that the stability of Al is highly influenced by the nature of the anions, solvents, and additives. GC-MS analysis reveals that the formation of SEI telltales depends on the nature of the linear alkyl carbonates and the battery chemistry (Li(+) vs. Na(+) ). FTIR spectroscopy shows that double alkyl carbonates are the main components of the SEI layer on Nax -HC. In the presence of Na salts, EC/DMC and EC/DEC presented a higher reactivity towards Nax -HC than EC/PC. For a fixed solvent mixture, the onset temperature follows the sequence NaClO4 <NaFTFSI<NaPF6 <NaTFSI<NaFSI, and the total heat generated increases in the order NaFSI<NaTFSI<NaClO4 <NaPF6 <NaFTFSI.
The modern industrial agriculture is strongly influenced by product norms and standards, resulting in massive amounts of fresh fruit which are left in the field or wasted in spite of their good nutritional value. Herein, we present the synthesis of hard carbon from natural apple biowaste and its use of biomass is a suitable strategy for the development of cheap and powerful carbon-based active materials for Na-ion batteries. The hard carbon exhibits a good rate capability (112 mAh g 1 at 5C (1 A g-1)), excellent long-term cycling stability (1000 cycles at 5C) and high specific capacity (245 mAh g-1 at 0.1C) with full retention after 80 cycles. The full capacity (250 mAh g-1) of the hard carbon is also obtained in sodium-ion cells using the layered P2-type NaxNi0.22Co0.11Mn0.66O2 cathode. The good electrochemical performance as well as the low cost and environmentally friendliness of the apple biowaste derived hard carbon prove its suitability for future sodium ion batteries.
hexafluophosphates;ammonium salt;sodium salt;potassium salt;anhydrous hydrogen fluoride
A highly reversible, resource-abundant and low-cost anode is indispensable to the future success of sodium ion batteries (SIBs) in large-scale energy storage application. In this work, we report the facile synthesis of a biomass-derived hard carbon for SIBs by one-step pyrolysis of shaddock peel under an inert atmosphere without activation or any further treatments. The pyrolytic carbon shows very high reversible sodium storage capacities up to 430.5 mA h g−1 at a current density of 30 mA g−1 and superior cycling stability with only 2.5% capacity loss over 200 charge–discharge cycles. The high capacity and excellent cycle performance, combined with the facile synthesis procedure make it a promising anode material for practical SIBs. The good Na-ion storage property of the shaddock peel-derived pyrolytic carbon is attributed to its unique honeycomb-like morphology with a shortened distance for Na-ion diffusion, and the large interlayer distance which is available for sodium insertion/extraction.
The process developed in the UK to produce magnesium hydroxide from sea-water is described, together with the heat treatment that the hydroxide receives to produce the active oxide. Some of the characteristics required of the dolomite used in the process are also discussed. Impurities introduced by the sea-water are noted and the means by which they can be reduced are explained.-D.J.M.
In this study, novel electrolyte mixtures for Li-ion cells are presented with highly improved safety features. The electrolyte formulations are composed of ethylene carbonate/dimethyl sulfone (80:20 wt/wt) as the solvent mixture and LiBF4 , lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)azanide, and lithium bis(oxalato)borate as the conducting salts. Initially, the electrolytes are characterized with regard to their physical properties, their lithium transport properties, and their electrochemical stability. The key advantages of the electrolytes are high flash points of >140 °C, which enhance significantly the intrinsic safety of Li-ion cells containing these electrolytes. This has been quantified by measurements in an accelerating rate calorimeter. By using the newly developed electrolytes, which are liquid down to T=-10 °C, it is possible to achieve C-rates of up to 1.5 C with >80 % of the initial specific capacity. During 100 cycles in cell tests (graphite||LiNi1/3 Co1/3 Mn1/3 O2 ), it is proven that the retention of the specific capacity is >98 % of the third discharge cycle with dependence on the conducting salt. The best electrolyte mixture yields a capacity retention of >96 % after 200 cycles in coin cells.
© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
In this paper, Polymer Plus of Aspen Tech Inc. is used to establish a styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) polymerization process model; the sensitivity analysis method is used to analyze concentration of the initiator, reaction temperature and other factors which influence production and molecular weight of product. It is concluded that increasing amount of initiator can improve production, while the molecular weight would increase at first and then decline; and along with the increasing temperature, weight-average molecular weight would lower and production of polymer PBS would increase; molecular weight of polymer and production of polymer would magnify along with increase of amount of emulsifier and volume of the reactor.
Lamination technologies used to produce lithium ion batteries are limited by the capital investment needed for multiple unit operations, solvent use for electrolyte and electrode slurries, and an inability to exert control over active material particle morphology and homogeneity. Advancements in thin-film solid-state processing using vacuum coating hold promise to overcome these challenges for batteries with superior energy density and cycle life, if cost and scalability issues can be overcome. A comparative life cycle assessment is reported for battery production using lamination and thin-film vacuum vapor deposition. Lithium vanadium oxide solid-state cells are found to have the lowest impact, per unit energy storage, in cumulative energy demand (CED), global warming potential (GWP), and six other midpoint environmental indicators. Human health and resource depletion impacts are generally higher for lithium manganese oxide and lithium cobalt oxide solid-state cells than for their laminated counterparts, whereas CED and GWP per unit energy storage are 25–65% lower for solid-state cells across all cathode chemistries. Sensitivity analysis, taking into account uncertainties related to solid-state cell properties and vacuum vapor deposition process efficiencies, indicates that CED and GWP impacts for battery electric vehicle mobility using packs with solid-state cells will be lower than those incurred using laminated cells.
Energy storage technology has received significant attention for portable electronic devices, electric vehicle propulsion, bulk electricity storage at power stations, and load leveling of renewable sources, such as solar energy and wind power. Lithium ion batteries have dominated most of the first two applications. For the last two cases, however, moving beyond lithium batteries to the element that lies below—sodium—is a sensible step that offers sustainability and cost-effectiveness. This requires an evaluation of the science underpinning these devices, including the discovery of new materials, their electrochemistry, and an increased understanding of ion mobility based on computational methods. The Review considers some of the current scientific issues underpinning sodium ion batteries.
Ever-growing energy needs and depleting fossil-fuel resources demand the pursuit of sustainable energy alternatives, including both renewable energy sources and sustainable storage technologies. It is therefore essential to incorporate material abundance, eco-efficient synthetic processes and life-cycle analysis into the design of new electrochemical storage systems. At present, a few existing technologies address these issues, but in each case, fundamental and technological hurdles remain to be overcome. Here we provide an overview of the current state of energy storage from a sustainability perspective. We introduce the notion of sustainability through discussion of the energy and environmental costs of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, considering elemental abundance, toxicity, synthetic methods and scalability. With the same themes in mind, we also highlight current and future electrochemical storage systems beyond lithium-ion batteries. The complexity and importance of recycling battery materials is also discussed.
Lithium/air is a fascinating energy storage system. The effective exploitation of air as a battery electrode has been the long-time dream of the battery community. Air is, in principle, a no-cost material characterized by a very high specific capacity value. In the particular case of the lithium/air system, energy levels approaching that of gasoline have been postulated. It is then not surprising that, in the course of the last decade, great attention has been devoted to this battery by various top academic and industrial laboratories worldwide. This intense investigation, however, has soon highlighted a series of issues that prevent a rapid development of the Li/air electrochemical system. Although several breakthroughs have been achieved recently, the question on whether this battery will have an effective economic and societal impact remains. In this review, a critical evaluation of the progress achieved so far is made, together with an attempt to propose future R&D trends. A forecast on whether Li/air may have a role in the next years' battery technology is also postulated.
Room temperature Na-ion secondary battery has been under focus lately due to its feasibility to compete against already well-established Li-ion secondary battery. Although there are many obstacles to overcome before Na-ion battery becomes commercially available, recent research discoveries corroborate that some of the cathode materials for Na-ion battery have indeed indisputable advantages over its Li-ion counterparts. In this publication, a comprehensive review of layered oxides (NaTMO2, TM = Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and mixture of 2 or 3 elements) as a viable Na-ion battery cathode is presented. Unary systems are well characterized not only for their electrochemical performance but also for their structural transitions during the cycle. Binary systems are investigated in order to address issues regarding low reversible capacity, capacity retention, operating voltage, and structural stability. In consequence, some materials already have reached energy density of 520 mW h g-1, which is comparable to that of LiFePO4. Furthermore, some ternary system retained more than 72% of its capacity along with over 99.7% Coulombic efficiency for 275 cycles. The goal of this review is to present the development of Na layered oxide materials in the past as well as state of the art today in order to emphasize compatibility and durability of layered oxide as a powerful candidate for Na-ion battery cathode material.
The material's abundance is a simple and clear reason as to why sodium ions are attractive as charge carriers for rechargeable batteries. It is also expected that potassium ions have a further smaller desolvation energy compared with the Li and Na systems in aprotic solvents. However, further energy sacrifice is also unavoidable for the potassium system due to heavy atomic weight. In addition to the oxides, a wide variety of crystal structures is known for polyanionic compounds and the structural chemistry of the Na system is much more complicated in comparison to the Li system. Na ions are apparently coordinated by four fluoride ions at bottleneck sites when the Na ions migrate across the perovskite-type framework structure.
A first review of the various electrolytes currently used and developed for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), both in terms of materials and concepts, is here presented. In contrast to the Li-ion battery (LIB), which is a mature technology and has developed a more or less unanimously accepted “standard electrolyte” – 1M LiPF6 in EC/DMC, the electrolyte of choice for SIBs has not yet fully conformed to a standard. This is true for both materials; salts, solvents, or additives, and concept; using the main track of organic solvents or aiming for other concepts. The SIB research currently prospers, benefitting from using know-how gained from 30 years of LIB R&D. Here the currently employed electrolytes are emphasized and their effects on practical SIB performance are outlined along scrutinizing the rational for specific choices made; salts, solvents, additives, concentrations, etc. for each specific cell set-up and usage conditions.
Electric vehicles in Germany are expected to have an average lifetime of twelve years. During their long use-phase these vehicles rely on electricity from the power grid. A historic review shows that over the last twelve years the German electricity-mix has undergone a massive transition. Renewable energy sources are on the rise, while nuclear power is phased out. This trend is expected to continue. Since the environmental impacts of electric vehicles depend on the electricity-mix, this study performs a life cycle assessment that respects the transitions in the observed time-span. This study defines the new term “time-resolved LCA”, in contrast to conventional LCA- and dynamic LCA-methodology, as an LCA-approach which is based on statistical, time-resolved data. Time-resolved LCA aims at becoming a simple and feasible method to reduce model-uncertainty in LCA. The authors conclude that time-resolved LCA improves model-quality significantly. Most environmental impacts of electric vehicles decrease, when the more precise time-resolved approach is employed. Further implications of the new approach are outlined.
This paper provides a comprehensive review of fuel cell science and engineering with a focus on hydrogen fuel cells. The paper provides a conci