No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
New Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age Radiocarbon Dates for North Kazakhstan and South Siberia
... For Botai, a total of 25 radiocarbon dates on horse bone collagen, human collagen and botanical remains are available in the literature, which estimates the Eneolithic phase to ca. 3600-3100 BC (Levine and Kislenko 1997;Levine 1999;Outram et al. 2009;De Barros Damgaard et al. 2018;Gaunitz et al. 2018;Mortuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. 2019). The earliest published dates, however, exhibit rather large uncertainties (Levine and Kislenko 1999;Levine 1997) compared to more recent ones. ...
... For Botai, a total of 25 radiocarbon dates on horse bone collagen, human collagen and botanical remains are available in the literature, which estimates the Eneolithic phase to ca. 3600-3100 BC (Levine and Kislenko 1997;Levine 1999;Outram et al. 2009;De Barros Damgaard et al. 2018;Gaunitz et al. 2018;Mortuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. 2019). The earliest published dates, however, exhibit rather large uncertainties (Levine and Kislenko 1999;Levine 1997) compared to more recent ones. Stratigraphical sequences have not been highlighted, thus, the relative relationship between dated materials is not well-established. ...
... We compiled the 25 radiocarbon dates on horse bone collagen, human collagen and botanical remains already published (SI Table S2) to create a single-phase model in OxCal as reference (Levine and Kislenko (Levine and Kislenko 1997;Levine 1999;Outram et al. 2009;de Barros Damgaard et al. 2018;Gaunitz et al. 2018;Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. 2019). Charcoal dates were treated as TPQs dates, which is common practice to mitigate for any samples with a potential old wood effect. ...
Direct and accurate radiocarbon dating of lipid residues preserved in ceramics is a recently established method that allows direct dating of specific food products and their inception in human subsistence strategies. The method targets individual fatty acids originating from animal fats such as ruminant dairy, ruminant adipose, non-ruminant adipose and aquatic fats. Horse lipid residues found in Central Asian pottery vessels are also directly dateable using this new method. Here we present the identification of equine lipid residues preserved in two pottery assemblages from the Neolithic and Eneolithic in Kazakhstan and their direct 14C dating. The site of Botai, previously radiocarbon-dated to the 4th millennium BC, was used as a reference to evaluate the dates obtained directly on horse lipids. The direct dating of equine products extracted from Botai potsherds are shown to be compatible with previous 14C dates at the site. The site of Bestamak, lacking previous14C measurements, had been relatively dated to the Neolithic based on pottery typologies. The direct dating of equine residues made it possible to anchor the pottery assemblage of Bestamak in the 6th millennium BC confirming their Neolithic attribution. These findings demonstrate the potential for dating horse products through a compound-specific approach, while highlighting challenges in 14C dating individual fatty acids from lipid extracts in which their abundances differ substantially.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-022-01630-2.
... Since horse domestication was certainly accomplished by this time, these mortality patterns provide a useful point of comparison with earlier sites where the status of the horses as wild or domestic is still open to question. Early Bronze Age (2500-2920 BC calibrated) mortality patterns from the site of Sergeevka, Kazakhstan (Levine and Kislenko 1997), indicate a relatively low mortality rate for animals in their first year of life (around 6%). Slaughter there focuses instead on animals in the 1-5-year range and the 5-12-year range. ...
... The Botai culture is represented by four known settlements: Botai, Krasnyi Yar, Vasilkovka, and Roshchinskoe (Figure 17.1). Of these, most of the work has been done on the largest site, Botai, which has been radiocarbon dated to 3700-3100 BC (calibrated) (Levine and Kislenko 1997). Excavations have been conducted regularly at Botai since the 1980s by the University of North Kazakhstan, under the direction of Victor Zaibert (1993). ...
... Since horse domestication was certainly accomplished by this time, these mortality patterns provide a useful point of comparison with earlier sites where the status of the horses as wild or domestic is still open to question. Early Bronze Age (2500-2920 BC calibrated) mortality patterns from the site of Sergeevka, Kazakhstan (Levine and Kislenko 1997), indicate a relatively low mortality rate for animals in their first year of life (around 6%). Slaughter there focuses instead on animals in the 1-5-year range and the 5-12-year range. ...
... The Botai culture is represented by four known settlements: Botai, Krasnyi Yar, Vasilkovka, and Roshchinskoe (Figure 17.1). Of these, most of the work has been done on the largest site, Botai, which has been radiocarbon dated to 3700-3100 BC (calibrated) (Levine and Kislenko 1997). Excavations have been conducted regularly at Botai since the 1980s by the University of North Kazakhstan, under the direction of Victor Zaibert (1993). ...
... Linkage with the most prominent strategic topographic settings is well evident since the earliest times pointing to the adaptation to the local mountain and steppe environments (e.g. Levine and Kislenko 1997;Vishnyatsky 1999). Whereas the hydronyms of the Sary-Arka may have an intricate and not a fully clear origin with a connection to the ancient tribes and nations, the principal oronyms (Altai, Tarbagatai, Alatau, Shingistau, Bayanaul etc.) clearly show their Mongolian provenance. ...
East Kazakhstan is physiographically a diverse region of north-central Asia encompassing a broad array of geomorphic zones and geo-ecosystems from the western open steppes to the interior arid basins with wind-sculptured surfaces of the surrounding rocky highlands aligned by the high alpine mountain ranges. The complex regional geological history gave rise to a mosaic of impressive landforms located within a relatively small area. The extraordinary relief with many unique geo-sites was generated by dynamic processes associated with the late Cainozoic orogenesis in conjunction with the past climatic variations. The cyclicity of bedrock weathering and mass sediment transfer are manifested by Mesozoic fossiliferous formations, large sand dune fields, and loess-palaeosol-cryogenic series providing archives of the Quaternary evolution. Pleistocene glaciations followed by cataclysmic floods from the released ice-dammed lakes during the recessional glacier stages have produced an exceptional imprint in the mountain areas. Many archaeological localities and historic monuments, some being a part of the UNESCO World Natural and Cultural Heritage, are associated with the most prominent topographic places. Geo-tourism focusing on the most exquisite landscapes and spectacular geological settings is the new trend in the country with still minor activities that take advantage of the region’s supreme geoheritage potential. The great geo-diversity accentuates the touristic value of this still marginally explored geographic area. Reconnaissance, documentation, and publicity of the most unique geo-sites and geo-parks provide an impetus for their registration in the national and international nature heritage protection programs under proper geo-environmental conservation policies.
... The steppe Middle and Late Bronze Age gene pool was largely descended from the preceding steppe Early and Middle Bronze Age gene pool, with a substantial contribution from Late Neolithic Europeans 21 . Also, recent archaeogenetic studies trace multiple large-scale trans-Eurasian migrations over the past several millennia using ancient inner Eurasian genomes 22,23 , including individuals from the Eneolithic Botai culture in Northern Kazakhstan in the fourth millennium bc 24 . These studies now provide a rich context for interpretation of the presentday population structure of inner Eurasians and characterization of ancient admixtures in fine resolution. ...
The indigenous populations of inner Eurasia—a huge geographic region covering the central Eurasian steppe and the northern Eurasian taiga and tundra—harbour tremendous diversity in their genes, cultures and languages. In this study, we report novel genome-wide data for 763 individuals from Armenia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. We furthermore report additional damage-reduced genome-wide data of two previously published individuals from the Eneolithic Botai culture in Kazakhstan (~5,400 bp). We find that present-day inner Eurasian populations are structured into three distinct admixture clines stretching between various western and eastern Eurasian ancestries, mirroring geography. The Botai and more recent ancient genomes from Siberia show a decrease in contributions from so-called ‘ancient North Eurasian’ ancestry over time, which is detectable only in the northern-most ‘forest-tundra’ cline. The intermediate ‘steppe-forest’ cline descends from the Late Bronze Age steppe ancestries, while the ‘southern steppe’ cline further to the south shows a strong West/South Asian influence. Ancient genomes suggest a northward spread of the southern steppe cline in Central Asia during the first millennium bc. Finally, the genetic structure of Caucasus populations highlights a role of the Caucasus Mountains as a barrier to gene flow and suggests a post-Neolithic gene flow into North Caucasus populations from the steppe.
... Outram et al. 2009. A close linkage of these sites with the most prominent and strategic topographic settings since the Palaeolithic times is evident, pointing to adaptation to the mountain and steppe environments (e.g., Levine and Kislenko 1997, vishnyatsky 1999, Zakh et al. 2010, Chlachula 2010, 2017, Kotov 2016. The mountain regions of Central Asia are believed to facilitate spread of early agriculture since the Bronze Age (Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. 2015). ...
This study examines the etymology of the principal physiographic entities of the ancient Sary-Arka area–meaning in the old Turkic language Yellowing Ridge – encompassing the present territory of parkland-steppes, rocky highlands and the adjacent mountains of North and East Kazakhstan. The current linguistic evidence points to a complex and chronologically long culture-historical development reflected by the local place names best-recorded for the major rivers and mountains (hydronyms and oronyms, respectively). Not all geo-site names are securely determined by using modern onomastics. Records of material culture provide additional multi-proxy information. Local uniformity of some toponyms across the extensive area assuming a common cultural background attests to a broader ethnic homogeneity and/or mobility of the ancient populations inhabiting this vast and geomorphically mosaic land. This suggests a close relationship and interactions (including demographic exchanges and mixing) between the past pastoral ethics in the parkland-steppe and semi-desert areas north of Lake Balkhash between the Aral Sea and the southern Urals in the West and the Alatau–Altai Mountain systems in the East. Whereas the hydronyms of the Sary-Arka may have a rather complex and not fully clear origin with a connection to the Turkic-Tatar medieval tribes and nations’ occupancy in northern Central Asia eventually modified into the present Kazakh language forms, the oronyms of the East Kazakhstan mountain ranges indicate the Mongolian roots.
... Excavations have been conducted at the Eneolithic settlement of Botai under the direction of Victor Zaibert since 1980. The site dates to the mid-to late 4th millennium BCE (Levine and Kislenko 2002;Outram et al. 2009) and is the type site for a wider culture that includes a number of similar settlements, the most important of which are Krasnyi Yar and Vasilkovka . A key feature of all these sites is the extreme dominance of horses in their faunal assemblages, almost to the exclusion of other species . ...
Ancient steppes for human equestrians
The Eurasian steppes reach from the Ukraine in Europe to Mongolia and China. Over the past 5000 years, these flat grasslands were thought to be the route for the ebb and flow of migrant humans, their horses, and their languages. de Barros Damgaard et al. probed whole-genome sequences from the remains of 74 individuals found across this region. Although there is evidence for migration into Europe from the steppes, the details of human movements are complex and involve independent acquisitions of horse cultures. Furthermore, it appears that the Indo-European Hittite language derived from Anatolia, not the steppes. The steppe people seem not to have penetrated South Asia. Genetic evidence indicates an independent history involving western Eurasian admixture into ancient South Asian peoples.
Science , this issue p. eaar7711
... Vishnyatsky 1999;Derevianko 2001;Ranov et al. 2002;Krivoshapkin et al. 2006), and not many dates were generated for Holocene complexes (e.g. Harris et al. 1996;Hall 1997;Levine and Kislenko 1997;Kuzmina 2008;Panyushkina et al. 2008). It is clear that more work needs to be done in order to establish a firm chronological framework for prehistoric and early historic periods in Central Asia. ...
The inception of the radiocarbon dating method in 1949 was immediately supported by many archaeologists. In the following 2 decades, many important archaeological sites in the Old World were dated, marking the beginning of building a reliable chronological framework for prehistoric and early historic cultural complexes worldwide. The author presents an observation of some of the most important results in establishing a chronology for Old World archaeology, based on 14C dating performed in the last 50 yr. An extensive bibliography should help scholars to get acquainted with early summaries on archaeological chronologies based on 14C data and their evaluation, as well as with some recent examples of the application of 14C dating in Old World archaeology. © 2009 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona.
... The obtained AMS dates are the first for the Eneolithic of the Middle and Upper Irtysh River region and correspond with the archaeological chronology for the sites. The new 14 C dates of the Borly 4 settlement suggest that the site is generally synchronous to the Eneolithic sites of southwestern Siberia and Kazakhstan, including Novoilyinka 3 and 6 in the North Kulunda River area (38-25th centuries BC), sites of the Ust-Narym-Shiderty type in the northeast Kazakh Uplands (second half of the 4th to first half of the 3rd millennium BC; Merz 2008; Gaiduchenko and Kiryushin 2013), Tersek culture settlements of Kozhai 1 and Kumkeshu 1 in the Turgai region (41st to 25th centuries BC; Kaliyeva and Logvin 1997), Botai culture settlements of Botai and Krasny Yar in the foreststeppe Ishim River region (38th to 32nd centuries BC; Levine and Kislenko 2002), as well as to the Afanasyevo culture sites of the Altai Mountains and Yenisei River (38-25th centuries BC), and Yamnaya culture sites of the Volga-Ural region (39-27th centuries BC; Polyakov 2010; Morgunova 2014). Archaeologically, the aforementioned sites reveal similar economical features characteristic to early pastoral societies (Gaiduchenko 2013;Gaiduchenko and Kiryushin 2013). ...
Freshwater reservoir effects (FRE) can cause problems when radiocarbon dating human skeletal material from the Eurasian steppe. This article presents the first results of research into the extent of the FRE in the sites of Borly 4 (Eneolithic) and Shauke 1 and 8b (Early Bronze Age), northeastern Kazakhstan. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)14C dating and stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) analysis of associated groups of samples (32 samples, 11 groups in total) demonstrate the following: (a) the diet of the humans and fauna analyzed was based on the C3 foodchain with no evidence of a C4 plant (such as millet) contribution; aquatic resources apparently were a continuous dietary feature for the humans; (b) the first14C dates obtained for the Upper and Middle Irtysh River region attribute the Eneolithic period of the area to the 34th to 30th centuries BC, and the Early Bronze Age to the 25th to 20th centuries BC, with a ~450-yr hiatus between the two periods; (c) the maximum fish-herbivore freshwater reservoir offset observed equals 301 ± 4714C yr. As such, 14C dates from aquatic and human samples from the area need to be interpreted with caution as they are likely to be affected by the offset (i.e. appear older). The article also discusses the effect of a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) wash on δ13C, δ15N, C:Natomic levels and collagen yields of the bone samples. Our results indicate a minor but significant effect of NaOH treatment only on C:Natomic ratios of the samples. © 2015 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona.
... Since 1980, when fieldwork started at the Eneolithic settlement of Botai (Zaibert, 2009; Zaibert et al., 2007)(see location in Figure 1), the Botai Culture of northern Kazakhstan has been a strong candidate as a centre for early horse domestication, because of its extreme focus on the exploitation of horses (Anthony, 2007; Levine, 1999; Olsen, 2006a, 2006b). At the start of this culture, in the mid fourth millennium BC (Levine and Kislenko, 2002; Outram et al., 2009), apparently mobile hunter-gatherers in the region, described as Neolithic because they possessed ceramics, settled down in substantial and at least semi-sedentary villages (Olsen et al., 2006) and focused their economic attention upon horses. Opinion has been divided between those who have maintained that this phenomenon represented a specialization in hunting wild horses (Benecke & von den Driesch 2003; Levine 1999, 2004) and those who argue that Botai horses were domestic, most likely ridden, and maybe used in the hunting of other wild horses (Anthony 2007; Anthony and Brown 2003; Olsen 2006a, 2006b). ...
Current research themes relating to prehistoric Central Asian pastoralism are discussed, and the Neolithic to Bronze archaeological sequence in Kazakhstan is briefly outlined. The results of new faunal analyses of six later Bronze Age sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan are presented. These studies are based upon the analysis of 63,529 bone fragments, of which 27,023 were identifiable to species and element. These assemblages are compared with 16 other sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan, and the Trans-Ural region. The herd structures at the final Bronze Age site of Kent are discussed in detail. Analyses of absorbed lipid residues from four sites are also presented. In total, 140 pottery sherds were analysed, of which 73 provided sufficient residues for stable isotope ratio determinations. It is concluded that species proportions are highly variable regionally. Cattle are most prevalent in the forest steppe zone, whilst caprines become more common in semi-arid steppe regions. Proportions of horse are particularly variable, even within environmentally similar areas. Lipid residue results indicate the high prevalence of ruminant dairy products in pottery vessels, whilst faunal data from Kent suggests that cattle husbandry might have been particularly focussed on milk, in comparison with sheep and goats. The significance of horses within prehistoric pastoralism is discussed.
... Although some remains of Pleistocene mammals have been discovered eroding out of the river bank, the prehistoric human occupation of Botai apparently extended only from the Mesolithic to the Eneolithic. Substantial Neolithic remains are probably present, but excavation has so far been confined largely to the Eneolithic occupation, dated to around 3500 B.C. (Table 12) Levine and Kislenko 1997). ...
This paper explores some issues related to the origins of horse domestication. First, it focuses on methodological problems relevant to existing work. Then, ethnoarchaeological and archaeozoological methods are used to provide an alternative approach to the subject. Ethnological, ethological, and archaeological data are used to construct a series of population structure models illustrating a range of human–horse relationships. Analysis of assemblages from the Eneolithic sites of Botai (northern Kazakhstan) and Dereivka (Ukraine) suggests that horses at these sites were obtained largely by hunting.
This paper is devoted to the key problems associated with the chronology and periodization of the Eneolithic complexes located on the territory of the forest-steppe foothill Trans-Urals and Tobol river regions. The basic dated complexes are considered in the context of absolute chronology, the established criteria for the dating of archaeological cultures and ceramic traditions and types of this period are analyzed; based on radiocarbon dating of organic remains in ceramics, preserved bone remains of mammals and charcoal from the settlements of the forest-steppe Tobol river region: Tashkovo 1, Kochegarovo 1, Buzan-3 burial ground, Savin I, Slabodchiki I sanctuaries and Bakshay sanctuaries from the eastern slope of the Urals. In the forest-steppe zone of the Trans-Urals, about 30 complexes of the Eneolithic have been investigated by excavations. Only six of them have radiocarbon datings, the total number of datings is 23. The Eneolithic complexes of the settlements of Kochegarovo I - 10 determinations, Tashkovo I - 4 determinations with dates, although it is not enough for full statistics. The rest of the complexes have either fewer or obviously invalid dates. In the Eneolithic of the region along the entire length from the middle of the 5th to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC almost all of the existing cultural traditions continued to coexist. It should be noted that the earliest tradition in the Eneolithic of the region was the tradition of ornamentation with a comb stamp with simple (linear) and geometric patterns.
Cambridge Core - Prehistory - Subsistence and Society in Prehistory - by Alan K. Outram
In this wide-ranging and often controversial book, Robert Drews examines the question of the origins of man's relations with the horse. He questions the belief that on the Eurasian steppes men were riding in battle as early as 4000 BC, and suggests that it was not until around 900 BC that men anywhere - whether in the Near East and the Aegean or on the steppes of Asia - were proficient enough to handle a bow, sword or spear while on horseback. After establishing when, where, and most importantly why good riding began, Drews goes on to show how riding raiders terrorized the civilized world in the seventh century BC, and how central cavalry was to the success of the Median and Persian empires. Drawing on archaeological, iconographic and textual evidence, this is the first book devoted to the question of when horseback riders became important in combat. Comprehensively illustrated, this book will be essential reading for anyone interested in the origins of civilization in Eurasia, and the development of man's military relationship with the horse.
The symbolism of the horse in Eneolithic society is explored in this paper. Recent excavations in the Eurasian steppes demonstrate the importance of horses before domestication and horse riding became common; showing they were eaten, exploited and revered.
Bit wear is the damage that occurs on the occlusal surfaces of the second premolar teeth when a horse chews the bit. Bit wear can provide evidence of horseback riding and/or horse draught from teeth found in archaeological sites. This article revises our earlier definition of bit wear and describes wear on an expanded study collection of modern bitted and feral horses (72 individuals). An experiment is described in which previously unbitted horses were ridden with organic bits to simulate the wear made by pre-metallic bits. Because the evaluation of bit wear depends partially on the age of the horse, a crown-height/age curve for horse lower second premolars is presented. Finally, horse premolars from the archaeological site of Botai in Kazakstan are evaluated using the new definition of bit wear and are found to provide evidence for horseback riding in northern Kazakstan between 3400 and 2700BC.
Before the development of firearms, the horse was crucial to warfare and, before the invention of the steam engine, it was the fastest and most reliable form of land transport. It is crucial to the life of nomadic pastoralists on the Eurasian steppe and played a major role in the evolution of human society during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Understanding the human past requires knowledge of the origins and development of horse husbandry. The problem of being able to identify the early stages of horse domestication is one that many researchers have grappled with for the most part unsuccessfully. Until recently the most important criteria used had been that of increased relative abundance. That is, around 3500 BC, in some parts of Eurasia, there was an apparent increase in the proportions of horse bones and teeth found in archaeological deposits by comparison with preceding periods. However, other evidence suggests that the observed increase during the Copper Age could be explained as well, or even better, by increased hunting rather than by domestication.
Bit wear is the damage that occurs on the occlusal surfaces of the second premolar teeth when a horse chews the bit. Bit wear can provide evidence of horseback riding and/or horse draught from teeth found in archaeological sites. This article revises our earlier definition of bit wear and describes wear on an expanded study collection of modern bitted and feral horses (72 individuals). An experiment is described in which previously unbitted horses were ridden with organic bits to simulate the wear made by pre-metallic bits. Because the evaluation of bit wear depends partially on the age of the horse, a crown-height/age curve for horse lower second premolars is presented. Finally, horse premolars from the archaeological site of Botai in Kazakstan are evaluated using the new definition of bit wear and are found to provide evidence for horseback riding in northern Kazakstan between 3400 and 2700BC.
Opit rekonstruktsii eneoliticheskovo zhilishcha
- A M Kislenko
The architecture of Archaim settlement
- G B Zdanovich
Ostatki mlekopitayushchikh iz poselenya Botai (po raskopkam 1982 g
- N M Yermolova
Loshadi Botaya [The horse of Botai
- I E Kuz'mina