Content uploaded by Ross Wadey
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ross Wadey on Oct 09, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Mental toughness research: Key issues in this area
Abstract
This report reflects on the man books and articles which describe and attempt to understand mental toughness. In doing so, the authors sought to (a) raise awareness of the key conceptual and methodological issues, and (b) stimulate research activity in this area. Populist texts, anecdotal evidence, and personal accounts have defined mental toughness as a personality trait, a decisive factor accounting for successful performance, and a defense mechanism against adversity. These accounts have resulted in a vast array of terms and positive psychological characteristics being associated with mental toughness which have contributed to the inconsistency and ambiguity in the literature. Methodological issues have also added to the confusion surrounding the overall understanding of mental toughness. Recent studies which have tried to address the concept of mental toughness in a more scientific manner are discussed.
... It has been a matter of curiosity by athletes, coaches, sports commentators, and sports psychologists why certain athletes are the world's best in their field. 1 Despite having the right technique, the right exercises, the right meals and the right equipment, it has been stated that psychological factors are an important element that helps the athlete to perform better. When examined scientifically, the differences in the athlete's performance were found to be associated with mental toughness. ...
... 6 Motivational climate, family and peers of the athlete, intrinsic motivation and sport-specific life experiences are important for the athlete's success in the long-term development of mental toughness. 1 This highlights the fact that developing mental toughness requires an appropriate motivational climate. Once mental toughness is developed, an internalized desire for success and motivation are needed to maintain this structure. ...
Background: It has been a matter of curiosity by athletes, coaches, sports commentators, and sports psychologists why certain athletes are the world's best in their field. Aim: In our study, the mental toughness and motivational climates of licensed basketball players were examined according to age and gender variables. Methods: In this study, the relational screening model was used to determine the relationship between mental toughness and motivational climate in licensed basketball players studying in physical education and sports teaching departments. Results: As a result of this study, where mental toughness and motivational climate, which are known to be necessary to maintain the ideal performance level during competition, are evaluated according to age and gender variables, it is seen that the motivational climate and mental toughness scores do not differ according to the gender of the athletes. Conclusion: As a result of this study, where mental toughness and motivational climate, which are known to be necessary to maintain the ideal performance level during competition, are evaluated according to age and gender variables, it is seen that the motivational climate and mental toughness scores do not differ according to the gender of the athletes. Keywords: Mastery Climate, Performance Climate, Mental Toughness, Age, Gender
... However, having mental ability does not mean mental toughness. Mental endurance is a psychological aspect of sport that must be developed and sustained in order to be successful [20,21]. In the studies in the literature in which football, cricket, rowing, swimming athletes and Olympic champions participated, it was stated that mental performance and psychological processes are factors that affect each other and help each other's development [22][23][24][25]. ...
Background: The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between mental endurance and psychological well-being of male
chess players. Methods: 87 male active licensed chess players participated in the study. Ethics committee approval was obtained for
the research. Mental endurance scale, psychological well-being scale and personal information form were used to collect the research
data. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed for the research scales. In addition to descriptive statistics, correlation and
regression analyzes are included in the relational model. Results: Considering the average values obtained from the research scales, it
was found that the mental endurance and psychological well-being levels of chess players were high, and there was a positive and high
level relationship between mental endurance and psychological well-being within the scope of the relational model (r = 0.742; p < 0.001),
and it has been found that mental endurance has a significantly high and positive contribution on psychological well-being in sports (β
= 0.745; p < 0.001). Conclusions: It can be said that as the mental endurance of chess players improves, their psychological health will
also be positively affected. It can also be stated that, especially by directing the young generation to chess, their mental endurance and
psychological health will be improved in a positive way.
... This approach has resulted in the creation of the 6 Cs model of MT. Despite MTQ48's wide application has been the subject of some criticism [19], the results of the analyses did not corroborate the principle of the four-and six-factor approach, although Gucciardi, Hanton [15] insisted on the necessity to re-examine the MTQ48 with a broader membership. In addition, a recent statement in response to his article noted that he did not have a complete review of the literature, did not recognize the shortcomings of the confirmatory factor analysis CFA, and used irrelevant samples. ...
The use of structural equation models (SEM) in scientific research perform a promising methodological and empirical direction to validate the measurement of psychological constructs. The aim of this paper is to validate the measurement of mental toughness of athletes and non-athletes with SEM. The sample consisted of 853 Tunisian participants (444 males and 409 females; 409 athletes and 444 non-athletes), aged 14 to 27 years (M=20.38 SD=4.12). The sample completed the Arabic translated questionnaire of Clough, Earle [1] which measures six components of their mental toughness. The SEM approved a good model fit (χ ² =1146.33; df =1065; CFI=.93; SRMR=.063; RMSEA=.009) which allows for a valid Arabic-speaking measure of the six components of mental toughness.
Previous research has found that mental toughness is a predictor of attainment in higher education, but there is little empirical research investigating the underpinnings of this. Two studies were therefore conducted to explore why mental toughness may be important. In Study 1, 123 undergraduates completed measures of mental toughness, flow, engagement with feedback, and reported their academic attainment. Components of mental toughness, particularly commitment, were related to flow, engagement with feedback, and academic performance. Flow and engagement with feedback were found to be significant mediators of the relationship between the commitment component of mental toughness and academic performance. In Study 2, 79 participants completed a measure of mental toughness and were assigned to high or low mental toughness groups. They then completed two mathematics tasks, and received either positive, negative, or no feedback between the tasks. Those with lower mental toughness were found to perform less well following negative feedback than those with higher mental toughness. The results are discussed in terms of implications for educators who provide feedback and seek to encourage students to engage with that feedback.
The aim of this research is to examine the relationship between mental toughness, goal orientation and motivational climate levels of professional football players. The secondary aim of the study is to determine whether the mental toughness, goal orientation and motivational climate levels of professional football players differ according to demographic variables (age, league level and sports experience). 887 Professional football players from TFF 1st League, TFF 2nd League and TFF 3rd League registered with the Turkish Football Federation participated in the research. In the research, “Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire” (SMTQ), “Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire” (TEOSQ), “Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire” (PMCSQ) and Personal Information Form prepared by the researcher were used as data collection tools. Descriptive statistics, One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Pearson Correlation Analysis and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis were used in the analysis of the data.
According to the results of the research, it was determined that the mental toughness scores of professional football players differed significantly according to age, league level and sports experience. The goal orientation scores of professional football players differed significantly according to age and league level; It was observed that there was no difference according to sports experience. It was found that the perceived motivational climate scores of professional football players differed significantly according to age, league level and sports experience. In relational analyzes, it was observed that task orientation had a significant and
positive effect on mental toughness. The effect of mastery climate, one of the perceived motivational climate sub-dimensions, on mental toughness is significant and positive; performance climate was determined to be significant and negative.
The purpose of the present study was to gain a detailed understanding of Mental Toughness (MT) in the context of elite football officiating. Competition-specific and off-field situations perceived to require MT as well as corresponding behaviours and cognitions utilised by mentally tough referees were identified. Fifteen English Premier League (EPL) referees were individually interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. Through inductive and deductive content analysis, 70 situations converged into five higher-order themes: (a) pre-match situations; (b) during-match situations; (c) post-match situations; (d) general elite refereeing situations; and (e) general-life situations. Throughout emerging themes, a multifunctional set of adaptive patterns of behaviour (e.g. act as a barrier between players, looking calm and composed) and cognitive strategies (e.g. draw upon life experiences, awareness of players’ emotions) were outlined. Theoretical and applied implications for sport psychology practitioners and researchers operating in the area of MT are discussed.
PURPOSE This study comprehensively compared the perception and interaction of player–coach in the development of mental toughness in soccer.METHODS Data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews from 12 participants (6 athletes and 6 coaches), analyzed using the grounded theory by Strauss and Corbin, and they were compared to the group of athletes and coaches, respectively.RESULTS The following results were obtained: (1) Both athletes and coaches recognized that the experience of coping with the pressure present in competition was a central phenomenon in the development of mental toughness. (2) Regarding the situation and condition that lead to coping with pressure, the athletes emphasized the individual's goal orientation in the context of competitive situations and environmental conditions, while the coaches emphasized the athletic attitude toward competition and development in childhood. (3) The athlete–coach interaction was identified as an intervening condition affecting the experience of coping with pressure. (4) As the action–reaction strategy for the development of mental toughness, the optimistic thinking was emphasized for athlete and achievement-oriented thinking for coach; thus, it differed in the characteristics of mental toughness.CONCLUSIONS This study presented the results of an integrated comparison of mental toughness, which can vary depending on the contextual specificity (soccer) and the subject of perception (athlete– coach), especially indicating the importance of the player–coach interaction, which can contribute to the strategy to be used in mental toughness development.
The rapid increase of poverty, crime, and unemployment in South Africa results in youth vulnerability. Youth not in employment, not in education, and not in training are most vulnerable to life setbacks, find it difficult dealing with criticism, rejection, and failure. Thus, youth workers responsible for the coordination of youth service programme need to design an autonomy-supportive programme that can prepare youth mentally before youth are placed in a youth development programme that seeks to enhance youth employability. The National Youth Development Agency in South Africa under the National Youth Service Programme has developed a mental toughness programme curriculum that NYS volunteers undergo before participating in youth skill development programme or community service programme for a minimum of five days. The aim of the study is to explore the impact of the Mental Toughness Programme on the positive development of youth through youth lived experience in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. This study made use of a qualitative research approach, non-probability sampling to sample eight youth who participated in the Mental Toughness Programme offered by the National Youth Development Agency. In this study, we recommend that the National Youth Development Agency knowledge and research division should conduct a longitudinal study that can evaluate the impact of the Mental Toughness Programme on positive youth development in South Africa. The National Youth Development Agency should revise the mental toughness programme curriculum in a way that the programme goes beyond five days and physical toughness should be cooperated in the curriculum to enhance social cohesion. Received: 27 July 2021 / Accepted: 6 October 2021 / Published: 3 January 2022
Historically, mind studies have been separated from those carried out on the brain and behavior; the mind was still an abstract concept. However, later on, neurosciences and sports psychology have gone further and created a new discipline: sports neurosciences, aimed at exploring the physical and mental confines of an athlete and make them grow more and more. Neurosciences can, therefore, help bring closer psychological and biological areas, cognitive and mechanical structures. Several researches have been done on activation in situations under pressure, imagery (in hypnosis) and electroencephalogram (EEG); however, there is an obvious lack of studies that analyze how to monitor mental training on activation in situations under pressure by means of EEG, both in the office and on the field. Consequently, the objective of the present thesis is to monitor mental training on activation during a neutral situation and in a situation under pressure, by analyzing the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations in athletes with and without previous imagery experience. The pilot test analyzed the heart rate behavior in the activation of 7 athletes during imagery of under-pressure situations. In it, there was an increase in the heart rate in the situations under pressure, which was experienced, mainly, at the moment of highest pressure. From Study 1-A and 1-B neutral situation imagery (tennis service) was compared with imagery of under-pressure situations on 16 tennis players. On the one hand, in Study 1-A the activation during imagery of a neutral situation was monitored through the analysis of the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations of tennis players with and without prior experience in imagery; on the other hand, in Study 1-B activation during imagery was also monitored, although this time in a situation under pressure (tennis match). Results show that imageries from both neutral and under-pressure situations increased the heart rate, especially on those subjects with imagery experience; being this increase higher in the case of imagery of situations under pressure and finding its highest point at the moment of maximum pressure of the imagery: interval 5-6. Regarding brainwaves, imagery of both neutral and under-pressure situations (either by intervals, hemispheres, zones or channels) led to a decrease in the gamma wave activity, both in tennis players with previous experience in imagery and without. In the case of Study 1- B, an increase of the gamma wave was also observed in interval 5-6, which corresponds to the moment of maximum pressure. Regarding entropy, in Study 1-A it was lower in the neutral situation imagery, both in those with imagery experience and without; while in Study 1-B, the approximate and sample entropies were higher in the imagery of the situation under pressure in those without imagery experience. With regards to the subjective registrations, in psychological abilities (activation, self-confidence, motivation and concentration) of Studies 1-A and 1-B there were no significant differences between pre and post neither between before, during and after, except in Study 1-B between pre and post for the activation at during with a significance level of 10%. Regarding the reality of imagery, in Study 1-A the most real dimensions, from highest to lowest, were kinesthetic, visual, emotional, tactile and auditory (score from 3 to 5). Those that were more difficult to be perceived as real and to be aware of were the gustatory and olfactory ones in Study 1-A and only the olfactory in 1-B. In Studies 2-A and 2-B mental training on activation during imagery of an under-pressure situation was monitored through a protocol with and without mental training carried out in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) based on the analysis of the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations in a tennis player with high imagery experience in order to be able to see how activation developed, session by session, through the mental training carried out. Results show that both in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) the tennis player’s heart rate increased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), being higher in the office and in Protocol 2. It decreased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13) in Protocol 2, being also greater in the office; it decreased further in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), being higher in the office and in Protocol 1. In the case of brainwaves, the beta wave increased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in Protocol 1 and on the court in Protocol 2. Also, gamma, theta and delta waves increased in Protocol 2 on the court. Beta, gamma, delta and theta waves decreased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13), both in the office and on the court, being higher on the court, except for the gamma wave, which was higher in the office. Alpha and beta waves increased in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in Protocol 2. Regarding entropy (approximate entropy and sample), it decreased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), both in the office and on the court and both in Protocol 1 and 2, being higher on the court and in Protocol 2. It increased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13) in the office as well as on the court, being higher on the court. It also increased in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in both protocols but markedly in Protocol 2. Regarding subjective registrations, the tennis player managed to feel the pressure in the imagery of the situation under pressure both in the office and on the court before, during and after between points (highest pressure moment), being higher in Protocol 2. In the mental techniques application imagery he regulated the activation to feel it at an optimal level (7), although he found it more difficult on the court. All imageries were realized with great reality in all dimensions (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, kinesthetic and emotional), being the olfactory dimension more difficult to feel in the situation under pressure in the office for both Protocols, and on the court in Protocol 2, and the gustatory one on the court and in Protocol 2. Unexpectedly, it was also more difficult to feel the auditory one in the office in Protocol 1. In the mental techniques application imagery, the gustatory dimension was more difficult to feel both in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) and also, unexpectedly, the auditory one on the court. Therefore, the thesis results reflect the importance of monitoring the mental training of activation in situations under pressure; data of great use to improve neutral and under- pressure imagery and mental training in order to help athletes work on their activation. It is also useful to create neurofeedback protocols to increase the ability to perform imagery in athletes with both high and low experience and thus improve their mental training and self-awareness of under-pressure situations in their lives, what causes them, how they experience them and what they must do to deal with them.
This study was designed to examine psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Ten U.S. Olympic champions (winners of 32 Olympic medals) were interviewed, as were one of their coaches ( n = 10), and a parent, guardian, or significant other ( n = 10). A battery of psychological inventories was also administered to the athletes. It was found that the athletes were characterized by: (a) the ability to cope with and control anxiety; (b) confidence; (c) mental toughness/resiliency; (d) sport intelligence; (e) the ability to focus and block out distractions; (f) competitiveness; (g) a hard-work ethic; (h) the ability to set and achieve goals; (i) coachability; (j) high levels of dispositional hope; (k) optimism; and (l) adaptive perfectionism. Results also revealed that a number of individuals and institutions influenced the athletes' psychological development including the community, family, the individual himself or herself, non-sport personnel, sport environment personnel, and the sport process. Coach and family influences were particularly important. Ways in which these sources influenced the athletes were both direct, like teaching or emphasizing certain psychological lessons, and indirect, involving modeling or unintentionally creating certain psychological environments. Psychological characteristic findings verified current sport psychological research on psychological characteristics associated with peak performance (Williams & Krane, 2001). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism, dispositional hope, and high levels of optimism are new variables to consider. Results are also discussed relative to Bloom's (1985), Côtè's (1999) and Csikzentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong's (1993) talent development research. Practical implications focus on implementing parenting and coaching practices related to the development of psychological characteristics associated with athletic success.
Seven participants from a previous study (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) agreed to be interviewed about the development of mental toughness. We also aimed to determine whether mental toughness requires maintenance. Semistructured interviews were conducted to elicit the participants' perceptions of how mental toughness is cultivated and retained. Findings indicated that the development of mental toughness is a long-term process that encompasses a multitude of underlying mechanisms that operate in a combined, rather than independent, fashion. In general, these perceived underlying mechanisms related to many features associated with a motivational climate (e.g. enjoyment, mastery), various individuals (i.e. coaches, peers, parents, grandparents, siblings, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates), experiences in and outside sport, psychological skills and strategies, and an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed. It was also reported that once mental toughness had been developed, three perceived underlying mechanisms were required to maintain this construct: a desire and motivation to succeed that was insatiable and internalized, a support network that included sporting and non-sporting personnel, and effective use of basic and advanced psychological skills. Practical implications and future avenues of research are discussed.
Studied personality as a conditioner of the effects of stressful life events on illness onset. Two groups of middle- and upper-level 40-49 yr old executives had comparably high degrees of stressful life events in the previous 3 yrs, as measured by the Schedule of Recent Events. One group of 86 Ss suffered high stress without falling ill, whereas the other group of 75 Ss reported becoming sick after their encounter with stressful life events. Illness was measured by the Seriousness of Illness Survey (A. R. Wyler et al 1970). Discriminant function analysis, run on half of the Ss in each group and cross-validated on the remaining cases, supported the prediction that high stress/low illness executives show, by comparison with high stress/high illness executives, more hardiness, that is, have a stronger commitment to self, an attitude of vigorousness toward the environment, a sense of meaningfulness, and an internal locus of control. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The literature on mental toughness is characterized by a general lack of conceptual clarity and consensus as to its definition, as well as a general failure to operationalize the construct in a consistent manner. This study addressed two fundamental issues surrounding mental toughness: how can it be defined? and what are the essential attributes required to be a mentally tough performer? Ten international performers participated in either a focus group or one-toone interviews, from which a definition of mental toughness and the attributes of the ideal mentally tough performer emerged. The resulting definition emphasized both general and specific dimensions, while the 12 attributes covered self-belief, desire/motivation, dealing with pressure and anxiety, focus (performance-related), focus (lifestyle-related), and pain/hardship factors.
Mental toughness is a critical element in contemporary international cricket. However, little is known beyond the obvious basics of what constitutes mental toughness in an English cricketer. This study addressed two main objectives: 1) develop a greater understanding of what mental toughness is within cricket, and 2) identify how existing mentally tough English cricketers developed their mental toughness. Twelve English cricketers identified as being among the mentally toughest during the previous 20 years were interviewed. Analysis of the focused interview transcripts identified the critical role of the player's environment in influencing ‘Tough Character,’ ‘Tough Attitudes,’ and ‘Tough Thinking.’ The global themes are presented in a mental toughness framework that has been used to disseminate the findings to the cricket coaching and playing population in England. The contrasting and complementary nature of the global themes are used to help provide a structural appreciation of the need for consistent interaction between environment, character, attitudes, and thinking in order that a performer can consistently be considered as mentally tough in cricket. Implications of the findings in relation to the delivery of sport psychology support within English cricket are also highlighted.