Ecology and Management of Banni Grassland of Kachchh, Gujarat

Abstract

Banni grasslands, located along the northern border of Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat, are among the largest 2 stretches of contiguous grassland in India. These grasslands are spread over an area of ca. 2618 km , and account for approximately 45% of the pastures in the state. Consisting of two ecosystems in juxtaposition, viz., wetlands and grasslands, Bannis fall under Dichahnthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type of grass cover. These grasslands harbor a rich array of flora and fauna including 192 species of plants, 262 species of birds, several species of mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Traditionally, Banni grasslands were managed following a system of rotational grazing. With the disintegration of traditional management practices, these grasslands are degrading rapidly due to excessive pressure from livestock grazing and increased soil salinity leading to invasion of Prosopis juliflora, water scarcity, climate change and desertification. This article provides a review of current status in terms of biophysical features, land use practices, threats and long term management strategies of these grasslands.
Key words: Banni grasslands; Desertification; Kachchh; Livestock grazing; Prosopis juliflora.

Full text

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF
GRASSLAND
HABITATS
IN INDIA
WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS, Vol - 17
envisenvis

ECOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT OF
GRASSLAND
HABITATS
IN INDIA
ENVIS
WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS
Vol. 17

ECOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT OF
GRASSLAND
HABITATS
IN INDIA
ENVIS
WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS
Vol. 17

Cover Photo by
Dr. B. S. Adhikari
Envis Centre
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Project Leader & Coordinator
V. B. Mathur
Project Co-coordinator
S. A. Hussain
Senior Research Fellow
Anant Pande
Project Assistant
Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal
Advisory Committee
G.S. Rawat
K. Sivakumar
Y. S. Verma
R. Thapa
K. K. Shrivastva
Dinesh S. Pundir
Citation
Rawat, G.S. and Adhikari, B.S.
(Eds.) 2015. Ecology and
Management of Grassland
Habitats in India, ENVIS Bulletin:
Wildlife & Protected Areas. Vol. 17.
Printed in 2015; Wildlife Institute
of India, Dehradun-248001, India.
Citation for individual
chapters
Chandran, M. (2015). Grassland
Vegetation of India: An Update. In
G.S.Rawat and B.S. Adhikari (Eds.)
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India, ENVIS
Bulletin: Wildlife & Protected
Areas, Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun-248001, India, Vol. 17:
240 pp.
ENVIS Bulletin
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India
Vol. 17
Printed in India, 2015
The contents of the bulletin may
be freely used for non-commercial
purposes with due
acknowledgment.
Disclaimer
The views and ideas presented in
the papers are of the authors and
do not necessarily represent the
views of the institution.
Photographs and maps without
credits belong to the authors of
the concerned chapters.
ENVIS Bulletin is also available
online at http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis
WII email:
wii@envis.nic.in;
envis@wii.gov.in
WII website link:
http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis
Design & Layout:
XPRESSIONS PRINT &
GRAPHICS PVT LTD.
GURGAON, DEHRADUN
09219552563
Editorial Support
Anant Pande &
Amit Kumar
Editorial Processing
Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal
Editor(s)
G.S. Rawat and B.S. Adhikari
WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS
The Environmental Information System (ENVIS) Centre at the Wildlife Institute of India, set up in September 1997, is part of the
ENVIS setup of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India. It deals with general matters
concerning 'wildlife' and specifically those related to 'protected area'. Its objectives are to :
 Build up information storage, retrieval and dissemination capabilities in subject areas related to wildlife science.
 Establish linkages with all information sources in wildlife conservation and management in the country and abroad for
increasing the information content
 Respond to user queries by supplying substantive information in the form of published reports, documents, extracts,
research papers and other unpublished and analysed information as far as possible
 Maintain links with other ENVIS Centres with the ultimate objectives of identification of data and knowledge gaps in
specified subject areas and take action towards filling these gaps Publish bulletins on thematic focus areas
 Publish bulletins on thematic focus areas
Wildlife Institute of India
Chandrabani, Dehradun-248001, India
Tel.: +91 135 2640114-115, 2646100
Fax.: +91 135 2640117
Email.:wii@envis.nic.in;
envis@wii.gov.in
Website.:http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis

Cover Photo by
Dr. B. S. Adhikari
Envis Centre
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Project Leader & Coordinator
V. B. Mathur
Project Co-coordinator
S. A. Hussain
Senior Research Fellow
Anant Pande
Project Assistant
Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal
Advisory Committee
G.S. Rawat
K. Sivakumar
Y. S. Verma
R. Thapa
K. K. Shrivastva
Dinesh S. Pundir
Citation
Rawat, G.S. and Adhikari, B.S.
(Eds.) 2015. Ecology and
Management of Grassland
Habitats in India, ENVIS Bulletin:
Wildlife & Protected Areas. Vol. 17.
Printed in 2015; Wildlife Institute
of India, Dehradun-248001, India.
Citation for individual
chapters
Chandran, M. (2015). Grassland
Vegetation of India: An Update. In
G.S.Rawat and B.S. Adhikari (Eds.)
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India, ENVIS
Bulletin: Wildlife & Protected
Areas, Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun-248001, India, Vol. 17:
240 pp.
ENVIS Bulletin
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India
Vol. 17
Printed in India, 2015
The contents of the bulletin may
be freely used for non-commercial
purposes with due
acknowledgment.
Disclaimer
The views and ideas presented in
the papers are of the authors and
do not necessarily represent the
views of the institution.
Photographs and maps without
credits belong to the authors of
the concerned chapters.
ENVIS Bulletin is also available
online at http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis
WII email:
wii@envis.nic.in;
envis@wii.gov.in
WII website link:
http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis
Design & Layout:
XPRESSIONS PRINT &
GRAPHICS PVT LTD.
GURGAON, DEHRADUN
09219552563
Editorial Support
Anant Pande &
Amit Kumar
Editorial Processing
Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal
Editor(s)
G.S. Rawat and B.S. Adhikari
WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS
The Environmental Information System (ENVIS) Centre at the Wildlife Institute of India, set up in September 1997, is part of the
ENVIS setup of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India. It deals with general matters
concerning 'wildlife' and specifically those related to 'protected area'. Its objectives are to :
 Build up information storage, retrieval and dissemination capabilities in subject areas related to wildlife science.
 Establish linkages with all information sources in wildlife conservation and management in the country and abroad for
increasing the information content
 Respond to user queries by supplying substantive information in the form of published reports, documents, extracts,
research papers and other unpublished and analysed information as far as possible
 Maintain links with other ENVIS Centres with the ultimate objectives of identification of data and knowledge gaps in
specified subject areas and take action towards filling these gaps Publish bulletins on thematic focus areas
 Publish bulletins on thematic focus areas
Wildlife Institute of India
Chandrabani, Dehradun-248001, India
Tel.: +91 135 2640114-115, 2646100
Fax.: +91 135 2640117
Email.:wii@envis.nic.in;
envis@wii.gov.in
Website.:http://wiienvis.nic.in;
http://wii.gov.in/envis

12
Grassland Vegetation of India: An
Update
Manoj Chandran
28
Rangeland Vegetation of the
Indian Trans-Himalaya: An
Ecological Review
Amit Kumar, Bhupendra S. Adhikari
and Gopal S. Rawat
42
Ecology and Management of
Banni Grasslands of Kachchh,
Gujarat
V. Vijay Kumar, Arun Kumar Roy
Mahato and Rohit Kumar Patel
54
The Vidis of Saurashtra
Dhawal Mehta
12
Ecological Reviews
SEC- I
07
Director’s Note
08
Foreword
09
Editorial
G.S. Rawat & B.S. Adhikari
CONTENTS
64
Grassland Communties of Terai
Conservation Landscape: Effects
of Management Practices and
Conservation Strategies
Harish Kumar, John F. Lehmukhl
and P.K. Mathur
74
Does Fire Make the Edge
between Grasslands and Sholas
in the Western Ghats? :
Observations from the Palni Hills
Joachim Schmerbeck , S. Juyal, A.
Kohli, N. Naudiyal and G.N. Reddy
88
Recent Changes in the Phumdis
of Keibul Lamjao National Park,
Manipur and Management
Implications
Chongpi Tuboi, Syed Ainul Hussain,
Ruchi Badola, Sanggai Leima and
M. Mani Babu
104
Grasslands of Kaziranga National
Park: Problems and Approaches
for Management
Niranjan K. Vasu and G. Singh
114
Ecology and Management of
Grasslands in Valmiki Tiger
Reserve in the Himalayan
Foothills, India
Samir Kumar Sinha, Subrat Kumar
Behera, Smita Bodhankar, B.C.
Choudhury and Rahul Kaul
136
Dynamics of Grassland
Communities in Kanha Tiger
Reserve, Madhya Pradesh:
Ecological and Management
Implications
R.K. Pandey
114
An approach to Grassland
Management in Rehabilitated
SEC - II
Studies on Grassland Dynamics
and Management Practices
64
SEC - III
Miscellaneous
216
216
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers: a
Pinch Period Fodder Resource for
Wild Ungulates and Nesting
Habitat for Certain Ground-
nesting Birds
Manoj V. Nair and Bivash Pandav
220
The Bygone Glory of the Dry
Plains of Tamil Nadu
A.J.T. Johnsingh and V. Chelladurai
222
Selected References on Ecology
and Management of Grasslands
Habitats in India
Sunita Agarwal, Shashi Uniyal and
Madan Mohan Uniyal
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India
Vol. 17
Areas of Satpura Tiger Reserve,
Madhya Pradesh
G.D. Muratkar, R.P. Singh and A.K.
Misra
52
Grassland Management Practices
in Melghat Tiger Reserve: A Case
Study
G.D. Muratkar, Dinesh Tyagi,
Ravindra K. Wankhade and Umesh
U. Verma
160
Ecology and Management of
Coastal Saline Grasslands of
Blackbuck National Park,
Velavadar, Gujarat
Vijay A. Rathod and I.R. Gadhvi
170
Pattern of Invasion by Adhatoda
vasica in Savannas of Sariska
Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan,
Western India
Priyanka Bhatt, G.S. Rawat, K.
Sankar, Kyle Tomlinson and Frank
van Langevelde
180
Drivers of Change - a Geospatial
Study on Fires in Terai Grasslands
of Manas Tiger Reserve and
World Heritage Site, India
Sonali Ghosh
92
Extent and Status of Semi-arid
Savanna Grasslands in Peninsular
India
Abi Tamim Vanak, Abhijeet Kulkarni,
Ameya Gode, Chintan Sheth and
Jagdish Krishnaswamy
102
Ecology and Management of
Semi-arid Grasslands in India with
Special Reference to Endangered
Lesser Florican Sypheotides
indica Miller
A. Mohan, G.S. Bhardwaj, S. Sen,
Y.V. Jhala and K. Sivakumar
238
Appendix-I: Threatened Fauna of
Indian Grassland Habitats

12
Grassland Vegetation of India: An
Update
Manoj Chandran
28
Rangeland Vegetation of the
Indian Trans-Himalaya: An
Ecological Review
Amit Kumar, Bhupendra S. Adhikari
and Gopal S. Rawat
42
Ecology and Management of
Banni Grasslands of Kachchh,
Gujarat
V. Vijay Kumar, Arun Kumar Roy
Mahato and Rohit Kumar Patel
54
The Vidis of Saurashtra
Dhawal Mehta
12
Ecological Reviews
SEC- I
07
Director’s Note
08
Foreword
09
Editorial
G.S. Rawat & B.S. Adhikari
CONTENTS
64
Grassland Communties of Terai
Conservation Landscape: Effects
of Management Practices and
Conservation Strategies
Harish Kumar, John F. Lehmukhl
and P.K. Mathur
74
Does Fire Make the Edge
between Grasslands and Sholas
in the Western Ghats? :
Observations from the Palni Hills
Joachim Schmerbeck , S. Juyal, A.
Kohli, N. Naudiyal and G.N. Reddy
88
Recent Changes in the Phumdis
of Keibul Lamjao National Park,
Manipur and Management
Implications
Chongpi Tuboi, Syed Ainul Hussain,
Ruchi Badola, Sanggai Leima and
M. Mani Babu
104
Grasslands of Kaziranga National
Park: Problems and Approaches
for Management
Niranjan K. Vasu and G. Singh
114
Ecology and Management of
Grasslands in Valmiki Tiger
Reserve in the Himalayan
Foothills, India
Samir Kumar Sinha, Subrat Kumar
Behera, Smita Bodhankar, B.C.
Choudhury and Rahul Kaul
136
Dynamics of Grassland
Communities in Kanha Tiger
Reserve, Madhya Pradesh:
Ecological and Management
Implications
R.K. Pandey
114
An approach to Grassland
Management in Rehabilitated
SEC - II
Studies on Grassland Dynamics
and Management Practices
64
SEC - III
Miscellaneous
216
216
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers: a
Pinch Period Fodder Resource for
Wild Ungulates and Nesting
Habitat for Certain Ground-
nesting Birds
Manoj V. Nair and Bivash Pandav
220
The Bygone Glory of the Dry
Plains of Tamil Nadu
A.J.T. Johnsingh and V. Chelladurai
222
Selected References on Ecology
and Management of Grasslands
Habitats in India
Sunita Agarwal, Shashi Uniyal and
Madan Mohan Uniyal
Ecology and Management of
Grassland Habitats in India
Vol. 17
Areas of Satpura Tiger Reserve,
Madhya Pradesh
G.D. Muratkar, R.P. Singh and A.K.
Misra
52
Grassland Management Practices
in Melghat Tiger Reserve: A Case
Study
G.D. Muratkar, Dinesh Tyagi,
Ravindra K. Wankhade and Umesh
U. Verma
160
Ecology and Management of
Coastal Saline Grasslands of
Blackbuck National Park,
Velavadar, Gujarat
Vijay A. Rathod and I.R. Gadhvi
170
Pattern of Invasion by Adhatoda
vasica in Savannas of Sariska
Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan,
Western India
Priyanka Bhatt, G.S. Rawat, K.
Sankar, Kyle Tomlinson and Frank
van Langevelde
180
Drivers of Change - a Geospatial
Study on Fires in Terai Grasslands
of Manas Tiger Reserve and
World Heritage Site, India
Sonali Ghosh
92
Extent and Status of Semi-arid
Savanna Grasslands in Peninsular
India
Abi Tamim Vanak, Abhijeet Kulkarni,
Ameya Gode, Chintan Sheth and
Jagdish Krishnaswamy
102
Ecology and Management of
Semi-arid Grasslands in India with
Special Reference to Endangered
Lesser Florican Sypheotides
indica Miller
A. Mohan, G.S. Bhardwaj, S. Sen,
Y.V. Jhala and K. Sivakumar
238
Appendix-I: Threatened Fauna of
Indian Grassland Habitats

V.B. Mathur
Director,
WIIandProject Leader,
ENVIS Centre, WII
Director’s Note
Habitat degradation and fragmentation induced by anthropogenic pressures are among the major drivers
impinging upon earth's biodiversity and ecosystem ser vices. The process of degradation and loss is more
prevalent in the tropics and sub-tropics, where there is a greater demand on land for agriculture, infra-
structure development and fodder production to meet the requirements of burgeoning human and livestock
populations. Of the various terrestrial ecosystems, the grasslands of Asia-Pacific region are more vulnerable
and most neglected in terms of effective management. Perusal of literature on Indian wildlife reveals that a
large number of grasslands mammals and birds are threatened and several species have been pushed to the
brink of extinction. Kashmir stag or Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu), Manipur deer or Thamin (Cervus eldi
eldi), Swamp deer or Barasingha (Rucervus duvauceli), Great Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Hog
deer (Cervus porcinus), Black buck (Antelope cervicapra), and Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) are
some of the obligate species of grassland habitats that require immediate attention of conservation agencies
in India.
India has achieved a considerable success in preventing the escalation of the rate of deforestation during last
few decades. However, restoration of degraded grasslands has not received adequate attention. Spread over
nearly one fourth of the geographical area, Indian grasslands are varied and rich in ter ms of their biophysical
features. Besides their role as important wildlife habitats, they also form backbone of pastoral livelihoods.
Conforming to the national and global conservation agenda, and in line with the National Biodiversity Action
Plan, Wildlife Institute of India is committed to generate and disseminate scientific knowledge on various
ecosystems in the country. This issue of ENVIS bulletin focuses on the state of the art knowledge on the
grassland habitats contributed by leading wildlife ecologists and protected area managers in the country.
The bulletin includes an inspiring foreword by India's noted and veteran grassland ecologist Professor J.S.
Singh, review papers by selected authors and findings of detailed ecological studies by leading ecologists. It
is hoped that the information contained in this issue will help in drawing concrete plans for sustaining
grassland biodiversity and ecosystem services through better management, valuation, conservation and
restoration.
© Sonali Ghosh

V.B. Mathur
Director,
WIIandProject Leader,
ENVIS Centre, WII
Director’s Note
Habitat degradation and fragmentation induced by anthropogenic pressures are among the major drivers
impinging upon earth's biodiversity and ecosystem ser vices. The process of degradation and loss is more
prevalent in the tropics and sub-tropics, where there is a greater demand on land for agriculture, infra-
structure development and fodder production to meet the requirements of burgeoning human and livestock
populations. Of the various terrestrial ecosystems, the grasslands of Asia-Pacific region are more vulnerable
and most neglected in terms of effective management. Perusal of literature on Indian wildlife reveals that a
large number of grasslands mammals and birds are threatened and several species have been pushed to the
brink of extinction. Kashmir stag or Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu), Manipur deer or Thamin (Cervus eldi
eldi), Swamp deer or Barasingha (Rucervus duvauceli), Great Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Hog
deer (Cervus porcinus), Black buck (Antelope cervicapra), and Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) are
some of the obligate species of grassland habitats that require immediate attention of conservation agencies
in India.
India has achieved a considerable success in preventing the escalation of the rate of deforestation during last
few decades. However, restoration of degraded grasslands has not received adequate attention. Spread over
nearly one fourth of the geographical area, Indian grasslands are varied and rich in ter ms of their biophysical
features. Besides their role as important wildlife habitats, they also form backbone of pastoral livelihoods.
Conforming to the national and global conservation agenda, and in line with the National Biodiversity Action
Plan, Wildlife Institute of India is committed to generate and disseminate scientific knowledge on various
ecosystems in the country. This issue of ENVIS bulletin focuses on the state of the art knowledge on the
grassland habitats contributed by leading wildlife ecologists and protected area managers in the country.
The bulletin includes an inspiring foreword by India's noted and veteran grassland ecologist Professor J.S.
Singh, review papers by selected authors and findings of detailed ecological studies by leading ecologists. It
is hoped that the information contained in this issue will help in drawing concrete plans for sustaining
grassland biodiversity and ecosystem services through better management, valuation, conservation and
restoration.
© Sonali Ghosh

Grasses and grasslands occur on all continents, from the equator to the poles, and together with the
grazing animals that coevolved with them, constitute the world's major food and biodiversity
resources. As stated by G L Stebbins in 1981, 'Mankind has depended upon them for his existence ever
since our remote ancestors ventured onto the savannas and began a new mode of existence'. Needless
to say, grasses and grasslands have assumed immense ecological and economic significance for
humans, and have strongly influenced the agrarian, agro-pastoral and pastoral communities since the
dawn of civilization. Grasslands in the Indian sub-continent are particularly interesting as they have
evolved under varied ecological conditions and represent at places edaphic, bio-edaphic and climatic
climaxes, each stage harbouring a rich array of flora and fauna. They support a high density of
domestic livestock which form the backbone of r ural livelihood. However, it is a matter of grave concern
that most of the grasslands in the sub-continent are degrading rapidly due to lack of proper
management with far-reaching consequences including loss of biodiversity, ecosystem services and
human well-being.
After the monumental work on the Systematics of Indian grasses by N.L. Bor in 1960, and pioneering
efforts of Professor R. Misra who established the first school of ecology at Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi around same time, there was a spurt of basic research on the ecology of grasslands in India
during 1960s and 70's. The Varanasi School promoted habitat approach to grassland ecology and
contributed significantly towards our understanding of structure, functioning and dynamics of Indian
grasslands under International Biological Programme. However, sustained and long ter m
interdisciplinary research on Indian grasslands could not be continued.
It gives me a lot of satisfaction that the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has emerged as one of the
important centres of applied and multidisciplinary research in India. The present volume on 'Ecology
and Management of Grassland Habitats in India' by WII brings out the state of the art information on a
wide range of grassland ecosystems in the country. The chapters in this volume are quite informative
and underscore the need for long term monitoring, participatory management for multiple functions,
and eco-restoration, especially to cater to the needs of threatened grassland fauna. I congratulate WII
and the Editors, G S Rawat and B S Adhikari, for bringing out this volume and hope that the ecologists
and conservation agencies in the country will translate the recommendations given in this volume into
action.
Professor J.S. Singh, FNA, FNASc, FASc, FTWAS
Professor Emeritus
Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Foreword
Grasslands are highly dynamic ecosystems encompassing all natural and semi-natural pastures,
woodlands, scrub, and steppe formations dominated by grasses and grass like plants (Blair et al., 2014).
They have closely co-evolved with grazing ungulates since Pleistocene, and played major role in the
history of farming (Stebbins, 1981). Grasslands not only provide vital ecosystem ser vices such as water
and climate regulation in support of agriculture, biogeochemical cycling, carbon storage, cultural and
recreational services, but also form backbone of livelihoods for all the pastoral communities (White et
al., 2000). Several food grains such as wheat, corn, rice, and millets which are crucial for human
survival originated in the grasslands and thus serve as important reservoir of crop gene pool. In
addition, they form critical habitat for a variety of wild herbivores and other faunal groups for their
breeding, migration and wintering (Rahmani, 2006; Verma and Prakash, 2007). Owing to steady
increase in human and livestock populations during last few decades, abrupt changes in land use
practices, and transformation of traditional pastoral practices, most of the grasslands in the Asia-
pacific region are degrading rapidly with far reaching consequences such as loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem services, decline in quality and quantity of forage species, loss of pastoral livelihoods, and
desertification (Faber-Langendoen & Jose, 2010; FAO, 2013).
Grasslands occupy nearly 24% of the geographical area in India which are spread across several bio-
geographic regions and exhibit a wide range of ecological characteristics (Singh et al., 1983). Major
types of grasslands in the country are: Alpine moist meadows of the Greater Himalaya; Alpine arid
pastures or steppe formations of trans-Himalaya; Hill-side grasslands in the mid-elevation ranges of
Himalaya; 'Chaurs' of Himalayan foot-hills; Wet-alluvial or 'Terai' grasslands of Gangetic and
Brahmaputra flood plains; 'Phumdi' or floating grasslands of Manipur; 'Banni' and 'Vidis' of Gujarat;
Savannas of wester n and peninsular India; Plateau and valley grasslands in Satpuras and Maikal hills;
Dry grasslands of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu plains; and 'Shola' grasslands of Western Ghats.
Except alpine grasslands of the Himalaya and hill top grasslands of Western Ghats, most of the
grasslands in the country are anthropogenic in origin and seral in nature evolved under the influence of
fire, livestock grazing, clearing of forests, flood, and drought (Bor, 1960; Singh et al., 1983). The extant
grasslands are prone to human encroachment, heavy infestation by unpalatable and thor ny alien
invasive plants (AIPs), soil erosion and compaction (Anon 2006). Currently, a large number of grassland
fauna (Appendix-I) are under threat due to degradation and loss of grassland habitats and severe
competition from domestic livestock.
Although grasses have wide ecological amplitude and several adaptations to withstand trampling,
grazing, fire, flood and drought, they face severe competition for light and nutrients from aggressive
woody species and AIPs. The nutrient rich sites such as relocated villages, abandoned agricultural
fields and stream courses are particularly prone to invasion by woody species and easily transfor m into
woodlands and dense thickets of unpalatable shrubs and opportunistic herbs. In many parts of central
and south India overgrazing by domestic livestock, mining, wind-farms, plantations, canals and dams
have led to degradation and loss of grassland habitats (Vanak, 2013). The 'Shola' grasslands of Western
Ghats have largely suffered due to monoculture plantations of wattle, eucalyptus and invasion by
exotics such as scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) leading to their degradation (Sukumar et al., 1995;
Srinivasan, 2011). Studies have shown that wet grasslands of Terai and Duars degrade fast if adequate
space is not provided for the mosaics of early to mid-seral stages and 'natural' regimes of flood and fire
are disr upted (Rawat, 2005). In most of the humid grasslands, maintenance of 'desirable' stages of
succession requires very careful handling and sound management practices based on ecological
principles.
Editorial
MANAGING INDIAN GRASSLANDS
FOR MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS:
ACTION IMPERATIVES
1 2
G.S. Rawat & B.S. Adhikari
Wildlife Institute of India,
Chandrabani, Dehradun- 248001
1
Email: rawatg@wii.gov.in
2
adhikaribs@wii.gov.in

042
Ecology and
Management
of 'Banni'
Grasslands of
Kachchh,
Gujarat
V. Vijay Kumar*, Arun Kumar Roy Mahato
and Rohitkumar Patel
Gujarat institute of Desert
Ecology,
Bhuj-Kachchh, Gujarat, India
Abstract
Banni grasslands, located along the northern border of Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat, are among the largest
2
stretches of contiguous grassland in India. These grasslands are spread over an area of ca. 2618 km , and account for
approximately 45% of the pastures in the state. Consisting of two ecosystems in juxtaposition, viz., wetlands and
grasslands, Bannis fall under Dichahnthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type of grass cover. These grasslands harbor a rich array
of flora and fauna including 192 species of plants, 262 species of birds, several species of mammals, reptiles and
amphibians. Traditionally, Banni grasslands were managed following a system of rotational grazing. With the
disintegration of traditional management practices, these grasslands are degrading rapidly due to excessive pressure
from livestock grazing and increased soil salinity leading to invasion of Prosopis juliflora, water scarcity, climate change
and desertification. This article provides a review of current status in terms of biophysical features, land use practices,
threats and long term management strategies of these grasslands.
Key words: Banni grasslands; Desertification; Kachchh; Livestock grazing; Prosopis juliflora.
Introduction
Grasslands are defined as land covered with graminoid vegetation having less than 10% tree and shr ub cover (White,
1983; House and Hall, 2000). Worldwide, grassland ecosystems are predominant in the areas of low-moderate annual
precipitation, relatively thin soil, and naturally controlled by fire, grazing, drought and extreme fluctuation in
temperatures (White et al., 2000). Much of the land surface in western India is characterized by such biophysical
conditions which support one or other type of grassland, scrub savanna or savanna woodland. These habitats support a
rich array of fauna, obligate to grasslands. In terms of land use, most of the arid and semi-arid grasslands have been used
for livestock grazing by local communities since several centuries.
Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat is characterized by having vast stretches of saline desert, salt marshes and
2
grasslands. The grasslands in this district are popularly known as 'Banni' which are spread over an area of ca. 2618 km
(SAC, 2002; GUIDE, 2007) and account for about 41% of the geographical area in the district. Flanked by Greater Rann of
Kachchh in the north (Figure 3.1), Bannis represent the largest stretches of contiguous grasslands in India. The word
'Banni' is derived from Kachchhi dialect, 'Bannai', which means freshly made, signifying the land that has been formed by
detritus and sediments brought down by the rivers such as Indus, Luni, Banas and Saraswati, which in recent geological
past, flowed through this area from the north and the east (Kadikar, 1994).
Banni region has a very fascinating history, geography, biodiversity and culture. Altogether, 13 different communities
inhabit the area and vast majority belongs to the Maldharis who reside in 48 villages or 'wandh'. There is a traditional
form of human-livestock-grassland interaction, which is still predominant in Banni. Maldharis have inherited traditional
fresh water har vesting system known as Virda, traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and breeding drought tolerant
highly productive livestock. The herders, especially the Maldharis of the area keep animals of superior breeds, supplying
them to various parts of the state and even to other neighbouring states. However, due to establishment of milk co-
operative societies, the people of Banni are inclined towards selling the animal products such as milk and butter. The
Livestock of Banni area include cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys and camel. There are two breeds of cattle,
viz., Kankrej and Gir, of which Kankrej is the heaviest breeds of the Indian cattle and known for excellent drought
resistance capacity.
03
03
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
*Email: vijay196129@gmail.com
043
© Shikha Bisht

042
Ecology and
Management
of 'Banni'
Grasslands of
Kachchh,
Gujarat
V. Vijay Kumar*, Arun Kumar Roy Mahato
and Rohitkumar Patel
Gujarat institute of Desert
Ecology,
Bhuj-Kachchh, Gujarat, India
Abstract
Banni grasslands, located along the northern border of Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat, are among the largest
2
stretches of contiguous grassland in India. These grasslands are spread over an area of ca. 2618 km , and account for
approximately 45% of the pastures in the state. Consisting of two ecosystems in juxtaposition, viz., wetlands and
grasslands, Bannis fall under Dichahnthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type of grass cover. These grasslands harbor a rich array
of flora and fauna including 192 species of plants, 262 species of birds, several species of mammals, reptiles and
amphibians. Traditionally, Banni grasslands were managed following a system of rotational grazing. With the
disintegration of traditional management practices, these grasslands are degrading rapidly due to excessive pressure
from livestock grazing and increased soil salinity leading to invasion of Prosopis juliflora, water scarcity, climate change
and desertification. This article provides a review of current status in terms of biophysical features, land use practices,
threats and long term management strategies of these grasslands.
Key words: Banni grasslands; Desertification; Kachchh; Livestock grazing; Prosopis juliflora.
Introduction
Grasslands are defined as land covered with graminoid vegetation having less than 10% tree and shr ub cover (White,
1983; House and Hall, 2000). Worldwide, grassland ecosystems are predominant in the areas of low-moderate annual
precipitation, relatively thin soil, and naturally controlled by fire, grazing, drought and extreme fluctuation in
temperatures (White et al., 2000). Much of the land surface in western India is characterized by such biophysical
conditions which support one or other type of grassland, scrub savanna or savanna woodland. These habitats support a
rich array of fauna, obligate to grasslands. In terms of land use, most of the arid and semi-arid grasslands have been used
for livestock grazing by local communities since several centuries.
Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat is characterized by having vast stretches of saline desert, salt marshes and
2
grasslands. The grasslands in this district are popularly known as 'Banni' which are spread over an area of ca. 2618 km
(SAC, 2002; GUIDE, 2007) and account for about 41% of the geographical area in the district. Flanked by Greater Rann of
Kachchh in the north (Figure 3.1), Bannis represent the largest stretches of contiguous grasslands in India. The word
'Banni' is derived from Kachchhi dialect, 'Bannai', which means freshly made, signifying the land that has been formed by
detritus and sediments brought down by the rivers such as Indus, Luni, Banas and Saraswati, which in recent geological
past, flowed through this area from the north and the east (Kadikar, 1994).
Banni region has a very fascinating history, geography, biodiversity and culture. Altogether, 13 different communities
inhabit the area and vast majority belongs to the Maldharis who reside in 48 villages or 'wandh'. There is a traditional
form of human-livestock-grassland interaction, which is still predominant in Banni. Maldharis have inherited traditional
fresh water har vesting system known as Virda, traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and breeding drought tolerant
highly productive livestock. The herders, especially the Maldharis of the area keep animals of superior breeds, supplying
them to various parts of the state and even to other neighbouring states. However, due to establishment of milk co-
operative societies, the people of Banni are inclined towards selling the animal products such as milk and butter. The
Livestock of Banni area include cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys and camel. There are two breeds of cattle,
viz., Kankrej and Gir, of which Kankrej is the heaviest breeds of the Indian cattle and known for excellent drought
resistance capacity.
03
03
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
*Email: vijay196129@gmail.com
043
© Shikha Bisht

Figure 3.1. Kachchh District – Map Showing Location of Banni Grassland
Order Monocotyledon Dicotyledon Total
Family 3 47 50
Genera 28 114 142
Species 45 147 192
Table 3.1: Floral Diversity of Banni (Source: GUIDE, 2010)
044
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
045
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat
Besides serving as a major grazing ground for the local herders, Banni grasslands serve as important habitat for a variety
of wild fauna. However, unregulated grazing coupled with frequent droughts has led to degradation of Banni grasslands
in recent decades. Several authors have raised concern over habitat degradation, desertification and increased salinity
in and around Banni grasslands, e.g., Bhimaya and Ahuja (1969), Parikh and Reddy (1997), Singh and Jha (1992),
Kanzaria (1994). Currently Kachchh district supports ca. 1.7 million heads of livestock which has increased from 9.40 lakh
in 1962 to 17.02 lakhs in 2007 (GUIDE, 2010). This implies that these grasslands are the key to socio-economic growth in
the state. Considering this, many government and non-government agencies have carried out investigations and
suggested some remedial measures to improve the overall range condition of Banni (GoI, 1966; Ground Water Institute,
1974; ICAR, 1978; National Research Council, 1986; Soil Sur vey Division, 1986 and WRD and CDO, 1989). However, most
of such recommendations were either never executed or were executed without an ecological approach. Therefore,
rejuvenation of Banni and restoring it into a sustainable productive ecosystem calls for a holistic ecological approach.
This article deals with the ecological status of grasslands in western Gujarat with special reference to Banni grasslands
of Kachchh. We present here a detailed account of its ecological status based on past studies by various agencies, recent
assessments and suggest long term conservation and management strategies.
Biophysical Features of Banni Grasslands: An Overview
Banni grasslands consist of two ecosystems in juxtaposition, viz., wetlands and grassland. They provide habitat for
resident as well as migratory birds, ideal conditions for many soil fauna and important habitat for typical grassland
ungulates such as chinkara and blue bull (Plate 3.1). As per the classification of Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan (1973),
Banni grasslands fall under Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type. Ecologically, these grasslands belong to the mid-
successional/subclimax type of grasslands (Roy and Singh, 2013). The working plan of Kachchh Forest Division (1972)
reveals that Banni was declared a 'Protected Forest' under section 29 of the Indian Forest Act (FCA), 1927, under the
former Kachchh Government Notification No. HR/155/55 dated 11-5-1955, with an intention to manage the area under
the jurisdiction of the State Revenue Department. The vegetation Banni of grasslands is dominated by grasses, few
herbs, fewer shrubs and trees. Puri et al., (1959) made some observations on the grasses of Banni area and reported the
occurrence of 12 important grass species from Banni. They included the Kachchh grasslands under desert grasslands
and reported that there was a patch of Acacia nilotica forest at Bhirandiyara, which is located at central part of Banni
grassland. Patel et al., (1961) studied the effect of cutting treatments on the grass yield and chemical composition with
reference to the nutritional value of grasslands in the Banni area. Plant associations were also reported at Dhordo village,
which is located at western part of Banni where the major association recorded, was Prosopis with Salvadora species
(Pandya and Sidha, 1982).
Patel, et al., (2012) recorded a total of 49 herbaceous plant species, being used as fodder by livestock. In which, the
maximum numbers of 21 species were recorded in Echinocloa and Cressa habitat; followed by 20 species in Sporobolus
and Eleusine habitat; and 19 species in Desmostachya-Aeluropus and Cressa habitat. A total of 21 highly palatable
species were recorded from Echinocloa-Cressa communities followed by Sporobolus-Eleusine-Desmostachya (18
species) and Aeluropus-Cressa (17 species). Based on a detailed floristic study conducted by GUIDE (2010), it is revealed
that there are at least 192 species of vascular plants in these grasslands belonging to 142 genera and 50 families in Banni
Grasslands (Table 3.1). These species represent herbs (89 species), shrubs (31 species), trees (17 species), twiners and
climbers (12 species), grasses (37 species) and sedges (6 species).
The shrub and tree strata mainly consist of Prosopis cineraria, Acacia spp., Salvadora spp., Capparis decidua, Tamarix
spp. Prosopis juliflora. Density of P. juliflora ranges from 96 to 1450 plants per hectare across Banni villages (GUIDE, 2010
and Patel et. al. 2012). The average density recorded during winter in western Banni was 668 individuals/ha, 858
-1
individuals/ha in central Banni and 560 individuals ha in eastern Banni. Altogether more than 37 grass species were
recorded, some of the perennial and palatable grass species with high productivity being Sporobolus, Dichanthium,
Cenchrus and Eragrostis. During the period between 2008 and 2012, the biomass studies were carried out in Banni
grassland. It was found that total productivity was 3096.16 kg/ha of which only 33.06 per cent (1023.66 kg/ha) was of
palatable, while rest was unpalatable. Of this, the productivity of palatable grass species was 483 kg/ha while that of
herbs was 539.45 kg/ha (GUIDE, 2004).
Total 262 species of birds belonging to 153 genus of 51 families under 14 orders of Aves were recorded in Banni during the
period between 2009 and 2011. Among the recorded birds, 118 were resident to Banni, 76 species were resident and rest
of 68 species were migratory. On analysing the feeding habitats of recorded birds, it was found that, 87 species were
insectivorous, 69 species omnivorous, 68 species carnivorous, 20 species granivorous, 15 picivorous, 2 species
frugivorous and one nectarivorous species. According to the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, (1972), 3 species of the total
recorded birds fall under Schedule I, Part III and rest of the 259 species belong to Schedule IV. Among the total recorded
species of birds, 4 species are Critically Endangered category (CR), one species in Endangered (EN), 8 species under
Vulnerable (VU), 11 under Near Threatened (NT) and rest of 238 species under Least concern (LC) category of IUCN
Redlist 2011. Further, among the recorded species of birds, 166 species are terrestrial whereas rest of 96 species were
aquatic (GUIDE, Unpublished data). Herpetofauna in Banni grasslands include five species of amphibians and 13
reptiles belonging to 13 families. Common species seen in these grasslands are Naja oxiana (Black cobra), Trapelus agilis
(Brilliant Ground Agama), Uromastrix hardwickii (Spiny tailed lizard) and Varanus bengalensis (Bengal monitor lizard).
The seven species belong to two suborder Souria (agamids) and serpent (snakes), they are reported under the family
Agamidae (lizards), Scinsidae (skinks), Boidae (Erix jhonii) and Colubridae (Tyas mucosus). A total of six individuals of
Ophisops jerdoni was recorded from Suaeda Scrub and also recorded in Suaeda-Prosopis and Salvadora-Prosopis
habitats. Uromatrix hardwikii was recorded from five different habitats i.e. dense Prosopis, Prosopis-Capparis, Prosopis-
Suaeda-Callotropis mix, Suaeda-Prosopis and Suaeda scrub. One individual of snake species, i.e. Erix jhonii was
recorded in dense Prosopis habitat. The Prosopis-Capparis mixed forest had only one lizard species of Calotes versicolor
and one snake species Tyas mucosa.
A total of 12 species of mammals belonging to 9 families were recorded in Banni area. They include 6 species of
carnivores and 2 species of herbivores. The species recorded are Gazella bennetti (Chinkara ), Canis or Indian gazelle

Figure 3.1. Kachchh District – Map Showing Location of Banni Grassland
Order Monocotyledon Dicotyledon Total
Family 3 47 50
Genera 28 114 142
Species 45 147 192
Table 3.1: Floral Diversity of Banni (Source: GUIDE, 2010)
044
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
045
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat
Besides serving as a major grazing ground for the local herders, Banni grasslands serve as important habitat for a variety
of wild fauna. However, unregulated grazing coupled with frequent droughts has led to degradation of Banni grasslands
in recent decades. Several authors have raised concern over habitat degradation, desertification and increased salinity
in and around Banni grasslands, e.g., Bhimaya and Ahuja (1969), Parikh and Reddy (1997), Singh and Jha (1992),
Kanzaria (1994). Currently Kachchh district supports ca. 1.7 million heads of livestock which has increased from 9.40 lakh
in 1962 to 17.02 lakhs in 2007 (GUIDE, 2010). This implies that these grasslands are the key to socio-economic growth in
the state. Considering this, many government and non-government agencies have carried out investigations and
suggested some remedial measures to improve the overall range condition of Banni (GoI, 1966; Ground Water Institute,
1974; ICAR, 1978; National Research Council, 1986; Soil Sur vey Division, 1986 and WRD and CDO, 1989). However, most
of such recommendations were either never executed or were executed without an ecological approach. Therefore,
rejuvenation of Banni and restoring it into a sustainable productive ecosystem calls for a holistic ecological approach.
This article deals with the ecological status of grasslands in western Gujarat with special reference to Banni grasslands
of Kachchh. We present here a detailed account of its ecological status based on past studies by various agencies, recent
assessments and suggest long term conservation and management strategies.
Biophysical Features of Banni Grasslands: An Overview
Banni grasslands consist of two ecosystems in juxtaposition, viz., wetlands and grassland. They provide habitat for
resident as well as migratory birds, ideal conditions for many soil fauna and important habitat for typical grassland
ungulates such as chinkara and blue bull (Plate 3.1). As per the classification of Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan (1973),
Banni grasslands fall under Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type. Ecologically, these grasslands belong to the mid-
successional/subclimax type of grasslands (Roy and Singh, 2013). The working plan of Kachchh Forest Division (1972)
reveals that Banni was declared a 'Protected Forest' under section 29 of the Indian Forest Act (FCA), 1927, under the
former Kachchh Government Notification No. HR/155/55 dated 11-5-1955, with an intention to manage the area under
the jurisdiction of the State Revenue Department. The vegetation Banni of grasslands is dominated by grasses, few
herbs, fewer shrubs and trees. Puri et al., (1959) made some observations on the grasses of Banni area and reported the
occurrence of 12 important grass species from Banni. They included the Kachchh grasslands under desert grasslands
and reported that there was a patch of Acacia nilotica forest at Bhirandiyara, which is located at central part of Banni
grassland. Patel et al., (1961) studied the effect of cutting treatments on the grass yield and chemical composition with
reference to the nutritional value of grasslands in the Banni area. Plant associations were also reported at Dhordo village,
which is located at western part of Banni where the major association recorded, was Prosopis with Salvadora species
(Pandya and Sidha, 1982).
Patel, et al., (2012) recorded a total of 49 herbaceous plant species, being used as fodder by livestock. In which, the
maximum numbers of 21 species were recorded in Echinocloa and Cressa habitat; followed by 20 species in Sporobolus
and Eleusine habitat; and 19 species in Desmostachya-Aeluropus and Cressa habitat. A total of 21 highly palatable
species were recorded from Echinocloa-Cressa communities followed by Sporobolus-Eleusine-Desmostachya (18
species) and Aeluropus-Cressa (17 species). Based on a detailed floristic study conducted by GUIDE (2010), it is revealed
that there are at least 192 species of vascular plants in these grasslands belonging to 142 genera and 50 families in Banni
Grasslands (Table 3.1). These species represent herbs (89 species), shrubs (31 species), trees (17 species), twiners and
climbers (12 species), grasses (37 species) and sedges (6 species).
The shrub and tree strata mainly consist of Prosopis cineraria, Acacia spp., Salvadora spp., Capparis decidua, Tamarix
spp. Prosopis juliflora. Density of P. juliflora ranges from 96 to 1450 plants per hectare across Banni villages (GUIDE, 2010
and Patel et. al. 2012). The average density recorded during winter in western Banni was 668 individuals/ha, 858
-1
individuals/ha in central Banni and 560 individuals ha in eastern Banni. Altogether more than 37 grass species were
recorded, some of the perennial and palatable grass species with high productivity being Sporobolus, Dichanthium,
Cenchrus and Eragrostis. During the period between 2008 and 2012, the biomass studies were carried out in Banni
grassland. It was found that total productivity was 3096.16 kg/ha of which only 33.06 per cent (1023.66 kg/ha) was of
palatable, while rest was unpalatable. Of this, the productivity of palatable grass species was 483 kg/ha while that of
herbs was 539.45 kg/ha (GUIDE, 2004).
Total 262 species of birds belonging to 153 genus of 51 families under 14 orders of Aves were recorded in Banni during the
period between 2009 and 2011. Among the recorded birds, 118 were resident to Banni, 76 species were resident and rest
of 68 species were migratory. On analysing the feeding habitats of recorded birds, it was found that, 87 species were
insectivorous, 69 species omnivorous, 68 species carnivorous, 20 species granivorous, 15 picivorous, 2 species
frugivorous and one nectarivorous species. According to the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, (1972), 3 species of the total
recorded birds fall under Schedule I, Part III and rest of the 259 species belong to Schedule IV. Among the total recorded
species of birds, 4 species are Critically Endangered category (CR), one species in Endangered (EN), 8 species under
Vulnerable (VU), 11 under Near Threatened (NT) and rest of 238 species under Least concern (LC) category of IUCN
Redlist 2011. Further, among the recorded species of birds, 166 species are terrestrial whereas rest of 96 species were
aquatic (GUIDE, Unpublished data). Herpetofauna in Banni grasslands include five species of amphibians and 13
reptiles belonging to 13 families. Common species seen in these grasslands are Naja oxiana (Black cobra), Trapelus agilis
(Brilliant Ground Agama), Uromastrix hardwickii (Spiny tailed lizard) and Varanus bengalensis (Bengal monitor lizard).
The seven species belong to two suborder Souria (agamids) and serpent (snakes), they are reported under the family
Agamidae (lizards), Scinsidae (skinks), Boidae (Erix jhonii) and Colubridae (Tyas mucosus). A total of six individuals of
Ophisops jerdoni was recorded from Suaeda Scrub and also recorded in Suaeda-Prosopis and Salvadora-Prosopis
habitats. Uromatrix hardwikii was recorded from five different habitats i.e. dense Prosopis, Prosopis-Capparis, Prosopis-
Suaeda-Callotropis mix, Suaeda-Prosopis and Suaeda scrub. One individual of snake species, i.e. Erix jhonii was
recorded in dense Prosopis habitat. The Prosopis-Capparis mixed forest had only one lizard species of Calotes versicolor
and one snake species Tyas mucosa.
A total of 12 species of mammals belonging to 9 families were recorded in Banni area. They include 6 species of
carnivores and 2 species of herbivores. The species recorded are Gazella bennetti (Chinkara ), Canis or Indian gazelle

lupus (Indian wolf), Canis aureus ( ), Boselaphus tragocamelus (Nilgai), Hyaena hyaena (striped hyena) and Vulpes jackal
bengalensis (Indian fox).
Pattern of Habitat Use by Wildlife and Domestic Livestock
A study on the distribution pattern and habitat ecology of birds in Banni was conducted by GUIDE (Koladiya et al., 2014).
A total of 91 species were recorded in various habitats of Banni grassland in which, 45 species in were recorded dense
Prosopis, 56 in moderate Prosopis, 60 in sparse Prosopis, 28 in Prosopis-Capparis mixed, 50 in Prosopis-Suaeda-
Calotropis mixed, 30 in Prosopis-Salvadora mixed and 40 in Suaeda dominant. Among the 7 habitats, sparse Prosopis
2
habitat diverse bird species with lowest mean population density of 9 individuals/km whereas Prosopis-harbours
Capparis was the least preferred by the bird species. Thus, bird species diversity and their population density varied
among various heterogeneous habitats of Banni grassland both in time and space.
On analysis of seasonal distribution of bird species in 7 identified habitats of Banni grasslands, it was found that sparse
Prosopis, Prosopis-Suaeda-Calotropis and dense Prosopis were the preferred habitat during monsoon season; moderate
Prosopis, dense Prosopis and Suaeda dominant are the preferred habitat during winter season while moderate Prosopis
and Prosopis-Suaeda-Calotropis are the most preferred habitat during the month of summer. Mean population density
(Mean ± SD) of birds was recorded highest during monsoon season (19.49 ± 4.64) and least density during summer
season (4.12 ± 0.98). It was found that the highest population density of birds found in Prosopis-Capparis mixed habitat
-2
(29 individuals km-2) during monsoon and least density recorded in sparse Prosopis habitat (2.8 individuals km ) during
summer season.
The livestock owned by Maldharis generally graze within or around the vicinity of village and have definite grazing
routes. Cattle mainly feed on grasses in low to moderate saline areas while buffalo sustain with Suaeda which grow in
high saline areas. Livestock and wild herbivores share the same habitat for grazing which may overlap at some places.
Key Drivers of Change
Banni, though declared as a protected forest in 1955, till recently was under the administrative control of the State
Revenue Department. However, today the scenario has changed and the management control of Banni has been
transferred to the State Forest Department. A detailed working plan for Banni was prepared for effective management of
Banni (GUIDE, 2010). With the working plan in place, the management of collection, manufacture and removal of the
forest produce, cutting of grasses and livestock grazing are being regulated. However, Banni grasslands continue to face
degradation. Main drivers of change include increasing soil salinity, invasion by Prosopis juliflora, grazing pressures,
water scarcity, climate change and desertification. These drivers are discussed below:
Soil Salinity
The soil of Banni is alluvial and sandy with inherent salinity. The soil salinity is highly variable from 1.0 to >15.0 M
mhos/cm and the pH ranges between 6.5 and 8.5. About 60% soil consists of moderately fine texture with higher
proportion of silt and clay (Singh and Kar, 2001). As a result, 70 per cent area of Banni falls under very slow to slow
permeability range (0.00 to 0.13 cm/hr), which along with low elevation (without any gradient) causes flooding and water
logging in many parts of Banni during rainy season (GUIDE, 1998).
Though the inherent salinity was existing during the early days in Banni, the rivers (Khari, Bhurud, Nara, Kalia, Kaswati
and Panjora), which were flowing from the Kachchh mainland to Banni were not only depositing the detritus but also
leached the salinity of the area during good rainfall years. Therefore, the salinity was not a serious problem in earlier
days. Six medium dams namely Rudramata, Nirona, Nara, Kaila, Kaswati and Gajansar were constructed after 1960
along the rivers which completely stopped the fresh water flow into Banni and reduced the nutrient supply and leaching
of the salinity except during very heavy rainfall years (GUIDE, 1998).
In addition to this, the Greater Rann has a depressed terrain lying between Banni and the Allah-Bund, which extends
from the Kori creek eastwards up to Kuver bet, has been inundated by tidal waters of the Arabian Sea through the Kori
creek. This has resulted in salinity ingression in about 12 out of 48 villages located along the nor th-western fringes of
Banni. The spread of saline area in Banni is rapid during the recent years, about 50 per cent of the area contains very high
(>15 M mohs/cm), 40 per cent moderate to high (3-15 M mohs/cm) and 10 per cent area facing low salinity (1-3 M
mohs/cm) problems (GUIDE, 1998). In addition to these, the ground water in Banni is old sea and is unsuitable for any
agricultural purposes except adding soil salinity through capillary actions and evaporations.
Further, break down of traditional management systems of the Banni people also forms a major problem in the increase of
salinity of the area. During the earlier days, the dung of the grazing livestock was naturally ploughed back into the Banni
soil that worked as the best natural manure and it also reduced the salinity of the area to some extent. However, of late,
the farmers from Kachchh mainland have been buying cow dung from Banni in large quantities and carrying it to distant
place from Banni. This has resulted in disruption of natural mineral cycling and decreased the soil fertility.
Such soil conditions with high level of salinity, low nutrients, low permeability and water logging minimize the
potentiality of the area in terms of agricultural production and therefore grassland-based animal husbandry remains the
only viable economic option in this area.
Invasion of Prosopis juliflora
The period 1960-61 was an important benchmark year in the ecological and socio-economic history of the Banni area
when Gujarat State Forest Department took one of the major management interventions to stop the advancement of
Rann on the northern fringes of Banni. As a follow-up of the recommendations of 3rd Planning Commission of
Government of India, an area of about 31,550 ha was planted with exotic woody species, Prosopis juliflora for its ability to
establish and survive in the saline soils and low moisture regimes, without evaluating its ecological and associated
socio-economic consequences in the future.
The soil salinity situation favours hardy P. juliflora which has largely invaded into the ravines and wastelands in Gujarat
(Pasiecznik et al., 2001). Though P. juliflora is able to thrive moderate (4-8dS/m) to strong (8-15dS/m) saline soils (density
970 individuals ha-1), their growth is better in non-saline or low saline soils (density 2,440 individuals ha-1) and this could
be one of the major reason for its invasion into pristine grasslands (Deepa and Lakhmapurkar, 2009).
This is one of the major reasons for its invasion into the pristine grasslands of Banni. Further, the diversity of natural
vegetation is low and includes species like P. cineraria, Capparis decidua, Acacia nilotica and Salvadora spp. These
species occur in very few pockets in Banni and their density is low which could not be projected. This clearly indicates
the replacement of native vegetation by P. juliflora. The principal factor in the process of invasion is the rapid and prolific
seeding of mature P. juliflora (Zimmerman, 1991) and then facilitated by a curious reciprocal relationship with cattle.
During late summer, in the absence of any grass or herbs, nutritious pods of P. juliflora forms a greater portion of diet of
cattle and buffaloes.
-1 -1
Mature P. juliflora could produce ca. 630,000 to 980,000 seeds tree year (Felker, 1979) and Shukla et al., (1984) reported
average pod production capacity as 20 kg/tree. As per Deepa and Lakhmapurkar (2009), average density of P. juliflora in
all soil conditions is 2053 trees -1
ha in Banni. With the existing coverage, the P. juliflora has the capacity to produce 32,
-1 -1
99,446 Tons of pods per year (41 tons ha year ). The seeds of P. juliflora have a thick seed coat that necessitates a
treatment for quick germination otherwise, it takes long-time to disintegrate the seed coat and germinate under natural
conditions. However, when livestock consumes the pods of P. juliflora, the seeds get required treatment in the digestive
tract of livestock and the animal eventually void the seed through their excrement, frequently a considerable distance
from the parent plant. The seeds, still viable, and well fertilized with adequate moisture (cow dung), show a surprisingly
high germination rate. The ensuing southwest monsoon in Kachchh that is during late June or mid July supports the
treated seeds for recruitment and regeneration.
As per an estimate, cattle defecate 14 times per day (Weeda, 1967) and taking this into account, 60,417 livestock in Banni
(Census, 2007; GUIDE, 2010) alone would defecate over 8, 00, 000 times/day and possibly at different locations. This
highlights an alarming rate of distribution of treated P. juliflora seeds in the Banni area. Further, use of stem as fuel wood
by rural folk involves frequent lopping, upon which the root mass enlarges with rich food reserves, aiding rapid and
robust regeneration. Further, trials conducted in many parts of the world and in India proved that the eradication of P.
juliflora is impossible due to its hardy nature, root morphology and physiology and high level of coppicing capacity.
-1
A study conducted by Space Application Center highlighted the spread of P. juliflora at the rate of 2,670 ha. year during
-1
the period between 1980 and 1988, while it was 4,800 ha. year during the period between 1988 and 1998 (Jadhav et al.,
1992 and 1998). The results clearly showed the dominance of P. juliflora in Banni (86,569 ha) and a comparative analysis
showed that during 1997 it occupied about 6.16 % of the total area of Banni increasing to 33.07 % in 2009. Sastry et al.,
(2003) reported that P. juliflora is expected to cover 56.42 % of Banni by 2020. Moreover, decrease in the P. juliflora with
other vegetation by 74,012 ha. has indicated an aggressive encroachment of P. juliflora with the decline of native flora
(Table 3.2). Further, the ratio of matured and recruitment category of P. juliflora estimated was 1:3 ratio (GUIDE, 2004) in
Banni, which highlights the fact that if undisturbed or unmanaged, there could be an increase by three folds. Due to
invasion of P. juliflora, most of the grassland area has already been turned into woodland and further increase of this
species eventually reduce the grassland area of Banni. The pastoralists of Banni have adapted to these changes in plant
species composition (due to Prosopis invasion), with major changes in livestock composition - principally shifted from
more susceptible cattle to sturdy buffalo.
-1
Besides, the area under Suaeda scrub and barren land has also increased by 15,684 ha (26 %) at the rate of 1,206 ha year
indicating an increase in soil salinity levels in Banni during the past 13 years.
046
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
047
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat

lupus (Indian wolf), Canis aureus ( ), Boselaphus tragocamelus (Nilgai), Hyaena hyaena (striped hyena) and Vulpes jackal
bengalensis (Indian fox).
Pattern of Habitat Use by Wildlife and Domestic Livestock
A study on the distribution pattern and habitat ecology of birds in Banni was conducted by GUIDE (Koladiya et al., 2014).
A total of 91 species were recorded in various habitats of Banni grassland in which, 45 species in were recorded dense
Prosopis, 56 in moderate Prosopis, 60 in sparse Prosopis, 28 in Prosopis-Capparis mixed, 50 in Prosopis-Suaeda-
Calotropis mixed, 30 in Prosopis-Salvadora mixed and 40 in Suaeda dominant. Among the 7 habitats, sparse Prosopis
2
habitat diverse bird species with lowest mean population density of 9 individuals/km whereas Prosopis-harbours
Capparis was the least preferred by the bird species. Thus, bird species diversity and their population density varied
among various heterogeneous habitats of Banni grassland both in time and space.
On analysis of seasonal distribution of bird species in 7 identified habitats of Banni grasslands, it was found that sparse
Prosopis, Prosopis-Suaeda-Calotropis and dense Prosopis were the preferred habitat during monsoon season; moderate
Prosopis, dense Prosopis and Suaeda dominant are the preferred habitat during winter season while moderate Prosopis
and Prosopis-Suaeda-Calotropis are the most preferred habitat during the month of summer. Mean population density
(Mean ± SD) of birds was recorded highest during monsoon season (19.49 ± 4.64) and least density during summer
season (4.12 ± 0.98). It was found that the highest population density of birds found in Prosopis-Capparis mixed habitat
-2
(29 individuals km-2) during monsoon and least density recorded in sparse Prosopis habitat (2.8 individuals km ) during
summer season.
The livestock owned by Maldharis generally graze within or around the vicinity of village and have definite grazing
routes. Cattle mainly feed on grasses in low to moderate saline areas while buffalo sustain with Suaeda which grow in
high saline areas. Livestock and wild herbivores share the same habitat for grazing which may overlap at some places.
Key Drivers of Change
Banni, though declared as a protected forest in 1955, till recently was under the administrative control of the State
Revenue Department. However, today the scenario has changed and the management control of Banni has been
transferred to the State Forest Department. A detailed working plan for Banni was prepared for effective management of
Banni (GUIDE, 2010). With the working plan in place, the management of collection, manufacture and removal of the
forest produce, cutting of grasses and livestock grazing are being regulated. However, Banni grasslands continue to face
degradation. Main drivers of change include increasing soil salinity, invasion by Prosopis juliflora, grazing pressures,
water scarcity, climate change and desertification. These drivers are discussed below:
Soil Salinity
The soil of Banni is alluvial and sandy with inherent salinity. The soil salinity is highly variable from 1.0 to >15.0 M
mhos/cm and the pH ranges between 6.5 and 8.5. About 60% soil consists of moderately fine texture with higher
proportion of silt and clay (Singh and Kar, 2001). As a result, 70 per cent area of Banni falls under very slow to slow
permeability range (0.00 to 0.13 cm/hr), which along with low elevation (without any gradient) causes flooding and water
logging in many parts of Banni during rainy season (GUIDE, 1998).
Though the inherent salinity was existing during the early days in Banni, the rivers (Khari, Bhurud, Nara, Kalia, Kaswati
and Panjora), which were flowing from the Kachchh mainland to Banni were not only depositing the detritus but also
leached the salinity of the area during good rainfall years. Therefore, the salinity was not a serious problem in earlier
days. Six medium dams namely Rudramata, Nirona, Nara, Kaila, Kaswati and Gajansar were constructed after 1960
along the rivers which completely stopped the fresh water flow into Banni and reduced the nutrient supply and leaching
of the salinity except during very heavy rainfall years (GUIDE, 1998).
In addition to this, the Greater Rann has a depressed terrain lying between Banni and the Allah-Bund, which extends
from the Kori creek eastwards up to Kuver bet, has been inundated by tidal waters of the Arabian Sea through the Kori
creek. This has resulted in salinity ingression in about 12 out of 48 villages located along the nor th-western fringes of
Banni. The spread of saline area in Banni is rapid during the recent years, about 50 per cent of the area contains very high
(>15 M mohs/cm), 40 per cent moderate to high (3-15 M mohs/cm) and 10 per cent area facing low salinity (1-3 M
mohs/cm) problems (GUIDE, 1998). In addition to these, the ground water in Banni is old sea and is unsuitable for any
agricultural purposes except adding soil salinity through capillary actions and evaporations.
Further, break down of traditional management systems of the Banni people also forms a major problem in the increase of
salinity of the area. During the earlier days, the dung of the grazing livestock was naturally ploughed back into the Banni
soil that worked as the best natural manure and it also reduced the salinity of the area to some extent. However, of late,
the farmers from Kachchh mainland have been buying cow dung from Banni in large quantities and carrying it to distant
place from Banni. This has resulted in disruption of natural mineral cycling and decreased the soil fertility.
Such soil conditions with high level of salinity, low nutrients, low permeability and water logging minimize the
potentiality of the area in terms of agricultural production and therefore grassland-based animal husbandry remains the
only viable economic option in this area.
Invasion of Prosopis juliflora
The period 1960-61 was an important benchmark year in the ecological and socio-economic history of the Banni area
when Gujarat State Forest Department took one of the major management interventions to stop the advancement of
Rann on the northern fringes of Banni. As a follow-up of the recommendations of 3rd Planning Commission of
Government of India, an area of about 31,550 ha was planted with exotic woody species, Prosopis juliflora for its ability to
establish and survive in the saline soils and low moisture regimes, without evaluating its ecological and associated
socio-economic consequences in the future.
The soil salinity situation favours hardy P. juliflora which has largely invaded into the ravines and wastelands in Gujarat
(Pasiecznik et al., 2001). Though P. juliflora is able to thrive moderate (4-8dS/m) to strong (8-15dS/m) saline soils (density
970 individuals ha-1), their growth is better in non-saline or low saline soils (density 2,440 individuals ha-1) and this could
be one of the major reason for its invasion into pristine grasslands (Deepa and Lakhmapurkar, 2009).
This is one of the major reasons for its invasion into the pristine grasslands of Banni. Further, the diversity of natural
vegetation is low and includes species like P. cineraria, Capparis decidua, Acacia nilotica and Salvadora spp. These
species occur in very few pockets in Banni and their density is low which could not be projected. This clearly indicates
the replacement of native vegetation by P. juliflora. The principal factor in the process of invasion is the rapid and prolific
seeding of mature P. juliflora (Zimmerman, 1991) and then facilitated by a curious reciprocal relationship with cattle.
During late summer, in the absence of any grass or herbs, nutritious pods of P. juliflora forms a greater portion of diet of
cattle and buffaloes.
-1 -1
Mature P. juliflora could produce ca. 630,000 to 980,000 seeds tree year (Felker, 1979) and Shukla et al., (1984) reported
average pod production capacity as 20 kg/tree. As per Deepa and Lakhmapurkar (2009), average density of P. juliflora in
all soil conditions is 2053 trees -1
ha in Banni. With the existing coverage, the P. juliflora has the capacity to produce 32,
-1 -1
99,446 Tons of pods per year (41 tons ha year ). The seeds of P. juliflora have a thick seed coat that necessitates a
treatment for quick germination otherwise, it takes long-time to disintegrate the seed coat and germinate under natural
conditions. However, when livestock consumes the pods of P. juliflora, the seeds get required treatment in the digestive
tract of livestock and the animal eventually void the seed through their excrement, frequently a considerable distance
from the parent plant. The seeds, still viable, and well fertilized with adequate moisture (cow dung), show a surprisingly
high germination rate. The ensuing southwest monsoon in Kachchh that is during late June or mid July supports the
treated seeds for recruitment and regeneration.
As per an estimate, cattle defecate 14 times per day (Weeda, 1967) and taking this into account, 60,417 livestock in Banni
(Census, 2007; GUIDE, 2010) alone would defecate over 8, 00, 000 times/day and possibly at different locations. This
highlights an alarming rate of distribution of treated P. juliflora seeds in the Banni area. Further, use of stem as fuel wood
by rural folk involves frequent lopping, upon which the root mass enlarges with rich food reserves, aiding rapid and
robust regeneration. Further, trials conducted in many parts of the world and in India proved that the eradication of P.
juliflora is impossible due to its hardy nature, root morphology and physiology and high level of coppicing capacity.
-1
A study conducted by Space Application Center highlighted the spread of P. juliflora at the rate of 2,670 ha. year during
-1
the period between 1980 and 1988, while it was 4,800 ha. year during the period between 1988 and 1998 (Jadhav et al.,
1992 and 1998). The results clearly showed the dominance of P. juliflora in Banni (86,569 ha) and a comparative analysis
showed that during 1997 it occupied about 6.16 % of the total area of Banni increasing to 33.07 % in 2009. Sastry et al.,
(2003) reported that P. juliflora is expected to cover 56.42 % of Banni by 2020. Moreover, decrease in the P. juliflora with
other vegetation by 74,012 ha. has indicated an aggressive encroachment of P. juliflora with the decline of native flora
(Table 3.2). Further, the ratio of matured and recruitment category of P. juliflora estimated was 1:3 ratio (GUIDE, 2004) in
Banni, which highlights the fact that if undisturbed or unmanaged, there could be an increase by three folds. Due to
invasion of P. juliflora, most of the grassland area has already been turned into woodland and further increase of this
species eventually reduce the grassland area of Banni. The pastoralists of Banni have adapted to these changes in plant
species composition (due to Prosopis invasion), with major changes in livestock composition - principally shifted from
more susceptible cattle to sturdy buffalo.
-1
Besides, the area under Suaeda scrub and barren land has also increased by 15,684 ha (26 %) at the rate of 1,206 ha year
indicating an increase in soil salinity levels in Banni during the past 13 years.
046
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
047
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat

S. No. Major Land Use Classes Area (in ha ) Area (in ha ) Change in Change in Per year
in 1997 in 2009 Area (in ha) Area (in ha) Change in
1997-09 1997-2009 Area (in ha)
in 1997-09
1 P. juliflora Dominant area 16,134 86,569 70,435 436.56 5,418
(6.16) (33.07)
2 P. juliflora with other vegetation 1,17,879 43,867 -74,012 62.79 -5,693
(45.03) (16.76)
3 Grass with sparse P. juliflora 51,396 44,091 -7,305 14.21 -562
(19.63) (16.84)
4 Suaeda scrub (including 60,889 74,998 15,684 25.76 1,206
Barren land) (23.26) (29.25)
5 Water bodies 15,474 10,672 -4,802 1.03 -369
(5.91) (4.08)
Total area 2,61,772 2,61,772
(100) (100)
Table 3.2. Major Landuse Classes in Banni (Percentage values given in parenthesis)
Disintegration of Traditional Regulation on Livestock Grazing
2
During the period of princely rule (before 1947), the then Maharao declared Banni, with an area of 2,144 km as a reserve
grassland (Rakhal), where grazing by milching cattle and buffaloes was only permitted while sheep and goats were
strictly prohibited. Further, the then Maharao did not permit Maldharis and Banniyaras (residents of the Banni) to settle
in Banni. Hence, nomadic pastoral practices had prevailed for many years (Ramsingh Rathod, Pers. Com.). However, the
situation has changed today and the Maldharis of Banni have adopted sedentary mode of pastoralism thereby exerting a
constant pressure on the resources.
The traditional practices of regulated livestock grazing have disintegrated in the area and it has been seen that different
species of livestock from other parts of the state and neighbouring states gained free entry into the area totalling to over 2
lakh livestock immigrate into Banni for grazing (GUIDE, 1998). Moreover, there is neither a declared grazing policy nor
any systematic programme on improvement of grasslands in the state.
It is to be noted that, the water holes (Virdas) of the Banni villages played an important role in regulating the livestock
grazing of an area. The grazing of livestock from one village to the boundary of the other was controlled only by banning
the use of water to them. In the adverse climate, it is near impossible for the livestock to move over longer distances
without adequate supply of water. Thus, the grazing of the livestock was permitted only within the vicinity of their village
settlements. Today the scenario has changed and water, is no longer a factor, which gover ns the livestock grazing due to
slacken in the use of virdas and water supply through pipelines. The 600 km long network of Banni pipeline is damaged
by the Maldharis at places for providing drinking water to their livestock. This has also encouraged the massive
immigration of livestock from other areas, thus, leading to overgrazing and degradation of the area. Heavy grazing
coupled with stochastic events (temporary droughts, changes in soil conditions) may convert perennial vegetation into
ephemeral vegetation (Christina, 1992). This situation leads to loss of soil cover, which further aggravates the
degradation of the area. Among the three regions (east, west and central) of Banni, the eastern Banni has already lost its
capacity and the western Banni is slowly losing its capacity to sustain both human and livestock populations. As a result,
a maximum concentration of human and livestock population is located at central Banni region (GUIDE, 1998), exerting
excessive pressures in this area which may lead to massive degradation due to over exploitation of resources.
The livestock population in Banni was 25,555 in 1977 which increased to 60, 417 in 2007. Overall animal composition in
Banni has increased from 21939 ACU (Adult Cattle Unit- 1 Adult Buffalo is equallent to 4 Goats or 4 Sheep) in 1977 to
57898 ACU in 2007. The ACU has increased by 164 percentage which subsequently enhance the fodder demand from
-1
153 tonnes/day in 1977 to 405 t day in 2007 (7kg/ACU/day, as per Ahuja, 1994) highlighting a minimum fodder
-1
requirement of 1,47,825 t year . Shrinking grassland due to invasion of P. juliflora, increasing salinity, and thereby
decreasing the grassland area and its productivity has a cumulative impact on livestock based sustenance of Maldharis
in Banni.
Climatic Factors
The climate of Kachchh is typically arid that experiences scanty and highly erratic rainfall with an average annual
rainfall of 335 mm with high coefficient of variation. Drought is one of the most important natural phenomena
responsible for grassland degradation in Kachchh. However, through process of evolution, grass species have adapted to
drought conditions that enable them to survive as a species, even though individual plants may succumb. Nevertheless,
a severe drought causes drastic deterioration of the plant community regardless of severity of grazing pressure. Once the
dry spell ends, the grassland recovery depends upon precipitation (moisture availability).
During the period between 1932 and 2013 (a span of 82 years), Kachchh district experienced a total of 48 drought years
(59% of the period between 1932 and 2013) in which 26 years faced severe to very severe droughts. It is important to note
that the number of severe droughts as well as severe consecutive droughts is on an increasing trend. Two consecutive
severe droughts occurred during 1963-1964 and 1968-1969 followed by three consecutive droughts during 1972-1974
and 1985-1987, followed by four consecutive droughts from 2004 to 2007 (Table 3.2). This situation predominantly
affected the soil moisture and led to grassland degradation. Prolonged droughts affect the soil water balance and soil
organic matter affecting biodiversity of soil biota. Soil stability may well decline as organic matter decreases, resulting in
slower warming in summer, and also increased runoff and erosion (Bridges, 1997). Thus, soil and climate, the two of the
most critical environmental parameters of life on earth are intimately interrelated and brought together. These factors
have contributed to the deterioration of a major part of the grasslands of Banni as well as in Kachchh.
A recent study (between 2012 and 2015) by GUIDE assessed the impact of climate change on livelihoods in Kachchh
including Banni. In which 403 respondents were interviewed through a structured questionnaire (Figure 3.2). Majority
of 43.7% of the respondents stated that the climate change is impacting on grasslands while 27.8 per cent of the
respondents stated that animal husbandry will be impacted. A total of 75 per cent respondents stated that climate
change is impacting animal husbandry and grasslands which is one of the prime livelihood resources for the inhabitants
of Kachchh.
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
Ecology and Management of Banni
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat
Another interesting fact is the occurrence of heavy rainfall in a single day that has increased drastically during recent
years. The Figure 3.3 highlights that the heavy rainfall days has increased from 1 day in a year during the period between
1973 and 1980 to 3 days in a year between 2001 and 2013. During the period between 2001 and 2013, very heavy rainfall
(124.5 to 244.4mm) occurred 6 times, heavy rainfall (64.5 to 124.4mm) occurred 11 times and rather heavy rainfall (35.6 to
64.4mm) occurred 26 times in Kachchh (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2. Impact of Climate change on livelihood resources as perceived by local people around Banni Grasslands
Figure 3.3. Rainfall pattern in Kachchh from 1973-2013 (Source: GUIDE)
048 049

S. No. Major Land Use Classes Area (in ha ) Area (in ha ) Change in Change in Per year
in 1997 in 2009 Area (in ha) Area (in ha) Change in
1997-09 1997-2009 Area (in ha)
in 1997-09
1 P. juliflora Dominant area 16,134 86,569 70,435 436.56 5,418
(6.16) (33.07)
2 P. juliflora with other vegetation 1,17,879 43,867 -74,012 62.79 -5,693
(45.03) (16.76)
3 Grass with sparse P. juliflora 51,396 44,091 -7,305 14.21 -562
(19.63) (16.84)
4 Suaeda scrub (including 60,889 74,998 15,684 25.76 1,206
Barren land) (23.26) (29.25)
5 Water bodies 15,474 10,672 -4,802 1.03 -369
(5.91) (4.08)
Total area 2,61,772 2,61,772
(100) (100)
Table 3.2. Major Landuse Classes in Banni (Percentage values given in parenthesis)
Disintegration of Traditional Regulation on Livestock Grazing
2
During the period of princely rule (before 1947), the then Maharao declared Banni, with an area of 2,144 km as a reserve
grassland (Rakhal), where grazing by milching cattle and buffaloes was only permitted while sheep and goats were
strictly prohibited. Further, the then Maharao did not permit Maldharis and Banniyaras (residents of the Banni) to settle
in Banni. Hence, nomadic pastoral practices had prevailed for many years (Ramsingh Rathod, Pers. Com.). However, the
situation has changed today and the Maldharis of Banni have adopted sedentary mode of pastoralism thereby exerting a
constant pressure on the resources.
The traditional practices of regulated livestock grazing have disintegrated in the area and it has been seen that different
species of livestock from other parts of the state and neighbouring states gained free entry into the area totalling to over 2
lakh livestock immigrate into Banni for grazing (GUIDE, 1998). Moreover, there is neither a declared grazing policy nor
any systematic programme on improvement of grasslands in the state.
It is to be noted that, the water holes (Virdas) of the Banni villages played an important role in regulating the livestock
grazing of an area. The grazing of livestock from one village to the boundary of the other was controlled only by banning
the use of water to them. In the adverse climate, it is near impossible for the livestock to move over longer distances
without adequate supply of water. Thus, the grazing of the livestock was permitted only within the vicinity of their village
settlements. Today the scenario has changed and water, is no longer a factor, which gover ns the livestock grazing due to
slacken in the use of virdas and water supply through pipelines. The 600 km long network of Banni pipeline is damaged
by the Maldharis at places for providing drinking water to their livestock. This has also encouraged the massive
immigration of livestock from other areas, thus, leading to overgrazing and degradation of the area. Heavy grazing
coupled with stochastic events (temporary droughts, changes in soil conditions) may convert perennial vegetation into
ephemeral vegetation (Christina, 1992). This situation leads to loss of soil cover, which further aggravates the
degradation of the area. Among the three regions (east, west and central) of Banni, the eastern Banni has already lost its
capacity and the western Banni is slowly losing its capacity to sustain both human and livestock populations. As a result,
a maximum concentration of human and livestock population is located at central Banni region (GUIDE, 1998), exerting
excessive pressures in this area which may lead to massive degradation due to over exploitation of resources.
The livestock population in Banni was 25,555 in 1977 which increased to 60, 417 in 2007. Overall animal composition in
Banni has increased from 21939 ACU (Adult Cattle Unit- 1 Adult Buffalo is equallent to 4 Goats or 4 Sheep) in 1977 to
57898 ACU in 2007. The ACU has increased by 164 percentage which subsequently enhance the fodder demand from
-1
153 tonnes/day in 1977 to 405 t day in 2007 (7kg/ACU/day, as per Ahuja, 1994) highlighting a minimum fodder
-1
requirement of 1,47,825 t year . Shrinking grassland due to invasion of P. juliflora, increasing salinity, and thereby
decreasing the grassland area and its productivity has a cumulative impact on livestock based sustenance of Maldharis
in Banni.
Climatic Factors
The climate of Kachchh is typically arid that experiences scanty and highly erratic rainfall with an average annual
rainfall of 335 mm with high coefficient of variation. Drought is one of the most important natural phenomena
responsible for grassland degradation in Kachchh. However, through process of evolution, grass species have adapted to
drought conditions that enable them to survive as a species, even though individual plants may succumb. Nevertheless,
a severe drought causes drastic deterioration of the plant community regardless of severity of grazing pressure. Once the
dry spell ends, the grassland recovery depends upon precipitation (moisture availability).
During the period between 1932 and 2013 (a span of 82 years), Kachchh district experienced a total of 48 drought years
(59% of the period between 1932 and 2013) in which 26 years faced severe to very severe droughts. It is important to note
that the number of severe droughts as well as severe consecutive droughts is on an increasing trend. Two consecutive
severe droughts occurred during 1963-1964 and 1968-1969 followed by three consecutive droughts during 1972-1974
and 1985-1987, followed by four consecutive droughts from 2004 to 2007 (Table 3.2). This situation predominantly
affected the soil moisture and led to grassland degradation. Prolonged droughts affect the soil water balance and soil
organic matter affecting biodiversity of soil biota. Soil stability may well decline as organic matter decreases, resulting in
slower warming in summer, and also increased runoff and erosion (Bridges, 1997). Thus, soil and climate, the two of the
most critical environmental parameters of life on earth are intimately interrelated and brought together. These factors
have contributed to the deterioration of a major part of the grasslands of Banni as well as in Kachchh.
A recent study (between 2012 and 2015) by GUIDE assessed the impact of climate change on livelihoods in Kachchh
including Banni. In which 403 respondents were interviewed through a structured questionnaire (Figure 3.2). Majority
of 43.7% of the respondents stated that the climate change is impacting on grasslands while 27.8 per cent of the
respondents stated that animal husbandry will be impacted. A total of 75 per cent respondents stated that climate
change is impacting animal husbandry and grasslands which is one of the prime livelihood resources for the inhabitants
of Kachchh.
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
Ecology and Management of Banni
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat
Another interesting fact is the occurrence of heavy rainfall in a single day that has increased drastically during recent
years. The Figure 3.3 highlights that the heavy rainfall days has increased from 1 day in a year during the period between
1973 and 1980 to 3 days in a year between 2001 and 2013. During the period between 2001 and 2013, very heavy rainfall
(124.5 to 244.4mm) occurred 6 times, heavy rainfall (64.5 to 124.4mm) occurred 11 times and rather heavy rainfall (35.6 to
64.4mm) occurred 26 times in Kachchh (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2. Impact of Climate change on livelihood resources as perceived by local people around Banni Grasslands
Figure 3.3. Rainfall pattern in Kachchh from 1973-2013 (Source: GUIDE)
048 049

Banni soil consists of recent alluvium mixed at places with aeolian sandy deposit and the entire area has deep to very
deep clay and coarse textured soils in discontinuous patches. The presence of high silt and clay content lessen the
vertical and lateral movement of surface and subsurface water and creates water-logging and flooding in low lying areas
after monsoon (GUIDE, 1998). Thus the recent heavy rainfall in a single day creates water logging in low lying areas of
Banni for number of days. The grasses and grass seeds submerged under water for long duration would decay or fail in
germination. Flooding may also increase the incidence of soil-borne fungal diseases (Yanar et al., 1997.
Management Options
The degradation of Banni grasslands is largely attributed to breakdown of traditional resource management system
which had helped in the maintainance of equilibrium between environmental system and human activity since several
centuries (National Research Council, 1986). Recent interventions such as introduction of P. juliflora, introduction of
additional livestock have led to reduction in carrying capacity of these grasslands. There is a need to improve the
productivity of the existing grassland resources and also reclaim or restore the degraded grasslands to a possible extent.
This would enhance the sustainability of the system and help in copping up with the increasing demands from the
human and livestock sector. It is essential to maintain fewer and better breeds of livestock to avoid over grazing. This not
only reduces the pressure on grassland and maintenance cost of the animals, but also generates sizeable income to the
Maldharis. Development of grassland area for fodder security and grazing regulations are essential for maintaining the
grassland in a sustainable manner. Appropriate management plan is required for managing P. juliflora as an alternative
livelihood options and employment generation in Banni and Kachchh. P. juliflora has many economic values; pods (after
removing the seeds) are highly nutritious which could be used to prepare cattle and human feeds. The seasoned wood of
matured P. juliflora of more than 20 years old tree is comparable with teak wood for making essential household furniture.
Further, being a leguminous plant, apart from enriching soil nitrogen content, it also reduces soil salinity and alkalinity to
some extent.
Research to identify suitable remedial measures to control the soil salinity is the need of the hour. This is a core problem
for all other issues including expansion of P. juliflora and barren lands as well decreasing grassland diversity and its
productivity. Drains to leach soil salinity and introduction of saline tolerant grass/herbs would be an option under the
scenario. In drought years, the fodder situation worsens which results in large quantities of fodder being imported by the
government agencies. The main focus of the government agencies is to provide relief supplies to relieve immediate
suffering as though the conditions involved were the result of true natural disasters that were unpredictable and
basically temporary in nature. No effort is made to evolve strategies for permanent solutions. In addition, the livestock is
forced to migrate to other parts of district or state, which leads to a host of new problems. During high rainfall years, it is
flood that affects the animal and human beings and many times causes various diseases, fodder problems, shelter
problems, etc. Appropriate disaster management for Banni region is essential to tackle during such calamities.
GUIDE, GEC and GSFD have initiated many grassland development programmes. The programmes need to be
strengthened to cover more areas under restoration and undertaken through active participation of local villagers. This
apart from fodder security generates employment opportunities to local villagers, enhance the land quality and improve
the biodiversity.
To conclude the grassland degradation in Bannis is largely due to lack of management policy or failure of the policy. It is a
prerequisite that the planning and policy needs to be integrated using the scientific and local knowledge for developing
and utilizing the resource in a sustainable manner. The Banni working plan (2012) is in place and a separate Banni
division was formed under the Kachchh Circle of the Gujarat State Forest Department. The forest law and regulation
would help in better management of collection, manufacture and removal of the forest produce, cutting of grasses and
pasturing of cattle, hunting, etc. However, appropriate awareness and cooperative approaches should be initiated to
make this successful.
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
051
© Shikha Bisht
Plate 3.1: An overview of a grassland
050
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat

Banni soil consists of recent alluvium mixed at places with aeolian sandy deposit and the entire area has deep to very
deep clay and coarse textured soils in discontinuous patches. The presence of high silt and clay content lessen the
vertical and lateral movement of surface and subsurface water and creates water-logging and flooding in low lying areas
after monsoon (GUIDE, 1998). Thus the recent heavy rainfall in a single day creates water logging in low lying areas of
Banni for number of days. The grasses and grass seeds submerged under water for long duration would decay or fail in
germination. Flooding may also increase the incidence of soil-borne fungal diseases (Yanar et al., 1997.
Management Options
The degradation of Banni grasslands is largely attributed to breakdown of traditional resource management system
which had helped in the maintainance of equilibrium between environmental system and human activity since several
centuries (National Research Council, 1986). Recent interventions such as introduction of P. juliflora, introduction of
additional livestock have led to reduction in carrying capacity of these grasslands. There is a need to improve the
productivity of the existing grassland resources and also reclaim or restore the degraded grasslands to a possible extent.
This would enhance the sustainability of the system and help in copping up with the increasing demands from the
human and livestock sector. It is essential to maintain fewer and better breeds of livestock to avoid over grazing. This not
only reduces the pressure on grassland and maintenance cost of the animals, but also generates sizeable income to the
Maldharis. Development of grassland area for fodder security and grazing regulations are essential for maintaining the
grassland in a sustainable manner. Appropriate management plan is required for managing P. juliflora as an alternative
livelihood options and employment generation in Banni and Kachchh. P. juliflora has many economic values; pods (after
removing the seeds) are highly nutritious which could be used to prepare cattle and human feeds. The seasoned wood of
matured P. juliflora of more than 20 years old tree is comparable with teak wood for making essential household furniture.
Further, being a leguminous plant, apart from enriching soil nitrogen content, it also reduces soil salinity and alkalinity to
some extent.
Research to identify suitable remedial measures to control the soil salinity is the need of the hour. This is a core problem
for all other issues including expansion of P. juliflora and barren lands as well decreasing grassland diversity and its
productivity. Drains to leach soil salinity and introduction of saline tolerant grass/herbs would be an option under the
scenario. In drought years, the fodder situation worsens which results in large quantities of fodder being imported by the
government agencies. The main focus of the government agencies is to provide relief supplies to relieve immediate
suffering as though the conditions involved were the result of true natural disasters that were unpredictable and
basically temporary in nature. No effort is made to evolve strategies for permanent solutions. In addition, the livestock is
forced to migrate to other parts of district or state, which leads to a host of new problems. During high rainfall years, it is
flood that affects the animal and human beings and many times causes various diseases, fodder problems, shelter
problems, etc. Appropriate disaster management for Banni region is essential to tackle during such calamities.
GUIDE, GEC and GSFD have initiated many grassland development programmes. The programmes need to be
strengthened to cover more areas under restoration and undertaken through active participation of local villagers. This
apart from fodder security generates employment opportunities to local villagers, enhance the land quality and improve
the biodiversity.
To conclude the grassland degradation in Bannis is largely due to lack of management policy or failure of the policy. It is a
prerequisite that the planning and policy needs to be integrated using the scientific and local knowledge for developing
and utilizing the resource in a sustainable manner. The Banni working plan (2012) is in place and a separate Banni
division was formed under the Kachchh Circle of the Gujarat State Forest Department. The forest law and regulation
would help in better management of collection, manufacture and removal of the forest produce, cutting of grasses and
pasturing of cattle, hunting, etc. However, appropriate awareness and cooperative approaches should be initiated to
make this successful.
envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
051
© Shikha Bisht
Plate 3.1: An overview of a grassland
050
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat

envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
053
Kanzaria, M.V. (1994). Soils of Kutch-An ecological perspective. In: A dossier on Kachchh. Proc. of workshop, 20-21st January, 1994 at Bhujodi;
Organized by GEC and VRTI.
Kempa, D. R., Guodongb, H., Xiangyangc, H., Michalkad, D. L. Fujiange, H., Jianpingf, W. and Yingjung, Z. (2013). Innovative grassland
management systems for environmental and livelihood benefits. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, 110(21): 8369–8374.
Koladiya, M. H., Mahato, A. K. R., Gajera, N. B. and Patel, Y. S. (2014) Distribution pattern of birds in Banni Grassland of Kachchh district, Gujarat,
India. Journal of Research in Biology 4(1):1228-1239
Leafe, E. L. (1988). The history of improved grasslands. In M. B. Jones and A. Lazenby. Chapmann and Hall (Eds.) The Grass Crops. 1-20 pp.
National Research Council (1986). Proceedings of the conference on common property resource management. Washington, D.C. National
Acadamy Press.
Pandya, S.M and Sidha, V.K. (1982). Ecological studies of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. Of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Parikh, J. and Reddy, S. (1997). Sustainable regeneration of degraded lands. Tata McGraw- Hill Publ., New Delhi.
Paroda, R.S., Mann, H.S. and Verma, C.M. (1980). Management of Indian arid land. CAZRI, Technical Bulletin, No 4. Jodhpur.
Pasiecznik, N.M., Felker P., Harris, P.J.C., Harsh, L.N., Cruz, G. Tewari, J.C., Cadoret, K. and Maldonado, L.J. (2001) The Prosopis juliflora -Prosopis
pallida Complex: A Monograph. HDRA, Coventry, UK. Pp.172.
Patel, B.M., B.G. Shah and Murthy V.V. (1961). Indian J. Agri. Sci.31 (4):246-255. Reffered in: Pandya, S.M and V.K. Sidha, 1982. Ecological studies
of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Patel, Y., Dabgar, Y.B. and Joshi, P.N. (2012). Distribution and Diversity of Grass Species in Banni Grassland, Kachchh District, Gujarat, India.
International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews1(1):43-56.
Premadasa, M.A. (1990). Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India, Journal of Biogeography. 17: 395-400.
Puri, G.S., S.K.Jain and Deshpande, U.R. (1959). Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Pt.3:291. Reffered in: Pandya, S.M and V.K. Sidha, 1982. Ecological studies
of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Roy, A. K. and Singh, J. P. (2013). Grasslands in India: Problems and perspectives for sustaining livestock and rural livelihoods. Tropical
Grasslands – Forrajes Tropicales (1): 240−243.
SAC (2002) Grassland mapping in Gujarat using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques: Kachchh District, Space Application Centre,
Ahmedabad. 36 pp.
Sastry, K.L.N., Thakker, P.S. and Jadhav, R. (2003). Biodiversity threat through exotic species monitoring and management using Remotely
Sensed data and GIS techniques, - A Case Study of Banni (Kachchh) Gujarat, India. Forestry & Biodiversity, Map India Conference 2003.
Shukla, P. C., Talpada, P. M. and Pande, M. B. (1984). Prosopis juliflora pods, a new cattle feed source. Animal Nutriton department, Gujarat
Agriculture University, Anand, Gujarat, India.
Singh, J. S., Hanxi Y. and Sajise, P. F. (1985). Structure and functional aspects of Indian and East Asia savanna ecosystem. Ecology and
Management of Words Savanna (ed. By J. C. Tothill and J. J. Mott) pp. 34-55. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Singh, J.S. and Jha, A.K. (1992). Restoration of degraded land: an overview In J.S.Singh (ed.) Restoration of Degraded Lands: Concepts and
Strategies. Rostogi Pub., Meerut, 1-10 pp.
Soil Survey Division. (1986). Report on the reconnaissance soil survey carried out in Banni area in Kachchh district of Gujarat State. Soil Survey
Division, Vadodara.
Suttie, J.M, Reynolds S.G. and Batello, C. (2005). Grasslands of the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Plant
Production and Protection Series (Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome), No. 34.
Thaker, J. I. (1926). Plants of Kutch and their utility (In Gujarati). Rajkot.
Weeda, W.C. (1967). The effect of cattle dung patches on pasture growth, botanical composition and pasture utilization. New Zealand Journal
of Agricultural Research, 10: 150 159.
White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa (3 Plates,
Northwestern Africa, Northeastern Africa, and Southern Africa, 1:5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
White, R., Murray, S. and Rohweder, M. (2000). Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems, World Resources Institute,
Washington D.C. 69 pp.
WRD and CDO. (1989). Report of the sub-committee for studying the problems and suggesting the remedial measures for the salinity ingress
in the Banni area of Kachchh district. Govt. of Gujarat, water Resources Department and Central Designs Organization, Gandhinagar.
Yanar, Y., Lipps, P. E. and Deep, I. W. (1997). Effect of soil saturation, duration and water content on root rot of maize caused by Pythium
arrhenomanes. Plant Disease, 81: 475-480.
Zimmerman, H.G. (1991) Biological control of mesquite, Prosopis spp. (Fabaceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment,
37: 175-186.
References
Ahuja, L.D. (1994). Livestock production pasture/grass lands in the Indian Arid Zone. Pp: 179-190. In: Sustainable development of the Indian
Arid Zones. (Eds.) R.P. Singh and S. Singh. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. 335 Pp.
Bharara, L. P. (1993). Socio-economic aspects of Banni pastoralists and factors effecting changes in their perceptions towards the future. Pp 1-
7. Proceedings of the workshop on Transhumant pastoralism in Gujarat, July 24-25, 1992 (Cincotta, R.P. and G. Pangare, eds.). Institute of
Rural Management, Anand, India.
Blatter, E. J. (1908). On the Flora of Kutch. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 18: 756-777.
Blatter, E. J. (1909). On the Flora of Kutch. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 19: 157-176.
Bridges, E.M. (1997). World Soils. 3rd Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Christina, S. (1992). Dynamics of savanna ecosystems. Journal of Vegetation Science. 3: 293-300.
Clements, F. E., and Shelford, V. E. (1939). Bio-ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 425 Pp.
Dabadghao P.M. and Shankarnarayanan KA. (1973). Grass cover of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Davison, E. M. (1997). Are jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) trees killed by Phytophthora cinnamomi or waterlogging? Australian Forestry 60:
116-124.
Deepa G. J. and Lakhmapurkar, J. J. (2009). Soil Salinity versus Prosopis juliflora Growth – A Case of Banni Grasslands. Proceedings of the
National Symposium on Prosopis: Ecological, Economic Significance and Management Challenges, February 20-21, 2009, Gujarat
Institute of desert Ecology, Bhuj-Kachchh.
Felker, P. (1979). Mesquite. An all purpose leguminous arid land tree. In: G.A. Ritchie (Editor), New Agricultural Crops. Westview Press: Boulder,
CO.
Ferrouki, L. (1994). An ecological ground water har vesting system under threat. A case study of the Banni pastoralist's knowledge in the
grasslands of Kachchh district, Gujarat state, India. M.Sc Dissertation, Dept. Of soil sciences, Swedish University of Agriculture.
Gadgil, M. and Meher-Homji, V. M. (1985). Land use and productive potential of Indian Savanna. (ed. By J. C. Tothill and J. J. Mott), Australian
Academy of Science, Canberra, 107-113 pp.
Gadgil. M. and Sinha, M. (1985). The biomass budget of Karnataka, In C. J, Saldanha (ed.) Karnataka state of Environment Report, 1984-85,
Centre for Taxonomic studies, Bangalore, 19-30 pp..
Garwood, N.C., Gores, D.P. and Brokaw, N. (1979). Earthquake-caused landslides: a major disturbance to tropical forests. Science 205: 997 –
999.
GIAP (1989). Kachchh and its agriculture: Problems and potential. The Gujarat Institute of Area Planning, Ahmedabad.
Government of India (1966). Report on the Reclamation and development of the Great Rann of Kachchh. A report submitted to the Ministry of
Agriculture, Govt. of India.
Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversity, status of Earth's living resources (complied by World Conservation Monitoring Centre).
London, UK: Chapmen and Hall.
Ground Water Institute, Pune (1974). Report on preliminary survey of ground water resources. - For providing drinking and / or irrigation
water to Banni area of Bhuj taluka, Kutch district.
GUIDE (1998). Status of Banni Grassland and exigency of restoration efforts, Gujarat. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj. 66 pp.
GUIDE (2004). Grassland action plan for Kachchh. Final report submitted to Gujarat Forest Department, Gandhinagar. Gujarat Institute of
Desert Ecology, Bhuj. 346 pp.
GUIDE (Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology) and GSFD (Gujarat State Forest Department) (2010). An Integrated Grassland Development in
Banni, Kachchh District, Gujarat States. Progress Report, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj - Kachchh (Gujarat), India.15
pp.
House, J.I. and Hall, D.O. (2000). Tropical savannas and grasslands. In Mooney, H., J. Roy, and B. Saugier (eds.) Terrestrial Global Productivity:
Past, Present and Future.
Indian Council of Agriculture Research (1978). Report of the ICAR committee on Research and Development Programmes in the Kachchh
district (Gujarat). ICAR, New Delhi.
Jadhav R. N., Sastry K. L. N., Thakker P. S. and Chavan S. A. (1998). Bio-diversity threat through exotic sp., using remotely sensed data. A case
study of Banni (Kachchh) Gujarat.
Jadhav, R.N., Kimothi, M.M. and Kandhya, A.K. (1992). Grassland mapping / monitoring of Banni, Kachchh (Gujarat) using remotely sensed
data. Land Resources Division, Remote Sensing Application Group, Space Application Center. Ahmedabad.
Kadikar, P. (1994). Status of Banni (Kachchh, Gujarat) grassland by 2000 AD using Multitemporal remote sensing satellite data. Dissertation.
Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.
052
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat

envis bulletin
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India
053
Kanzaria, M.V. (1994). Soils of Kutch-An ecological perspective. In: A dossier on Kachchh. Proc. of workshop, 20-21st January, 1994 at Bhujodi;
Organized by GEC and VRTI.
Kempa, D. R., Guodongb, H., Xiangyangc, H., Michalkad, D. L. Fujiange, H., Jianpingf, W. and Yingjung, Z. (2013). Innovative grassland
management systems for environmental and livelihood benefits. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, 110(21): 8369–8374.
Koladiya, M. H., Mahato, A. K. R., Gajera, N. B. and Patel, Y. S. (2014) Distribution pattern of birds in Banni Grassland of Kachchh district, Gujarat,
India. Journal of Research in Biology 4(1):1228-1239
Leafe, E. L. (1988). The history of improved grasslands. In M. B. Jones and A. Lazenby. Chapmann and Hall (Eds.) The Grass Crops. 1-20 pp.
National Research Council (1986). Proceedings of the conference on common property resource management. Washington, D.C. National
Acadamy Press.
Pandya, S.M and Sidha, V.K. (1982). Ecological studies of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. Of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Parikh, J. and Reddy, S. (1997). Sustainable regeneration of degraded lands. Tata McGraw- Hill Publ., New Delhi.
Paroda, R.S., Mann, H.S. and Verma, C.M. (1980). Management of Indian arid land. CAZRI, Technical Bulletin, No 4. Jodhpur.
Pasiecznik, N.M., Felker P., Harris, P.J.C., Harsh, L.N., Cruz, G. Tewari, J.C., Cadoret, K. and Maldonado, L.J. (2001) The Prosopis juliflora -Prosopis
pallida Complex: A Monograph. HDRA, Coventry, UK. Pp.172.
Patel, B.M., B.G. Shah and Murthy V.V. (1961). Indian J. Agri. Sci.31 (4):246-255. Reffered in: Pandya, S.M and V.K. Sidha, 1982. Ecological studies
of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Patel, Y., Dabgar, Y.B. and Joshi, P.N. (2012). Distribution and Diversity of Grass Species in Banni Grassland, Kachchh District, Gujarat, India.
International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews1(1):43-56.
Premadasa, M.A. (1990). Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India, Journal of Biogeography. 17: 395-400.
Puri, G.S., S.K.Jain and Deshpande, U.R. (1959). Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Pt.3:291. Reffered in: Pandya, S.M and V.K. Sidha, 1982. Ecological studies
of arid regions of Kutch (Gujarat State). Final Progress Report, Dept. of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Roy, A. K. and Singh, J. P. (2013). Grasslands in India: Problems and perspectives for sustaining livestock and rural livelihoods. Tropical
Grasslands – Forrajes Tropicales (1): 240−243.
SAC (2002) Grassland mapping in Gujarat using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques: Kachchh District, Space Application Centre,
Ahmedabad. 36 pp.
Sastry, K.L.N., Thakker, P.S. and Jadhav, R. (2003). Biodiversity threat through exotic species monitoring and management using Remotely
Sensed data and GIS techniques, - A Case Study of Banni (Kachchh) Gujarat, India. Forestry & Biodiversity, Map India Conference 2003.
Shukla, P. C., Talpada, P. M. and Pande, M. B. (1984). Prosopis juliflora pods, a new cattle feed source. Animal Nutriton department, Gujarat
Agriculture University, Anand, Gujarat, India.
Singh, J. S., Hanxi Y. and Sajise, P. F. (1985). Structure and functional aspects of Indian and East Asia savanna ecosystem. Ecology and
Management of Words Savanna (ed. By J. C. Tothill and J. J. Mott) pp. 34-55. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Singh, J.S. and Jha, A.K. (1992). Restoration of degraded land: an overview In J.S.Singh (ed.) Restoration of Degraded Lands: Concepts and
Strategies. Rostogi Pub., Meerut, 1-10 pp.
Soil Survey Division. (1986). Report on the reconnaissance soil survey carried out in Banni area in Kachchh district of Gujarat State. Soil Survey
Division, Vadodara.
Suttie, J.M, Reynolds S.G. and Batello, C. (2005). Grasslands of the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Plant
Production and Protection Series (Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome), No. 34.
Thaker, J. I. (1926). Plants of Kutch and their utility (In Gujarati). Rajkot.
Weeda, W.C. (1967). The effect of cattle dung patches on pasture growth, botanical composition and pasture utilization. New Zealand Journal
of Agricultural Research, 10: 150 159.
White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa (3 Plates,
Northwestern Africa, Northeastern Africa, and Southern Africa, 1:5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
White, R., Murray, S. and Rohweder, M. (2000). Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems, World Resources Institute,
Washington D.C. 69 pp.
WRD and CDO. (1989). Report of the sub-committee for studying the problems and suggesting the remedial measures for the salinity ingress
in the Banni area of Kachchh district. Govt. of Gujarat, water Resources Department and Central Designs Organization, Gandhinagar.
Yanar, Y., Lipps, P. E. and Deep, I. W. (1997). Effect of soil saturation, duration and water content on root rot of maize caused by Pythium
arrhenomanes. Plant Disease, 81: 475-480.
Zimmerman, H.G. (1991) Biological control of mesquite, Prosopis spp. (Fabaceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment,
37: 175-186.
References
Ahuja, L.D. (1994). Livestock production pasture/grass lands in the Indian Arid Zone. Pp: 179-190. In: Sustainable development of the Indian
Arid Zones. (Eds.) R.P. Singh and S. Singh. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. 335 Pp.
Bharara, L. P. (1993). Socio-economic aspects of Banni pastoralists and factors effecting changes in their perceptions towards the future. Pp 1-
7. Proceedings of the workshop on Transhumant pastoralism in Gujarat, July 24-25, 1992 (Cincotta, R.P. and G. Pangare, eds.). Institute of
Rural Management, Anand, India.
Blatter, E. J. (1908). On the Flora of Kutch. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 18: 756-777.
Blatter, E. J. (1909). On the Flora of Kutch. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 19: 157-176.
Bridges, E.M. (1997). World Soils. 3rd Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Christina, S. (1992). Dynamics of savanna ecosystems. Journal of Vegetation Science. 3: 293-300.
Clements, F. E., and Shelford, V. E. (1939). Bio-ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 425 Pp.
Dabadghao P.M. and Shankarnarayanan KA. (1973). Grass cover of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Davison, E. M. (1997). Are jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) trees killed by Phytophthora cinnamomi or waterlogging? Australian Forestry 60:
116-124.
Deepa G. J. and Lakhmapurkar, J. J. (2009). Soil Salinity versus Prosopis juliflora Growth – A Case of Banni Grasslands. Proceedings of the
National Symposium on Prosopis: Ecological, Economic Significance and Management Challenges, February 20-21, 2009, Gujarat
Institute of desert Ecology, Bhuj-Kachchh.
Felker, P. (1979). Mesquite. An all purpose leguminous arid land tree. In: G.A. Ritchie (Editor), New Agricultural Crops. Westview Press: Boulder,
CO.
Ferrouki, L. (1994). An ecological ground water har vesting system under threat. A case study of the Banni pastoralist's knowledge in the
grasslands of Kachchh district, Gujarat state, India. M.Sc Dissertation, Dept. Of soil sciences, Swedish University of Agriculture.
Gadgil, M. and Meher-Homji, V. M. (1985). Land use and productive potential of Indian Savanna. (ed. By J. C. Tothill and J. J. Mott), Australian
Academy of Science, Canberra, 107-113 pp.
Gadgil. M. and Sinha, M. (1985). The biomass budget of Karnataka, In C. J, Saldanha (ed.) Karnataka state of Environment Report, 1984-85,
Centre for Taxonomic studies, Bangalore, 19-30 pp..
Garwood, N.C., Gores, D.P. and Brokaw, N. (1979). Earthquake-caused landslides: a major disturbance to tropical forests. Science 205: 997 –
999.
GIAP (1989). Kachchh and its agriculture: Problems and potential. The Gujarat Institute of Area Planning, Ahmedabad.
Government of India (1966). Report on the Reclamation and development of the Great Rann of Kachchh. A report submitted to the Ministry of
Agriculture, Govt. of India.
Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversity, status of Earth's living resources (complied by World Conservation Monitoring Centre).
London, UK: Chapmen and Hall.
Ground Water Institute, Pune (1974). Report on preliminary survey of ground water resources. - For providing drinking and / or irrigation
water to Banni area of Bhuj taluka, Kutch district.
GUIDE (1998). Status of Banni Grassland and exigency of restoration efforts, Gujarat. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj. 66 pp.
GUIDE (2004). Grassland action plan for Kachchh. Final report submitted to Gujarat Forest Department, Gandhinagar. Gujarat Institute of
Desert Ecology, Bhuj. 346 pp.
GUIDE (Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology) and GSFD (Gujarat State Forest Department) (2010). An Integrated Grassland Development in
Banni, Kachchh District, Gujarat States. Progress Report, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj - Kachchh (Gujarat), India.15
pp.
House, J.I. and Hall, D.O. (2000). Tropical savannas and grasslands. In Mooney, H., J. Roy, and B. Saugier (eds.) Terrestrial Global Productivity:
Past, Present and Future.
Indian Council of Agriculture Research (1978). Report of the ICAR committee on Research and Development Programmes in the Kachchh
district (Gujarat). ICAR, New Delhi.
Jadhav R. N., Sastry K. L. N., Thakker P. S. and Chavan S. A. (1998). Bio-diversity threat through exotic sp., using remotely sensed data. A case
study of Banni (Kachchh) Gujarat.
Jadhav, R.N., Kimothi, M.M. and Kandhya, A.K. (1992). Grassland mapping / monitoring of Banni, Kachchh (Gujarat) using remotely sensed
data. Land Resources Division, Remote Sensing Application Group, Space Application Center. Ahmedabad.
Kadikar, P. (1994). Status of Banni (Kachchh, Gujarat) grassland by 2000 AD using Multitemporal remote sensing satellite data. Dissertation.
Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.
052
Ecology and Management of 'Banni'
Grasslands of Kachchh, Gujarat