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Shah 'Abbās and the Pilgrimage to Mashhad
Abstract
This paper explores the thousand-kilometre walk of Shah 'Abbas from Isfahan to Mashhad in 1601. Local knowledge gleaned on two field trips is combined with data from satellite images and travellers' accounts from the Iran of Shah 'Abbas, both to precisely identify some of Shah 'Abbas's stopping places, and also to propose some additional halts. The rope measurement (tanab) system apparently used during the walk is tested and found to be precise. The walk is set firmly into the local context of the preceding Safavid-Uzbek campaigns. In addition, the legend of Shah 'Abbas's 999 caravanserais is discussed.
This essay considers the "great" status of Shah 'Abbā s I, the most consequential Safavid ruler, by comparing European descriptions to his portrayal in the Persian-language sources. While both depict him as energetic, resolute, and unadorned in attire and demeanor, European sources present him primarily as an empire builder while Persian-language works focus on his role as a warrior on horseback, fighting external enemies and putting down domestic revolts. Neither accounts ignore the violence that came with absolute power, but while Europeans viewed such violence as an unfortunate byprod-uct of power, Persian chronicles celebrate 'Abbā s as a ghā zi warrior, merciless in his efforts to root out heretics and unbelievers. The surviving image of the shah as a "great" ruler was first reported by European visitors and is primarily a composite of the way they depicted him-as a Renaissance prince and determined empire builder who remained close to his subjects and their concerns. But this king (whom wee call barbarous, though from his example wee may learne many great and good things) knowing that the true care of a Prince must bee euer the publique good; and the capablenesse of his ruling, would bee iugded by his true Iustice, and elections of his Ministers, and distribution of his fauour upon the worthiest (which also should make worthy use of it).-Anthony Sherley, Travels into Persia, 70. The King's disposition is noted by his apparel which he wears that day; for that day which he weareth black, he is commonly melancholy and civil; if he wear white or green, yellow or any other light color, he is commonly merry; but when he weareth red, then all the court is afraid of him, for he will be sure to kill somebody that day: I have oft-times noted it.-Manwaring, "True Discourse," 221.
The dispute between science and religion evolved into diverse forms in the early modern period. Among the advocates of science, not all manifested anti-religious sentiments, and in some instances, religious authorities even supported scientific methods in resolving secular and sacred problems. Sixteenth-century Persia, under the Safavid monarchy, witnessed disputes between proponents and opponents of scientific methods in addressing religious and civic matters. In this article, I will present two polemics between scholars and jurists who served the Safavid shahs concerning the relevance of astral sciences in resolving religious matters. The first dispute concerns determining the orientation of the prayer niche direction ( qibla ). The second concerns legalizing the practice of astral sciences in general. For the matter of the prayer niche, I will discuss a dispute that occurred at the court of Ṭahmāsb I (r. 1524–76) between ʿAlī ibn Ḥusayn al-Karakī (d. 1534), the first chief jurisconsult ( shaykh al-islām ) at the Safavid court, and Ghiyāth al-Dīn Manṣūr Dashtakī (1461–1542), which proved to be a failure for science and a success for tradition. For the case of the astral sciences, I will examine two attempts by Bahāʾ al-Dīn al-ʿĀmilī (1547–1621), the successor to al-Karakī at the court of ʿAbbās I (r. 1587–1629), to justify the permissibility of scientific methods in addressing matters of jurisprudence. I will discuss ʿĀmilī’s opinion on the prayer niche in four of his works, and will introduce and examine his Crescent Garden ( al-Ḥadīqa al-hilāliyya ), a commentary on a prayer for crescent sighting. I will further show that although the first attempt failed to establish scientific credibility for astronomy and astrology at the court, the second proved successful both in the royal and civic realms.
Modernite ve onun rasyonel aklı dini duygulanımlara hurafeler olarak bakma eğiliminde olmuştur. Her ne kadar muhafazakarlık bu konuda daha pragmatist yaklaşsa da İslamcılık türbe ziyaretlerini ve insani fenomenleri anlamaktan oldukça uzaktır. Ölmek için doğmayız ancak yaşadığımız her an ölürüz. Tecrübe edemediğimiz bu gerçeklik bizi sürekli korkularımızla baş başa bırakır ve ölümün varoluşuna karşı tavrımız bizi çeşitli fenomenlerle yüz yüze getirir. Geleceğimiz ölümün elinde tutsak iken geçmişimiz mezarlarda ve türbelerde yaşamaya devam eder. Kurtulamadığımız korkularımız, vaz geçemediğimiz umutlarımız ve bir arada yaşama zorunluluğumuz bizi matem törenlerinde ve türbe ziyaretlerinde bir araya getirir. Ölüm siyasal bir gerçeklik olarak aynı zamanda bizim bilincimizi oluşturan toplumsallaşma mekanlarının var olmasının sebebidir. İnsanoğlu tarih öncesi dönemlerden beri ölü kültü çerçevesinde toplumsallığını inşa etmiş, devamlılığını sağlamıştır. Ölünün hemen yanına ya da üzerine yapılan ibadethaneler ve buralarda düzenlenen ritüeller toplumların vazgeçilmezleri olmuştur. Şiilik için masum kabul edilen, tanrısal inayetin yansıması olan kutsal bir imamın önderliği tartışılmaz. Bununla birlikte İmamiyye, ölüler etrafında oluşan ve kimliğini bu ölülerle kurgulayan siyasi-dini bir hareket olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Me’mun’un Şiilerle olan ayrışmayı önlemek amacıyla veliaht tayin ettiği, ancak beklenmedik biçimde vefat eden/öldürülen ve zamanla yaşanan siyasi gelişmeler neticesinde yüceltilen ve şehit kabul edilen Ali er-Rıza’nın İmamiyye için toplumsal kimliğin ayrışmaz parçasına dönüştüğü gösterilecektir. Ayrıca İmamiyye’nin Moğollar, Osmanlılar, Özbekler ve Afganlılar ile yaşadığı siyasi, kültürel mücadelelerin Meşhed kentinin gelişiminde oynadığı rol ortaya konulacaktır. İmami Şiiliğinin en önemli türbesinin bulunduğu Meşhed’in onuncu asırdan itibaren oynadığı tarihi rolde elbette Safeviler, Kaçarlar, Pehlevi hanedanlıkları ve İran İslam Devrimi süresince yaşanan siyasi gelişmelerin etkisi yadsınamazModernite ve onun rasyonel aklı dini duygulanımlara hurafeler olarak bakma eğiliminde olmuştur. Her ne kadar muhafazakarlık bu konuda daha pragmatist yaklaşsa da İslamcılık türbe ziyaretlerini ve insani fenomenleri anlamaktan oldukça uzaktır. Ölmek için doğmayız ancak yaşadığımız her an ölürüz. Tecrübe edemediğimiz bu gerçeklik bizi sürekli korkularımızla baş başa bırakır ve ölümün varoluşuna karşı tavrımız bizi çeşitli fenomenlerle yüz yüze getirir. Geleceğimiz ölümün elinde tutsak iken geçmişimiz mezarlarda ve türbelerde yaşamaya devam eder. Kurtulamadığımız korkularımız, vaz geçemediğimiz umutlarımız ve bir arada yaşama zorunluluğumuz bizi matem törenlerinde ve türbe ziyaretlerinde bir araya getirir. Ölüm siyasal bir gerçeklik olarak aynı zamanda bizim bilincimizi oluşturan toplumsallaşma mekanlarının var olmasının sebebidir. İnsanoğlu tarih öncesi dönemlerden beri ölü kültü çerçevesinde toplumsallığını inşa etmiş, devamlılığını sağlamıştır. Ölünün hemen yanına ya da üzerine yapılan ibadethaneler ve buralarda düzenlenen ritüeller toplumların vazgeçilmezleri olmuştur. Şiilik için masum kabul edilen, tanrısal inayetin yansıması olan kutsal bir imamın önderliği tartışılmaz. Bununla birlikte İmamiyye, ölüler etrafında oluşan ve kimliğini bu ölülerle kurgulayan siyasi-dini bir hareket olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Me’mun’un Şiilerle olan ayrışmayı önlemek amacıyla veliaht tayin ettiği, ancak beklenmedik biçimde vefat eden/öldürülen ve zamanla yaşanan siyasi gelişmeler neticesinde yüceltilen ve şehit kabul edilen Ali er-Rıza’nın İmamiyye için toplumsal kimliğin ayrışmaz parçasına dönüştüğü gösterilecektir. Ayrıca İmamiyye’nin Moğollar, Osmanlılar, Özbekler ve Afganlılar ile yaşadığı siyasi, kültürel mücadelelerin Meşhed kentinin gelişiminde oynadığı rol ortaya konulacaktır. İmami Şiiliğinin en önemli türbesinin bulunduğu Meşhed’in onuncu asırdan itibaren oynadığı tarihi rolde elbette Safeviler, Kaçarlar, Pehlevi hanedanlıkları ve İran İslam Devrimi süresince yaşanan siyasi gelişmelerin etkisi yadsınamaz
Mashhad, the site in northeastern Iran of the shrine of the eighth Shii imam, is arguably one of the largest and wealthiest sacred shrines in the world. The gilded dome over the imam's mausoleum stands amidst an expansive complex of courts, monumental gateways, libraries, museums, guesthouses, and administrative offices that cater to thousands of pilgrims each year. This paper examines the period, under the aegis of the early Safavid shahs, when Mashhad was established as the preeminent Shii pilgrimage center in Iran. Appropriating the Timurid ecumenical vision for the shrine, the Safavid shahs refashioned the holy city into a site that celebrated the triumph of Twelver Shiism in the Safavid realm and reinforced Safavid claims of legitimacy. While highlighting Shah Tahmasb's personal devotion to Mashhad, and his privileging of the shrine within Safavid sacred topography, the paper focuses on Shah Abbas's urban reshaping of Mashhad and the architectural and institutional expansion of the shrine during his reign, thereby enhancing its status as the leading spiritual center in the Safavid empire.
Preface Acknowledgements Notes on transliteration List of abbreviations Maps Introduction 1. The Iranian silk trade: from the Silk Road to the Safavids 2. Procedures, logistics, finances 3. Shah 'Abbas I and the Safavid political economy: territorial expansion, anti-Ottoman diplomacy, and the politics of silk 4. Government control and growing competition: the silk export monopoly and the advent of the European maritime companies 5. The complications of privatization: from the abolition of the silk export monopoly to the peace of Zuhab, 1629-1639 6. Conflict and reorientation: silk to silver, 1640-1667 7. Renewed regulation and the rise of the Russian connection, 1660s-1690s 8. Contraction and continuity, 1690-1730 Conclusion Appendix Glossary Bibliography Index.
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