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Race matters for women leaders: Intersectional effects on agentic deficiencies and penalties
... subordinate) racial/ethnic groups (Bigler et al., 2003(Bigler et al., , 2008Liben et al., 2001), to our knowledge, no studies on gender gaps in interest in leadership have taken an intersectional perspective, either with children or with adults (e.g., Netchaeva et al., 2022;Pate & Fox, 2018;Schuh et al., 2014;Schneider et al., 2016;Sheppard, 2018). However, some studies suggest that lack of fit or incongruity perceptions for leadership roles depend not only on gender but also on race/ethnicity (e.g., Galinsky et al., 2013;Livingston et al., 2012;Rosette & Tost, 2010;Rosette et al., 2016), and the mismatch between agentic leadership and female stereotypes may be weaker for women and girls of color relative to White women and girls. For instance, Black women (compared to White women) are more likely to be characterized with attributes that align with dominant agency (e.g., confident, assertive, aggressive, strong, dominant, not subservient) (Ghavami & Peplau, 2013;Rosette et al., 2016). ...
... However, some studies suggest that lack of fit or incongruity perceptions for leadership roles depend not only on gender but also on race/ethnicity (e.g., Galinsky et al., 2013;Livingston et al., 2012;Rosette & Tost, 2010;Rosette et al., 2016), and the mismatch between agentic leadership and female stereotypes may be weaker for women and girls of color relative to White women and girls. For instance, Black women (compared to White women) are more likely to be characterized with attributes that align with dominant agency (e.g., confident, assertive, aggressive, strong, dominant, not subservient) (Ghavami & Peplau, 2013;Rosette et al., 2016). Thus, taking on a leadership role may constitute less of a proscriptive role violation for women (and girls) of color relative to White women. ...
... Moreover, children of color (regardless of gender) anticipated significantly higher self-efficacy as leaders when the leader role was framed as communal, whereas this manipulation did not increase self-efficacy for White children. Although these patterns should be interpreted with caution given the small sample sizes for any particular gender × race/ethnicity combination, they again highlight the relevance of intersectional perspectives for a comprehensive understanding of leadership cognitions, not only in adults (e.g., Rosette et al., 2016) but also in children (Heck et al., 2021;Lei & Rhodes, 2021). ...
Investigating how children think about leadership may inform theories of the gender gaps in leadership among adults. In three studies (N = 492 U.S. children ages 5–10 years), we investigated (1) whether children expect those who claim leadership roles within a peer group to elicit social support and cooperation from the group, (2) children’s own interest and self-efficacy in such roles, and (3) the influence of contextual cues (e.g., how leader roles are described) on children’s reasoning about and interest in leadership. We also explored differences based on children’s race/ethnicity. In Study 1, girls expected lower social support for child leaders than boys did. However, in Study 2, we found no evidence that girls are less interested in leadership. In addition, interest in leadership increased with age among White girls but decreased among White boys and girls and boys of color. In Study 3, we tested whether interest in a leader role is boosted (particularly among girls) by describing the role as helpful for the group and by providing gender-balanced peer role models. Regardless of gender, children in the helpful or “communal” (vs. “agentic”) leader condition were more interested in the leader role, anticipated stronger social support and cooperation from others, and reported higher self-efficacy as leaders. The gender composition of role models had little impact. This research underscores the early development of children’s attitudes toward leadership and highlights the potential value in early interventions to nurture children’s leadership ambitions.
... Traditional roles for women are characterized by the "homemaker" stereotype (Eagly et al., 2020) [22] , where women are expected to stay at home, raise children and primarily fill the roles of mother and wife. A holistic understanding of the gender expressions would reveal that central characteristics associated with females are kindness, soft approach, tender, sensitive, submissiveness, feminine, empathy and gentility (Heilman, Manzi & Braun, 2015;Rosette et al., 2016) [31,55] . On the contrary, the roles of the males are expected to be quite opposite to the ones just mentioned above. ...
... Traditional roles for women are characterized by the "homemaker" stereotype (Eagly et al., 2020) [22] , where women are expected to stay at home, raise children and primarily fill the roles of mother and wife. A holistic understanding of the gender expressions would reveal that central characteristics associated with females are kindness, soft approach, tender, sensitive, submissiveness, feminine, empathy and gentility (Heilman, Manzi & Braun, 2015;Rosette et al., 2016) [31,55] . On the contrary, the roles of the males are expected to be quite opposite to the ones just mentioned above. ...
... They are expected to be strong, muscular, masculine, rough, loud and practical. They are expected to be the "breadwinners", expected to work, support their family financially and not be controlled by emotion (Eagly et al., 2020) [22] and they are expected to display characteristics like strength, intelligence and dominance (Rosette et al., 2016) [55] . ...
The issue of gender equality in employment has given rise to numerous policies in advanced industrial countries, all aimed at tackling gender discrimination regarding recruitment, salary and promotion. However, these policies have tremendously failed to make much of a headway to address a crucial issue at hand. And it has been observed that varying degree of workplace discriminations are handed out to women because of their gender. Yet gender inequalities in the workplace persist. The purpose of this study is to understand, analyses and evaluate the gender bias at workplace/ organizations. Moreover, the study makes a novel attempt to understand as why despite of the initiatives and interventions, the issues is yet to get resolved. The current study adopts a descriptive approach to exhibit the various discriminations meted out to women at the workplace. The study has extensive drawn from secondary sources of literature and an attempt has been made to provide a thorough insight on the issue of gender stereotypes and how it results in discrimination of women. The study is unique in a sense as despite multiple initiatives and policies still the issues loom large. Hence, the study makes a holistic attempt to understand as the root cause of the problem. Despite numerous policies women are facing discrimination at the workplace. The major reasons for the same is the mindset of the society which will take some time change. Moreover, one of the major findings is that women are still lacking the respect in the society.
... Yet this stereotype is based predominantly on white Western women. Rosette et al. (2016) refers to "intersectional effects" of raced and gendered stereotypes, to elucidate the nuances of stereotype content when considered at the intersection of two or more facets of identity. This means that when we consider AAC women we find that the intersectional stereotype narratives (i.e., the interactive narratives of race-based and gendered stereotypes), of Black African/Caribbean women as confident, dominant, and assertive and Asian women as competent, yet passive means that AAC women are at times able to exhibit agentic traits such as strength, competence, dominance, outspokenness and receive less backlash for displaying these behaviors (Rosette et al., 2016). ...
... Rosette et al. (2016) refers to "intersectional effects" of raced and gendered stereotypes, to elucidate the nuances of stereotype content when considered at the intersection of two or more facets of identity. This means that when we consider AAC women we find that the intersectional stereotype narratives (i.e., the interactive narratives of race-based and gendered stereotypes), of Black African/Caribbean women as confident, dominant, and assertive and Asian women as competent, yet passive means that AAC women are at times able to exhibit agentic traits such as strength, competence, dominance, outspokenness and receive less backlash for displaying these behaviors (Rosette et al., 2016). These group-based stereotypes were some of the conditions that women claimed play a role, in the ways they flexed an identity to navigate a situation. ...
... For many Asian women gender and racio-ethnicity intersect to produce a particularly fraught position for them. Asian women are likely to receive backlash or be harassed when they violate the prevailing prescriptive stereotype that is held of them by white colleagues (Rudman and Phelan, 2008;Rosette et al., 2016). Where Asian women are expected to be competent, yet docile, those who disturb this narrative, are likely to be deemed threatening or rude (Berdahl and Min, 2012). ...
... Yet this stereotype is based predominantly on white Western women. Rosette et al. (2016) refers to "intersectional effects" of raced and gendered stereotypes, to elucidate the nuances of stereotype content when considered at the intersection of two or more facets of identity. This means that when we consider AAC women we find that the intersectional stereotype narratives (i.e., the interactive narratives of race-based and gendered stereotypes), of Black African/Caribbean women as confident, dominant, and assertive and Asian women as competent, yet passive means that AAC women are at times able to exhibit agentic traits such as strength, competence, dominance, outspokenness and receive less backlash for displaying these behaviors (Rosette et al., 2016). ...
... Rosette et al. (2016) refers to "intersectional effects" of raced and gendered stereotypes, to elucidate the nuances of stereotype content when considered at the intersection of two or more facets of identity. This means that when we consider AAC women we find that the intersectional stereotype narratives (i.e., the interactive narratives of race-based and gendered stereotypes), of Black African/Caribbean women as confident, dominant, and assertive and Asian women as competent, yet passive means that AAC women are at times able to exhibit agentic traits such as strength, competence, dominance, outspokenness and receive less backlash for displaying these behaviors (Rosette et al., 2016). These group-based stereotypes were some of the conditions that women claimed play a role, in the ways they flexed an identity to navigate a situation. ...
... For many Asian women gender and racio-ethnicity intersect to produce a particularly fraught position for them. Asian women are likely to receive backlash or be harassed when they violate the prevailing prescriptive stereotype that is held of them by white colleagues (Rudman and Phelan, 2008;Rosette et al., 2016). Where Asian women are expected to be competent, yet docile, those who disturb this narrative, are likely to be deemed threatening or rude (Berdahl and Min, 2012). ...
Introduction
Professional British women of African, Asian, and Caribbean (AAC) ethnicities contend with unique challenges and experiences in the workplace. These challenges are often due to experiences that occur at the intersection of gender and ethnic identity, thus many professional white British women (of Anglo-Saxon decent), do not face the same challenges. AAC women are more often discriminated against, excluded from informal networks, and their contributions credited to someone else. We take an intersectional theoretical approach to better understand both the disadvantaged experiences and the possible advantaged experiences that British AAC women face, based on their experiences as AAC individuals, as women and as AAC women. The study seeks to 'give voice' to the experiences of AAC professional women, due to the limited amount of scholarship that adequately considers their workplace experiences. We consider the ways that their identity produces qualitatively different experiences determined by the context, by the nature of interpersonal encounters or by both the context and interpersonal encounters.
Methods
We conduct real-time online written interviews and utilize thematic template analysis to understand whether AAC women strategically flex identity at work. We present four major themes. These are (1) the benefits of identity flexing, (2) the role of specific stereotypes, (3) context specific opportunities, and (4) the costs of identity flexing. We draw on literature that suggests that AAC women's identity experiences are not exclusively oppressive.
Results
We find that unique experiences, occurring at the intersection of facets of identity may also yield forms of relative advantage, wherein individuals are able to adaptively leverage opportunities. Our results demonstrate that where the facets of one's identity are more varied, there might be more chance that the particular identity will be valued in a given social context. As a result, the individual may try to assimilate with certain identity groups (through flexing), as the context directs.
Discussion
Nevertheless, engaging in identity flexing strategies has costs for women's well-being, such as needing to perform increased amounts of emotional labor and heightened feelings of frustration. Overall, these costs (as well as benefits), evidence the complex nature of identity flexing and the likely negative well-being implications that could ensue for the individual.
... Intersectionality leadership research is quite sparse yet recent studies shed light on the intersection of gender and race stereotypes regarding perceptions of leadership. For instance, empirical research has shown that Black people in North America are associated with 'masculinity' regardless of gender (Galinsky et al., 2013;Goff et al., 2008;Johnson et al., 2012;Rosette et al., 2016;Schug et al., 2015). Therefore, Black women leaders do not face the backlash for displaying agentic dominance that White women face (Livingston et al., 2012). ...
... Therefore, Black women leaders do not face the backlash for displaying agentic dominance that White women face (Livingston et al., 2012). On the contrary, Asian women and men are perceived to be more 'feminine' (Galinsky et al., 2013;Rosette et al., 2016;Schug et al., 2015) facing a so-called 'bamboo ceiling' in leadership (Lu et al., 2020;Yu, 2020). This hints at a stronger backlash for dominant behavior of women leaders who are Asian compared with White (Rosette et al., 2016). ...
... On the contrary, Asian women and men are perceived to be more 'feminine' (Galinsky et al., 2013;Rosette et al., 2016;Schug et al., 2015) facing a so-called 'bamboo ceiling' in leadership (Lu et al., 2020;Yu, 2020). This hints at a stronger backlash for dominant behavior of women leaders who are Asian compared with White (Rosette et al., 2016). Intersectionality penalties in leadership affect men as well. ...
Over the last century, the number of women in traditionally male dominated leadership positions has increased, generating interest in the role of gender and leadership in organizational contexts (Klenke, 1996). Yet, women are still widely underrepresented in leadership positions (Thomas et al., 2021). The goal of the chapter is to discuss the development of leadership theories through the lens of feminist thoeries. Our aim is threefold: First, we organize leadership theories along three major feminist perspectives and examine the implications these theories have for women and men in leadership positions. Second, we bolster this theory-guided classification by presenting research regarding how women and men are perceived and evaluated when using the respective leadership style. Third, we map directions for future research through the lens of feminist theories. We provide an outlook of and how shifts in leadership theories influenced women’s rise as leaders and the evaluation of their leadership styles.
... As suggested by the examples above, racial identity, immigrant status, organizational rank, and age are likely to affect how women of color experience and respond to invisibility. Some women of color are successful senior executives, while others are entry-level employees; some women of color are fluent in "white" culture and language, while others are not (e.g., Ghavami & Peplau, 2013); some women of color are stereotyped as outspoken and assertive, while others are stereotyped as quiet and submissive (e.g., Hall et al., 2019;Livingston et al., 2012;Rosette et al., 2016). In these and other ways, women of color differ in their proximities to social power through their varying distances from white male prototypes (Abdulle, 2017;Ahmed, 2007;Hochschild & Weaver, 2007). ...
... The term "intersectionality" was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) to draw attention to Black women's experiences at the margins of race and gender and to theorize the unique oppression they experience. Intersectionality theory takes marginalized intersectional identities as an analytic starting point for studying the ways that multiple identities interact to shape people's experiences (e.g., Bowleg, 2013;McCluney & Rabelo, 2019;Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008;Rosette et al., 2016;Shields, 2008;Smith et al., 2019). Intersectionality praxis moves beyond simplistic understandings of difference, such as "adding up" the number of marginalized identities a person has to compare quantitative outcomes (cf. ...
... Furthermore, different stereotypes of women of color from different racial and ethnic backgrounds may affect the nature and degree of their invisibility and how they combat it. For example, East Asian women are stereotyped as submissive (Chin Evans & McConnell, 2003;Livingston et al., 2012;Markus & Kitayama, 1991) and experience penalties for exhibiting agentic behavior at work (Berdahl & Min, 2012;Rosette et al., 2016). Black women, on the other hand, are stereotyped as assertive (Rosette et al., 2016) and do not experience the same penalties for exhibiting certain forms of agency in the workplace (Livingston et al., 2012). ...
Intersectional invisibility is a salient experience for women of color in the workplace and stems from their nonprototypicality in gender and race. We expand research and theory on intersectional invisibility to propose that women of color vary in their degrees of nonprototypicality, and thus in their social power and their experiences of and responses to invisibility at work. We present an inductive interview study of a diverse sample of 65 women of color in the United States and Canada, who work in traditionally white and male professions. We examined how differences in race, immigration status, age, and organizational rank informed the types of invisibility they experienced and their responses to invisibility. Four forms of invisibility (erasure, homogenization, exoticization, and whitening) and three response pathways (withdrawal, approach, and pragmatism) emerged from our findings that differed according to women of color's social power. Women with less social power experienced the most invisibility and were more likely to engage in withdrawal tactics that intensified their invisibility and marginalization at work. Women with more social power experienced less invisibility and were more likely to engage in approach tactics that risked backlash. Women who understood their invisibility to be rooted in structural causes responded more pragmatically to invisibility, occasionally engaging in radical honesty to connect with others who treated them as invisible and to change their behavior. We discuss the implications of our research for intersectionality theory, directions for future research, and organizational practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... In Studies 2-5, we created resumes for fictional candidates and pretested the resumes to be similar on perceived competence. Furthermore, past research has documented the intersectionality between gender and race in leadership perceptions Rosette et al., 2016;Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Therefore, we used stereotypical male and female names associated with the ethnic majority group in the respective culture in which the study was conducted and ensured that participants perceived the gender and race of all names as intended. ...
... Although we focused on gender bias in leader-related evaluations and selection, our theorizing generalizes beyond this domain-it predicts that the universal mindset would undercut bias in a wide range of decisions typically influenced by stereotypes, including stereotypes about race, age, sexual orientation, social class, and disability. Future research can also investigate whether the universal mindset reduces bias against groups at the intersection of multiple negative stereotypes (e.g., Black women; Cole, 2009;Rosette et al., 2016;Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Future research can further test whether the current findings generalize to men who hold a negatively stereotyped identity (e.g., men from racial or sexual orientation minority groups) as well as further investigate these effects across the full spectrum of gender identities. ...
Extensive research has documented organizational decision-makers' preference for men over women when they evaluate and select candidates for leadership positions. We conceptualize a novel construct-mindsets about the universality of leadership potential-that can help reduce this bias. People can believe either that only some individuals have high leadership potential (i.e., a nonuniversal mindset) or that most individuals have high leadership potential (i.e., a universal mindset). Five studies investigated the relationship between these mindsets and decision-makers' gender biases in leader evaluation and selection decisions. The more senior government officials in China held a universal mindset, the less they showed gender bias when rating their subordinates' leadership capability (Study 1). Working adults in the United Kingdom who held a more universal mindset exhibited less gender bias when evaluating and selecting job candidates for a leadership position (Study 2). In an experiment, Singaporean students exposed to a universal mindset exhibited less gender bias when evaluating and selecting candidates than those exposed to a nonuniversal mindset (Study 3). Another experiment with working adults in China replicated this pattern and added a control condition to confirm the directionality of the effect (Study 4). Last, Study 5 showed that a more universal mindset was associated with less gender bias particularly among decision-makers with stronger gender stereotypes in the domain of leadership. This research demonstrates that, although they are seemingly unrelated to gender, mindsets about the universality of leadership potential can influence the extent to which people express gender bias in the leadership context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... There is a smaller stream of research (Jost et al., 2009;March & Graham, 2015;Milkman et al., 2015;Rosette, Koval, Ma, & Livingston, 2016;Shih, 2006) that considers race together with other factors, most often gender. For example, some highlight the effects of both racist and sexist behaviors toward women of color and show that these women anticipate biased behavior (Chaney et al., 2020). ...
... Considering that no social group is homogeneous, issues such as race-being White, Black, Indigenous, or a person of Color-class, gender, and different aspects of physical, cognitive, or mental disability are always present (Crenshaw, 1989;Holvino, 2010;Maroto et al., 2019); these can create patterns of simultaneous inequality and privilege (Rodriguez & Ridgway, 2019). A small but growing stream of research is beginning to address this, for instance, by discussing racialized and gendered biases against Black women (DiTomaso, 2015;Popan, Kenworthy, Barden, & Griffiths, 2010;Rosette et al., 2016). The findings emanating from such research have only just begun to shed light on the richness and relevance of intersectional experiences for HRM research. ...
... There is an increasing consensus among scholars of workplace gender inequalities that myths of difference often obscure important institutional and organizational factors that shape differences in gendered behavior in highly visible leadership roles (e.g., Acker 2006; Ely and Meyerson 2000; Gorman and Mosseri 2019). Growing evidence underscores the ways in which the enactment of leadership is shaped by a range of institutional factors including organizational composition, social status and hierarchies, stereotype prevalence, and role expectations (e.g., Rosette et al. 2016). This research suggests that observed differences in attitudes, behaviors, or values are not necessarily rooted in essential characteristics among individuals or groups but rather reflect institutional constraints, organizational structures, and cultural beliefs that create different experiences and expectations (Tinsley and Ely 2018). ...
... Research finds that white women and men and women of color CEOs often experience performance pressures, resulting in a perceived standard of perfection for professional deportment and performance (Glass and Cook 2021). Such leaders are also often viewed as "agentically deficient," lacking the skills and experience necessary to lead effectively (Eagly and Karau 2002;Rosette et al. 2016). ...
Background
CEOs increasingly take public stands on social and political issues tangential to their corporation.s core mission. Emergent research on this phenomenon has explored the prevalence, impacts and risks of increasing CEO activism for firms. However, very little research has explored the individual and institutional factors that motivate CEO activism. This project attempts to refocus this nascent field by exploring the gendered, racial, sexual and organizational factors that motivate leaders to speak out on issues ranging from DEI, gun control, climate change, Black Lives Matter and #MeToo.
Method
To answer our research question ‐ who speaks? ‐ we examined CEOs, companies, and key social issues within the Proquest Newsstand Database. First, we conducted a large exploratory study of random men and women CEOs to determine if gender differences exist. Next, we examined all women CEOs in the Fortune 500 and S&P 500 between 2019–2021 to provide a more thorough and nuanced analysis.
Results
We find that women CEOs are more likely to speak out compared to men CEOs. Further, we find that BIPOC and LGBTQ+ CEOs are more likely to engage in activism compared to other CEOs. We also find that the market value of the firm and the presence of women on the board of directors serve as significant predictors of CEO activism compared to other firms.
Conclusion
We consider the implications of these findings for the appointment, tenure and visibility of historically underrepresented CEOs.
... Moreover, recently, Dóci and colleagues (2022) outlined a socio-psychological theory on psychological capital that postulates that psychological capital is, to a large extent, socially and relationally formed, and consequently, unequally distributed in the workplace. The researchers argue that the unequal distribution emerges because marginalized group members, in comparison to dominant group members, have poorer access to the relational sources of psychological capital: they receive less positive social feedback and evaluations (Greenhaus et al., 1990), the performance expectations towards them are less positive (Berger et al., 1972), they receive less opportunities to experience mastery and success (Acker, 2006), they are less accommodated when engaging in agentic and goal-striving behaviors (Rosette et al., 2016), they have less alternative pathways available to achieve their goals (Ryan et al., 2016), they receive less social support (Smith & Calasanti, 2005), and they have less successful role models available who are similar to the self (and thus, effective) (Young et al., 2013). ...
... (p. 29) As research widely demonstrates, marginalized and minoritized individuals' social and institutional environments tend to be a lot less nurturing and welcoming of their agency and goal-striving behaviors than they are toward dominant group members (e.g., Rosette et al., 2016). Therefore, even if marginalized group members were to be trained in the cognitive and behavioral techniques to increase their psychological capital (e.g., setting goals, acquiring mastery experiences, and acting in agentic ways), these techniques would likely to be less effective for them than they are for dominant group members. ...
During the past decade, a rich literature emerged focusing on “psychological capital,” a multidimensional concept encompassing self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience. So far psychological capital has been predominantly studied in the areas of work and organizational psychology, management, and organizational behavior. This paper argues that (1) the relevance of psychological capital is much broader than assumed so far and (2) that not only the outcomes but also the (social) origins and sources of psychological capital need to be studied. More specifically, the key questions that we address in this paper concern (1) how the notion of psychological capital can be integrated into a broader capital framework that allows studying (the reproduction of) social inequalities, (2) what such integration adds to disciplines such as psychology and sociology, (3) and which avenues for further research can be derived from such framework? Informed by the work of Pierre Bourdieu, we argue that psychological capital is the missing link to develop a comprehensive framework for studying (the reproduction of) social inequalities. Based on our theory building, we develop an interdisciplinary research agenda.
... In Indonesian television media, women are often depicted as less dominant, passive, dependent on men, and as sex symbols (Hartono et al., 2021;Murtiningsih et al., 2017). The second is women who are described as independent, have good competence, but obey the rules and norms (Rosette et al., 2018), and lastly, women are described as independent and free, not bound by certain rules (Rosette et al., 2016;Sewell, 2013). In the religious context, some media picture gender bias covered by Islamic values based on the interpretation of the construction of religious ideology (Rifai, 2021). ...
Education is commonly perceived as the process of having systematic instruction from educators for better living quality, and sometimes, it means higher lifetime earnings. Teachers play an important role in educating the next generation. The Indonesian talk show “Kick Andy” and the news portal “Kumparan” released on Youtube, show a message on education. These programs narrate the story of an early-childhood-education teacher from a remote area in Nusa Tenggara Timur. Both programs illustrate a woman’s struggle to obtain an education opportunity and provide access to education among the children in her village. The data was collected with an interview method. Data were available on television and online media platform. This study employs a framework by Sara Mills’s critical discourse in a combination of the teacher’s professional development theory to rectify how mass media portrays a female teacher who lives in a marginal area. Based on the collected data in Ibusm State, on the one hand, this study finds that the media still depicts women as submissive and oppressed figures who should serve the family and country. On the other hand, it is found that women are empowered to rise from adversity, which is also reinforced by a strong teacher’s professional identity in a teacher’s self.
... In light of intersectionality research (Rosette et al., 2016), to examine whether the observed effects were driven more by EA men or EA women, we explored the Ethnicity × Gender interaction. Similarly, to examine whether the observed effects were driven more by U.S.-born EAs or foreign-born EAs, we explored the Ethnicity × U.S.-Born/Foreign-Born Status interaction. ...
The "Bamboo Ceiling" refers to the perplexing phenomenon that, despite the educational and economic achievements of East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese, Koreans) in the United States, they are disproportionately underrepresented in leadership positions. To help elucidate this phenomenon, we propose a novel theoretical perspective: East Asians are underselected for leadership positions partially because they are stereotyped as lacking creativity, a prized leadership attribute in U.S. culture. We first tested our proposition in two field studies in a natural setting: Across 33 full class sections of 2,304 Master of Business Administration (MBA) students in a U.S. business program, East Asians were perceived by their classmates as less creative than other ethnicities (e.g., South Asian, White) at the beginning of the MBA program-when the students had limited interactions and thus were likely influenced by creativity stereotypes. Lower perceived creativity mediated why East Asians were less likely than other ethnicities to be nominated (Study 1) and elected (Study 2) as class-section leaders by their classmates. These patterns were robust after accounting for variables such as assertiveness (parallel mediator), leadership motivation, English proficiency, and demographics. These findings were conceptually replicated in two preregistered vignette experiments of non-Asian Americans with managerial experience (Studies 3 and 4, N = 1,775): Compared to candidates of other ethnicities, East Asian American candidates with a substantively identical profile were viewed as less leader-like as a function of lower perceived creativity. Overall, although East Asians are commonly stereotyped as competent, they are also stereotyped as lacking creativity, which can hinder their leadership emergence in U.S. organizations.
... With respect to bias and privilege in authentic leadership, authentic leaders, by emphasizing their self-awareness and staying true to their values, may inadvertently perpetuate biases and cultural insensitivities if they are part of the dominant culture and unaware of the privileges that this confers (Rosette et al., 2016). This can lead to a lack of inclusiveness and reduced diversity within the organization (Holvino, 2010). ...
This chapter explores the concepts of cultural intelligence, empathy, and mindfulness in authentic leadership. It highlights how authentic leaders may unknowingly perpetuate biases and cultural insensitivities, leading to reduced diversity and inclusiveness. To address this, leaders are encouraged to develop cultural intelligence and embrace diversity.
Research suggests a connection between authentic leadership and empathy, mindfulness, and ethical reasoning. Mindfulness practices enhance authentic leadership behavior, leading to improved ethical decision-making. Mindfulness increases self-awareness, transparency, and trust among followers. Additionally, mindfulness training improves empathy and enables compassionate and ethical decision-making. Reflective mindfulness practices also enhance ethical reasoning by promoting introspection. Overall, mindfulness practices improve authentic leadership, empathy, and ethical decision-making. However, further research is needed to establish a definitive causal link. Authentic leadership and ethical leadership are distinct but share common elements of honesty, integrity, and concern for others, emphasizing different aspects of leadership.
The chapter also discusses the significance of empathy and mindfulness in economic decision-making, with the examples of Reed Hastings at Netflix and Elon Musk’s incidents highlighting the importance of empathy in leadership. The case study of young man who demonstrates the transformative power of vulnerability and openness in leadership.
... Stereotypes of women vary considerably by race and ethnicity (Rosette et al., 2016). Mounting research shows that Black women and Latina candidates are uniquely positioned to capitalize on positive aspects of both gender and ethnic/racial stereotypes to win o ce (Bejarano, 2014;N. ...
This volume contains 30 chapters that provide an up-to-date account of key topics and areas of research in political psychology. In general, the chapters apply what is known about human psychology to the study of politics. Chapters draw on theory and research on biopsychology, neuroscience, personality, psychopathology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and intergroup relations. Some chapters address the political psychology of political elites—their personality, motives, beliefs, and leadership styles, and their judgments, decisions, and actions in domestic policy, foreign policy, international conflict, and conflict resolution. Other chapters deal with the dynamics of mass political behavior: voting, collective action, the influence of political communications, political socialization and civic education, group-based political behavior, social justice, and the political incorporation of immigrants. Research discussed in the volume is fueled by a mix of age-old questions and recent world events.
... Stereotypes of women vary considerably by race and ethnicity (Rosette et al., 2016). Mounting research shows that Black women and Latina candidates are uniquely positioned to capitalize on positive aspects of both gender and ethnic/racial stereotypes to win o ce (Bejarano, 2014;N. ...
This volume contains 30 chapters that provide an up-to-date account of key topics and areas of research in political psychology. In general, the chapters apply what is known about human psychology to the study of politics. Chapters draw on theory and research on biopsychology, neuroscience, personality, psychopathology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and intergroup relations. Some chapters address the political psychology of political elites—their personality, motives, beliefs, and leadership styles, and their judgments, decisions, and actions in domestic policy, foreign policy, international conflict, and conflict resolution. Other chapters deal with the dynamics of mass political behavior: voting, collective action, the influence of political communications, political socialization and civic education, group-based political behavior, social justice, and the political incorporation of immigrants. Research discussed in the volume is fueled by a mix of age-old questions and recent world events.
... This is especially important in contexts such as the United States, where sexism and racism are deeply intertwined (Sidanius et al., 2018) and White people are seen as the cultural default of a person (i.e., the image brought to mind when thinking of a "person" is a White, middle-class, heterosexual male; Connor & Fiske, 2019), particularly to other White people (Meissner & Brigham, 2001;Slone et al., 2000). Past research has shown Black and White women are subjected to different stereotypes regarding dominance, sexuality, and motherhood (Ghavami & Peplau, 2013;Hudson & Ghani, 2023;Rosenthal & Lobel, 2016;Rosette et al., 2016) and are treated differently based on those stereotypes (Cuddy & Wolf, 2013;Livingston et al., 2012), suggesting that the nature of the sexism they face would also be different. ...
The present research investigates whether benevolent and hostile sexist attitudes are differentially directed toward Black and White women by Black and White people. Participants (N = 2,775) reported on their sexist attitudes while thinking about Black women, White women, or women in general. Although Black participants reported higher levels of benevolent and hostile sexism overall, participant race and target race interacted to produce unique patterns of sexist attitudes. More specifically, Black perceivers thinking of White women reported higher levels of hostile sexism than those thinking of Black women. White perceivers reported similar amounts of hostile sexism while thinking of White and Black women. Benevolent sexism showed a different pattern, with both Black and White participants reporting higher levels of benevolent sexism toward Black than White women. The results also revealed similar levels of sexism reported while thinking of White women and while thinking of women in general, suggesting that sexism research that does not specifically address target race may reflect an understanding of sexist attitudes about White women that may not generalize to other racial groups.
... Baker et al. (1995) named gender, race, and class as central dimensions of social inequality in Western societies. Social psychologists increasingly consider intersections between race/ethnicity and gender, for example gender-race-stereotypes (Ghavami & Peplau, 2013;Strinić et al., 2021;Wong & McCullough, 2021), and different forms of discrimination, like backlash against female leaders of different races (Rosette et al., 2016). Class has been relatively neglected in social psychology compared to race/ethnicity and gender. ...
To reduce social injustice, we need to understand the social dimensions behind these issues, like gender, race/ethnicity, or class. Class and its intersections are relatively understudied in social psychology. We examine how class (operationalized as education, income, and occupational status) and gender shape person evaluation across different cultures. We present results from a factorial survey experiment in eight countries () with different gender norms and levels of inequality. Women gained more approval for high education and income than men, and men lost more approval for low income and occupational status than women. In countries with conservative gender norms, these differences were stronger-men also lost more approval for low educational status as conservative gender norms increased. General inequality also impacted status-and gender-based evaluations. Our findings show that gender and class interact in shaping interpersonal attitudes, and this relationship differs across cultures.
... With our research, we offer two important contributions to research on age bias in leadership. First, we extend the growing literature on intersectionality in leadership research (e.g., Rosette et al., 2016Rosette et al., , 2018 to age and gender, exploring how these factors may influence the perceptions of leaders. By comparing the intersection of age with gender to both single group categories, we can determine which aspect carries greater influence in evaluations of young female and young male leaders. ...
Research has recognized age biases against young leaders, yet understanding of how gender, the most frequently studied demographic leader characteristic, influences this bias remains limited. In this study, we examine the gender-specific age bias toward young female and young male leaders through an intersectional lens. By integrating intersectionality theory with insights on status beliefs associated with age and gender, we test whether young female and male leaders face an interactive rather than an additive form of bias. We conducted two preregistered experimental studies ( N 1 = 918 and N 2 = 985), where participants evaluated leaders based on age, gender, or a combination of both. Our analysis reveals a negative age bias in leader status ascriptions toward young leaders compared to middle-aged and older leaders. This bias persists when gender information is added, as demonstrated in both intersectional categories of young female and young male leaders. This bias pattern does not extend to middle-aged or older female and male leaders, thereby supporting the age bias against young leaders specifically. Interestingly, we also examined whether social dominance orientation strengthens the bias against young (male) leaders, but our results (reported in the SOM) are not as hypothesized. In sum, our results emphasize the importance of young age as a crucial demographic characteristic in leadership perceptions that can even overshadow the role of gender.
... The issue of identity is central to leadership for women and URMs, as expectations and evaluations of women and URMs as leaders are built upon gendered (Eagly & Karau, 2002) and racial (Rosette et al., 2016) expectations. Furthermore, the prescriptive stereotypes for women, racial minorities, and typical leaders may lead to identity incongruence or conflict (Atewologun et al., 2016;Karelaia & Guillén, 2014) as well as unfair evaluations of these leaders compared to their White male peers (Atewologun et al., 2016;Gloor et al., 2020). ...
... Certainly, women of color face bias from voters mired in the interlocking stereotypes about race and gender (Brown 2014;Cargile 2016;Cargile, Merolla, and Schroedel 2016). Rosette et al. (2016) point out that the expectations for political leadership shaped by stereotypes steeped in perceptions of White masculinity can lead voters to see women of color as being unable to meet these expectations. Furthermore, because the political system can be both racist and sexist (Hawkesworth 2003), women of color may face sanctions for lacking masculine leadership qualities. ...
This article advances and tests an original theory of a “feminine homestyle” to explain how female legislators develop relationships with constituents that both mitigate the potential for gendered biases and fulfill the communal goals that motivate women to run for political office. We use an original audit study that tests legislator responsiveness to direct email communication. We show that female lawmakers are more responsive to constituent communication and more likely to display compassion and empathy in responses compared with male legislators; but we also find important differences in women’s responsiveness across the race and ethnicity. Further, we find that responsive female lawmakers can change the behaviors of their male counterparts by creating stronger norms of responsiveness within legislative institutions. Our findings have important downstream implications for democratic accountability among voters and illustrate how female lawmakers substantively represent through direct communication with constituents.
... Within predominantly White and male dominated universities, the traditional characteristics associated with leadership often conflict with the stereotypical expectations of Black women (Parker, 2004;Rosette et al., 2016). For example, Black women's communication style is often stereotyped as blunt, which is consistent with a Eurocentric view of masculine communication as direct and controlling (Olasunkanmi-Alimi et al., 2022). ...
This paper explores race and gender in the context of higher education, analyzing the experiences of Black women in academia to create a better understanding of what it is to be Black and a woman in contemporary British society. The main themes of this paper are elaborated through the lens of critical Black feminism. The historical origins of inequalities are outlined foregrounding their influence on how Black women are described and regarded. The damaging impact of everyday and sophisticated racism intersecting with sexism is explored and exemplified. Concepts and theories serve to elucidate the discrimination suffered by Black women in academic roles. White women do not offer unequivocal support to their Black colleagues and may even undermine their career progression. When Black women gain leadership roles, the traditional characteristics associated with leaders often conflict with the stereotypical expectations of Black women. A closer examination of higher education reveals the extent of the racial trauma endured by Black women and the resultant decline in their wellbeing.
... Another limitation is that these studies specifically focus on male faces. In the context of race, it is commonly argued that race is gendered (e.g., "Black" is assumed to be prototypically male; Goff et al., 2008;Johnson et al., 2012;Lei et al., 2020;Rosette et al., 2016;Schug et al., 2015). It remains unclear if people hold more prototypically Black mental representations of Black men than of Black women. ...
Utilizing reverse correlation, we investigated Black and White participants’ mental representations of Black–White Biracial people. Across 200 trails, Black and White participants chose which of two faces best fit specific social categories. Using these decisions, we visually estimated Black and White people’s mental representations of Biracial people by generating classification images (CIs). Independent raters blind to condition determined that White CI generators’ Biracial CI was prototypically Blacker (i.e., more Afrocentric facial features and darker skin tone) than Black CI generators’ Biracial CI (Study 1a/b). Furthermore, independent raters could not distinguish between White CI generators’ Black and Biracial CIs, a bias not exhibited by Black CI generators (Study 2). A separate task demonstrated that prejudiced White participants allocated fewer imaginary funds to the more prototypically Black Biracial CI (Study 3), providing converging evidence. How phenotypicality bias, the outgroup homogeneity effect, and hypodescent influences people’s mental images of ingroup/outgroup members is discussed.
... Another limitation is that these studies specifically focus on male faces. In the context of race, it is commonly argued that race is gendered (e.g., "Black" is assumed to be prototypically male; Goff et al., 2008;Johnson et al., 2012;Lei et al., 2020;Rosette et al., 2016;Schug et al., 2015). It remains unclear if people hold more prototypically Black mental representations of Black men than of Black women. ...
Utilizing reverse correlation, we investigated Black and White participants' mental representations of Black-White Biracial people. Across 200 trails, Black and White participants chose which of two faces best fit specific social categories. Using these decisions, we visually estimated Black and White people's mental representations of Biracial people by generating classification images (CIs). Independent raters blind to condition determined that White CI generators' Biracial CI was prototypically Blacker (i.e., more Afrocentric facial features and darker skin tone) than Black CI generators' Biracial CI (Study 1a/b). Furthermore, independent raters could not distinguish between White CI generators' Black and Biracial CIs, a bias not exhibited by Black CI generators (Study 2). A separate task demonstrated that prejudiced White participants allocated fewer imaginary funds to the more prototypically Black Biracial CI (Study 3), providing converging evidence. How phenotypicality bias, the outgroup homogeneity effect, and hypodescent influences people's mental images of ingroup/outgroup members is discussed.
... In our investigation, we only considered the gender stereotypes of men versus women, which treats "men" and "women" as one broad social category. However, intersectional perspectives argue that stereotypes (and resulting outcomes from these stereotypes) differ and compound, based on the intersection of gender and other social identity categories (e.g., ethnicity, age; Marcus, 2022;Rosette et al., 2018;Rosette et al., 2016;Shields, 2008). These differences may influence backlash effects for women. ...
Both men and women who violate gender stereotypes incur backlashes, or penalties, for these transgressions. However, men who engage in warm, communal behaviors occasionally receive a boost (or benefit) for this female‐stereotyped behavior. To understand how and why warmth and gender interact to predict backlashes or boosts, we integrate uncertainty reduction theory with the stereotype content model and examine warmth by gender interactions. In our first study (a field examination of job seekers), we find that men receive a boost in hireability (i.e., an increased likelihood of obtaining a job offer) for exhibiting gender incongruent (i.e., high) levels of warmth, but women do not receive a backlash in hireability for exhibiting gender incongruent (i.e., low) levels of warmth. In our second study (a laboratory experiment), we replicate and extend these findings by elucidating why they occur: warmth reduces relational uncertainty for male, but not female, applicants. In our third study (another laboratory experiment), we again replicate and extend our findings by identifying when these effects are stronger: in male‐dominated roles. Our investigation suggests that the valence of the gender stereotype violation matters when it comes to hiring decisions. Indeed, we find that displaying warmth appears to promote, rather than impede, career outcomes for men.
... the role of race and racialization in perceptions of leadership enactment. White racial identity persists as a central aspect of these prototypes, regardless of an industry's or organization's racial diversity (Livingston et al., 2012;Logan, 2011;Rosette et al., 2008;Rosette et al., 2016), because endemic racism threatens the perceived legitimacy of leaders who are not white (Ospina & Foldy, 2009). White leaders' racial identity is often unnamed and unmarked, while Black leaders' racial identity is frequently marked and/or scrutinized. ...
Over the past decades, the Western workforce has experienced two notable demographic shifts: there has been an increase in the percentage of women occupying leadership roles and the workforce is aging. Considering these two trends in unison, it would be intuitive that the future workforce will be defined by an increasingly age and gender-diverse group of leaders. However, although the general percentage of female leaders has increased, this percentage decreases sharply in upper leadership and executive roles. The current theory on barriers to female leadership ascension contains conflicting propositions and has largely examined gender issues in isolation from other factors (i.e., age stereotypes). We aim to create consensus across the literature on age and gender-based leader prototypes by investigating intersectional role-congruity bias as a predictor of barriers to career advancement for age and gender-diverse individuals. We integrate fundamental propositions from role congruity theory within an intersectional framework to examine the joint influence that age- and gender-based agentic-communal role norms exert on leadership evaluations. Through the application of experimental vignette methodology across two studies ( N 1 = 163, N 2 = 466), our results suggest that (a) the positive effect of age on leadership prototypicality is attenuated for women, (b) traditional biases associated with female leadership are dependent upon age, and (c) male leaders receive a consistent and age-dependent bonus in ratings when displaying gender atypical communal behaviors. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
As more organizations encourage their employees to bring their authentic selves to work, this chapter explores the role of hairstyle among African American/Black women working in government organizations. This qualitative study draws from seven focus group interviews conducted in 2022 with 38 Black women employed by local or state governments in a southeastern state. Results indicate that like other industries, Black women working in government experience bias against natural hair and respond in various ways. Although hairstyle at work continues to be a “dilemma” for many Black women, they also view themselves as leaders and recognize the opportunity to influence the culture in their workplaces and communities through their hairstyle choices.
Women experience chronically inferior returns in organizations. One common recommendation is to form instrumental network ties with high-status others in groups. We integrate research on social status, social perceptions, and gender issues in social networks to suggest that, despite the theoretical and empirical appeal of this approach, instrumental ties to high-status network contacts (versus ties to lower-status network contacts) in groups may incur hidden social status costs for women in intragroup status-conferral processes. Instrumental ties to high-status network contacts may be perceived as a sign of agency of the focal person, which violates feminine gender norms. Women with these high-status network contacts in groups may therefore be perceived as less communal, thus subsequently lowering their status in the eyes of other group members compared with women with lower-status network contacts. Studies 1–4, across cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental designs, support our model. Study 5 suggests that signaling a group-oriented goal may mitigate the interpersonal, social perceptual costs of instrumental ties to high-status network contacts for women. The effect of ties with high-status network contacts for men is relatively inconsistent. This research reveals a potential social-network dilemma for women: Instrumental ties to high-status network contacts in groups and organizations are necessary for success and should be encouraged, yet they may also create an extra social perceptual hurdle for women. Organizations need to investigate social and structural solutions that harness the benefits of high-status network contacts for women, while minimizing any potential social perceptual costs.
Funding: Financial support from the Jones Graduate School of Business, Rice University, is gratefully acknowledged.
Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2020.14640 .
To what extent has the glass ceiling in global governance been shattered? To answer this question, we need to look beyond the numbers on women’s representation and study how far women are perceived as inspiring and visionary leaders in global governance. This article offers an analysis of perceptions of inspiring and visionary leadership in global multistakeholder initiatives from a gender perspective. Based on 467 interviews with participants in a leading multistakeholder initiative, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), it presents four findings: (1) respondents identify more men than women as inspiring and visionary leaders, with the difference roughly corresponding to the share of women in leadership roles; (2) respondents tend to ascribe more leadership attributes to women than to men when explaining why they find them inspiring and visionary; (3) both feminine and masculine leadership traits are appreciated in relation to both men and women leaders at ICANN; (4) female respondents identify more women as inspiring and visionary leaders than male respondents. These findings contribute novel insights into gendered perceptions around leadership and the importance of role models in global governance. They also shed much-needed light on the demands and expectations from leadership in global multistakeholder arrangements.
Background
Within more than 1,600 preK–12 member schools in the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS) in the United States, there were only seven Asian American women heads of schools in 2019, representing 6% of all heads of color, 1% of all women heads, and 0.4% of all heads of schools. There has been limited research on intersectionality in educational leadership, particularly in the context of independent schools.
Purpose of Study
This article sets out to address the research gap in current literature as it pertains to examining the intersectional impact of race, gender, culture, and epistemology on the leadership experiences of Asian American women heads of independent schools, and to deconstruct mainstream leadership narratives by unearthing and complicating critical narratives of a small group of educational leaders who are women of color.
Research Design
This qualitative study employs intersectionality theory as the conceptual framework, culturally responsive school leadership as the leadership framework, and elements of portraiture, critical Indigenous studies, and critical race theory as the research methodologies and analytical tools.
Data Collection and Analysis
A background information survey was emailed to all seven Asian American women heads of schools to collect contextual and demographic information. The goal of the survey was to find commonalities among the heads and their schools so that a portrait of these seven individuals and their schools could be drawn as an intelligible whole before delineating specific experiences of the research participants. Perceptual information was collected via interviews. The interview protocols were designed to gather information around participants’ pathways to leadership, and their epistemological foundation and its impact on their leadership journeys and styles. Elements of portraiture were used to analyze participants’ experiences based on interviews in this qualitative study.
Findings
This study connects culture and epistemologies to leadership practices and shines a light on how these Asian American women heads of schools—despite experiencing stereotype threats, microaggressions, and oppositions—negotiate between the transactional nature of independent schools and the transformational power of educational leadership, and make powerful contributions toward reimagining schools as places with radical possibilities.
Conclusions
Asian Americans are a historically disadvantaged racial minority group, and Asian American women in education and academia have faced a long history of discrimination grounded in racism, xenophobia, and misogyny. The NAIS leadership team should better understand what challenges Asian American women face on their pathways to leadership and develop a better support system for all women of color aspiring leaders.
Athletic Diversity and Inclusion Officers (ADIOs) are novel leadership positions in sport tasked with creating and sustaining diverse, inclusive, and equitable athletic departments. Interestingly, Black women have assumed many of the Division I ADIO positions. Thus, they seek to lead inclusionary efforts in an organizational field with sustained issues of gender and racial exclusion. This hermeneutic phenomenological study applied a Black feminist lens to examine what it means to be a Black woman ADIO who leads diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives in gendered and racialized Division I collegiate athletic departments. This study has three themes: (a) the ADIO position elicits the Strong Black Woman stereotype, inducing emotional fatigue; (b) Black women ADIOs are positioned as athletic departments’ conscience, often interpreting substantive and symbolic diversity, equity, and inclusion practices; and (c) Black women ADIOs center their perception of affirmative prescriptions of Black womanhood in an attempt to withstand the adverse realities of ADIO leadership.
Narcissism, considered a fundamental personality trait of many entrepreneurs, has been shown to significantly influence entrepreneurs’ leadership and strategic decisions, yet it has been widely disregarded in the entrepreneurship literature. According to role congruity theory and expectancy violation theory, narcissism, a typical agentic characteristic, may exert a greater influence on the performance of female entrepreneurs than it does on their male counterparts since it is considered a gender-incongruent characteristic of women. This study examines the relationship between female entrepreneurs’ narcissism and new venture performance while also evaluating the contingent roles of gender discrimination and political connections in this relationship. Using a sample of 537 technology-based female entrepreneurs in China, we find that female entrepreneurs’ narcissism has an inverted U-shaped relationship with new venture performance, and we determine that this relationship is steeper for female entrepreneurs with strong political connections and low gender discrimination. Our findings contribute to the entrepreneurship literature by revealing the nonlinear relationship between entrepreneurs’ narcissism and new venture performance. Moreover, our results provide fine-grained insight into the contingent mechanisms of female gender discrimination and political connections, and how each one’s interaction with entrepreneurs’ narcissism can have profound effects on new venture performance.
Problem
There is chronic underrepresentation of minoritized women in higher education leadership positions. A primary reason is that mentoring support is either lacking or rarely considers how the intersection of their race and gender creates a double bind. Further, there is a dearth of studies examining the lived experiences of mentoring support received by minoritized women leaders.
Solution
Through semi-structured interviews of fifteen participants, our interpretative phenomenological study adds to the extant literature by exploring how women of color (WOC) leaders navigated the challenges posed by the differences in gender and/or racial identities with their mentors in diversified mentoring relationships (DMRs). Our findings indicate that aspiring minoritized women leaders can thrive under the double bind in DMRs with successful coping strategies.
Stakeholders
University administration and HRD practitioners can apply the findings to leverage DMRs as a critical tool for developing the leadership identity of women of color in higher education.
Females from ethnic minority backgrounds are currently under-represented in nurse leadership positions across Western healthcare systems. Despite being over-represented at entry-level nursing roles, they are under-represented in all nursing roles above that. Inclusivity in nurse leadership is crucial to the sustainability of healthcare systems, not least because it improves decision-making in the delivery of healthcare services. Previous attempts to address issues of inclusivity in nurse leadership have relied on establishing new Leadership Development Programs (LDPs) which target under-represented groups. Problematically, LDPs do little to address the organizational contexts in which potential leaders operate and perpetuate widely held social understandings about who is a ‘leader’. This means LDPs alone cannot redress inequalities in nurse leadership. This chapter moves the focus away from LDPs, which attempt to ‘fix the person’, and instead focuses on characteristics of organizational contexts which facilitate or undermine more inclusive forms of nurse leadership.
There is substantial research on the nature of gender prescriptive and proscriptive stereotypes. However, there has been relatively little work on whether these normative stereotypes are equally attributed to men and women of different identities. Across two studies (total N = 928), we assessed the extent to which stereotypes are prescribed and proscribed for men and women of different sexual orientations (Study 1) and races (Study 2) in the United States. We asked participants to rate the desirability of possessing 70 traits based on an “average American.” Although results showed the persistence of gender normative stereotypes in society, the normative nature of these stereotypes was influenced by sexual orientation and race. There was strong evidence of a heterocentric bias, as normative stereotypes of generic men and women most closely aligned with those of straight men and women. There was weaker evidence of a Eurocentric bias. Furthermore, observed gender differences in normative stereotypes were significantly smaller for sexually- and racially-minoritized targets compared to straight and White targets. These findings combined suggest that the practices and policies that attempt to address gender inequality might not be as effective for people with multiply-marginalized identities that face distinctly different patterns of normative pressures. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843231187851 .
Background
Black women students in engineering higher education are underrepresented and often face barriers at the nexus of race, gender, and engineering. When seeking to improve student outcomes, universities often prioritize academic success and neglect psychological, social, and emotional well‐being. Little is known about why and how Black women in engineering engage in Black placemaking as they maneuver around barriers.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to establish an empirical understanding of the experiences of Black women in engineering. Our work is guided by the following research questions: (1) Why do Black women in engineering seek out campus spaces specifically designated for them? What unique structural issues necessitate such spaces? (2) For what purposes do Black women in engineering use those distinct spaces? (3) How are Black women in engineering responding to the challenges and structural conditions?
Design/Method
We use Black placemaking theory to guide our qualitative in‐depth interviews of 45 purposefully selected students. The data were analyzed via theory‐informed themes.
Results
Major structural conditions necessitate specific Black spaces, including the absence of physical places, failure to understand intersectionality, failure to respond to safety, and cultural stereotypes about Black women in engineering. In response to such barriers, Black women in engineering engage in multiple placemaking activities, thereby seeking out safe and responsive spaces and transforming existing ones to serve multiple functions.
Conclusions
Whatever difficulties Black women face in academia, they are intensified in engineering. To confront such barriers, Black women engage with Black placemaking, creatively transforming existing places or co‐creating distinct places for themselves. These actions can inform how engineering departments support spaces for minoritized student development.
There is extensive research conducted on the various aspects affecting women's ability to reach leadership position and their contribution toward the success of the organization. Studies on the necessity of the intelligent use of emotion as a prerequisite for effective leadership have been done in the past. However, the literature on the role of emotions in women's leadership is fragmented and disparate regarding emotions playing an advantageous or disadvantageous role for women leaders, thus, suggesting the need for a systematic literature review. Consequently, the current study of the available literature aims to discuss the reported progress in the research on women's leadership and emotions. We used articles from Scopus and Web of Science databases and applied inclusion and exclusion criteria following the SPAR-4-SLR protocol. We conducted a systematic review using bibliometric analysis and the Theory-Context-Characteristics-Methods (TCCM) framework, which provides a detailed understanding of the intersection of gender, leadership, and emotions and shows the evolution of this topic over time. Our findings revealed two main research themes: emotional expressions and emotional competence among women in leadership positions and the effect on their career advancement. This study supplements the existing reviews and attempts to interpret and suggest future research directions using the TCCM framework.
Assertiveness is arguably one of the strongest predictors of success among business leaders and professionals. The study focuses on imposter phenomenon (IP), which occurs when an individual, normally considered to be a high achiever, undergoes an internal experience of feeling like an intellectual fraud or experiences a fear of failure upon achieving success, and the relationship of IP with assertiveness. Due to an absence of research on the relationship between IP and assertiveness, particularly in professionals in South Africa, this study investigates the way these two variables relate to each other. The purpose of this study is to 1) investigate whether IP is prevalent in female professionals in South Africa, 2) investigate whether IP and assertiveness are correlated and 3) determine whether IP is a predictor of assertiveness. The study was conducted on working professionals in South Africa (N = 165) and questionnaires were distributed online. The instruments used were the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Survey and elements of the Adaptive and Aggressive Assertiveness Scales. The professionals assessed were drawn from different industry sectors and across all job functions. The results suggest that IP is prevalent in professionals in South Africa and bears a moderately negative relationship to assertiveness. Another finding was that IP is a negative predictor of assertiveness. Gender also had an effect on the relationship between the two variables; the relationship was only found to be significant among women when the sample was split.
This study draws on four longitudinal case studies of transgender individuals with an ethnic minority background that undergo a gender transition while being in employment in the Netherlands. Four individuals were each interviewed four times over a period of 2 years. They were asked to make sense of their experience using a narrative approach. Using an intersectional lens, the findings reveal that non‐White transgender individuals experience intersectional invisibility and intersectional hypervisibility in a dynamic and ongoing way, which influences their experiences and concurrently fosters and hinders their gender expression as they go through a gender transition while being in employment. More specifically, we build on the literature on managing (in)visibility by showing how transgender individuals with an ethnic minority background manage their (in)visibility in a dynamic and sometimes strategic way in which they reflect on the perceived consequences of their (in)visibility and then adjust their gender expression and/or strategy to elicit more positive outcomes for themselves. Practical and theoretical implications as well as suggestions to enhance our understanding of this understudied population at work and create a more inclusive work environment are presented.
Globally there is an increasing participation of women in the general workforce, but the healthcare workforce has always had a higher proportion of women. It is estimated that the majority of the 75% of women who constitute the global health workforce mostly occupy the lower ranks. Among doctors, women are under-represented in positions of power and influence. This article aims to increase awareness of factors that impede the potential of women doctors, and considers initiatives that could be implemented in the healthcare sector to address the gender inequality, including a fair representation in positions of leadership and influence. Although this article will focus primarily on issues related to gender equality, the author recognises the impact of intersectionality of the factors that contribute to differential attainment. Diverse workforces tend to perform better in productivity, innovation, balanced decision-making and job satisfaction. There is research suggesting that women doctors have better communication skills, spend more time with patients, adhere better to guidelines and may even have better outcomes in healthcare decision-making. Women tend to anchor their leadership in purpose and impact rather than personal ambitions or power; demonstrate emotional intelligence in inspiring their teams, and promote collaborative working in the interest of the organisations they lead. There is an opportunity to learn from initiatives that promote women in leadership roles, as well as published reviews that encourage organisations to address gender disparity in pay and positions of influence. Now is the time to add the multiple dimensions of diversity and intersectionality to this initiative for gender equality and justice in the medical workforce. Keywords: Equity, leadership, woman doctor
The present research examines the stereotypes held about North Africans in French society today. Extending past works, we included gender and separately studied the stereotypes of North African men and women. Using three techniques, namely, spontaneous generation, attribute rating, and pathfinder analysis, our results revealed distinct stereotypes of North African men and women in French society. North African men are ascribed more antisocial traits. Traits associated with North African women are related to submissiveness and domestic chores. This suggests that stereotypes revealed in past studies concerned mainly the men of the group. The results underscore the need to consider gender when studying stereotypes of ethnic and minority groups.
Stereotypes about women's workplace behaviours result in their contributions either being ignored and not rewarded to the same extent as their male counterparts. In this novel series of studies, we show that team member adaptivity - adaptation that occurs within the context of interdependence (e.g., change effecting how we work with others) is a stereotype consistent behaviour for women and women are both recognised and rewarded for this behaviour. This is a notable shift in the general narrative about how stereotypes play out in the workplace.
**This article is available OPEN ACESS from the Journal of Organizational Behavior website**
Foucault’s archaeological framework helps establish certain historical conditions of leadership that challenge intersectional leadership possibilities. Historically, a leadership that follows a “one size fits all” epistemology grounded in White male criteria has led to glaring problematics with leadership that marginalizes various minority groups. This chapter highlights a troubling situation that compromises leadership theory’s evolution to fit a globalized world in the twenty-first century – a status quo within leadership discourse that highlights gender neutrality and thus disregards the experiences of women in the margins. Intersectionality theory is grounded in a post-structural, feminist critique that challenges the epistemology of leadership theory and addresses areas that merit theoretical expansion. Views framed from a feminist intersectional perspective serve as an intellectual counter to combat the marginalized representation of women of color within the canon of leadership. By tracing the intellectual history of intersectionality theory using Foucault’s archaeology of knowledge framework, a dialectic discourse between intersectionality and educational leadership epistemologies begin to identify the space where the two bodies of knowledge intersect and the conditions that make this possible.
According to gendered race theory, racial stereotypes can contain a gendered component whereby certain racial and ethnic groups are viewed as being more prototypically masculine or feminine. A number of studies investigating gendered race stereotypes have found that Blacks in North American society are represented and conceived as prototypically masculine, while Asians are represented and conceived of as prototypically feminine. This study examined whether patterns consistent with gendered race prototypes appear in mass media depictions, specifically in popular magazines, such that Asian men and Black women are proportionally less likely than other groups to be depicted. The perceived race and gender of 8,672 individuals depicted within 5 issues each of 6 popular magazines were examined quantitatively to examine whether individuals from nonprototypical gendered race categories were less likely to be depicted. The results indicated that Asian women were more likely to be depicted than Asian men, while Black men were more likely to be depicted than Black women, relative to Whites. These results suggest that, consistent with theories of gendered race and intersectional invisibility, individuals deemed less prototypical of their race and gender categories are rendered invisible in societal representations.
The relation of age to pay rates for 197 Hispanic, black, and white nonmanagerial workers of both sexes was examined in two organizations. Disparity between the pay rates of women and minority group members, relative to white men, increased with age when organizational tenure, education, and skills were controlled.
Approaches related to inference-based processing (e.g., romance-of-leadership theory) would suggest that black leaders are evaluated positively after success. In contrast, approaches related to recognition-based processing (e.g., leader categorization theory) would suggest that, because of stereotyping, black leaders are evaluated negatively regardless of their performance. To reconcile this discrepancy, we predicted that evaluators would engage in goal-based stereotyping by perceiving that black leaders-and not white leaders-fail because of negative leader-based attributes and succeed because of positive nonleader attributes (i.e., compensatory stereotypes). Multilevel analyses of archival data in the context of college football in the United States supported our predictions.
In academic research on interracial relationships, as well as popular discourses such as film and television, Black women are often characterized as angry and opposed to interracial relationships. Yet the voices of Black women have been largely neglected. Drawing from focus group interviews with Black college women and in-depth interviews with Black women who are married interracially, the author explores Black women's views on Black-white heterosexual relationships. Black women's opposition to interracial dating is not simply rooted in jealousy and anger toward white women but is based on white racism, Black internalization of racism, and what interracial relationships represent to Black women and signify about Black women's worth. The impact of racism and sexism are clear, with Black women devalued by white standards of beauty and faced with a shortage of available Black men and a lack of "substantive opportunities" to date interracially.
A great deal of recent work has found that two fundamental dimensions underlie social judgment. The most common labels used to denote these dimensions are agency versus communion, and competence versus warmth. The present work aimed to disentangle agency understood as the motivation to promote the self from competence understood as ability, and to address their distinctive role in status perception. In Studies 1 and 2, participants were presented with a high- versus low-status target and asked to rate this target on agency,
competence and warmth. In Study 3, participants were presented with an agentic, competent, and warm target and asked to rate their social status. Overall, our findings indicated that agency and competence operate as distinct dimensions in social judgment, and that agency is more related to social status than competence.
We summarize and integrate a large body of research showing that agency and communion
constitute two fundamental dimensions of content in social cognition. Agentic content
refers to goal-achievement and task functioning (competence, assertiveness,
decisiveness), whereas communal content refers to the maintenance of relationships
and social functioning (benevolence, trustworthiness,morality).Wepresent a Dual Perspective
Model of Agency and Communion (DPM-AC) developed to show that the two dimensions
are differently linked to the basic perspectives in social interaction, that is, the actor
versus the observer/recipient perspectives. We review numerous research confirming
three general hypotheses of the DPM. First, communal content is primary among the
fundamental dimensions. Second, in the observer/recipient perspective (perception of
others), communal content receives more weight than agentic content. Third, in the actor
perspective (self-perception), agentic content receives more weight than communal content.
Wethen discuss the complex issues of relations of agency and communion to valence
as well as associations between agency and communion. Although they are logically
independent and their inferences are based on different cues, the two content dimensions
of meaning frequently function as psychological alternatives in social cognition.
Gender bias continues to be a concern in many work settings, leading researchers to identify factors that influence workplace decisions. In this study we examine several of these factors, using an organizing framework of sex distribution within jobs (including male- and female-dominated jobs as well as sex-balanced, or integrated, jobs). We conducted random effects meta-analyses including 136 independent effect sizes from experimental studies (N = 22,348) and examined the effects of decision-maker gender, amount and content of information available to the decision maker, type of evaluation, and motivation to make careful decisions on gender bias in organizational decisions. We also examined study characteristics such as type of participant, publication year, and study design. Our findings revealed that men were preferred for male-dominated jobs (i.e., gender-role congruity bias), whereas no strong preference for either gender was found for female-dominated or integrated jobs. Second, male raters exhibited greater gender-role congruity bias than did female raters for male-dominated jobs. Third, gender-role congruity bias did not consistently decrease when decision makers were provided with additional information about those they were rating, but gender-role congruity bias was reduced when information clearly indicated high competence of those being evaluated. Fourth, gender-role congruity bias did not differ between decisions that required comparisons among ratees and decisions made about individual ratees. Fifth, decision makers who were motivated to make careful decisions tended to exhibit less gender-role congruity bias for male-dominated jobs. Finally, for male-dominated jobs, experienced professionals showed smaller gender-role congruity bias than did undergraduates or working adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Asian-Americans are a growth market. Their affluence, high education, and work ethic position them as a “model minority.” However complimentary that term may seem, it nonetheless represents a stereotype whose prevalence must be documented to examine the intersection of minority status and gender in mass media portrayals. The authors report a content analysis of more than 1300 prime time television advertisements conducted to assess the frequency and nature of Asian-American representation. They found that Asian male and female models are overrepresented in terms of proportion of the population (3.6%), appearing in 8.4% of the commercials. However, Asian models are more likely than members of other minority groups to appear in background roles, and Asian women are rarely depicted in major roles. Further, the findings indicate that portrayals of Asian-Americans put so much emphasis on the work ethic that other aspects of life seldom appear. For example, Asian models are overrepresented in business settings and relationships and underrepresented in home settings and family or social relationships. The findings suggest opportunities for advertisers who depict Asian-Americans in nonstereotypical ways.
We compared perceived cultural stereotypes of diverse groups varying by gender and ethnicity. Using a free-response procedure, we asked 627 U.S. undergraduates to generate 10 attributes for 1 of 17 groups: Asian Americans, Blacks, Latinos, Middle Eastern Americans, or Whites; men or women; or 10 gender-by-ethnic groups (e.g., Black men or Latina women). Based on intersectionality theory and social dominance theory, we developed and tested three hypotheses. First, consistent with the intersectionality hypothesis, gender-by-ethnic stereotypes contained unique elements that were not the result of adding gender stereotypes to ethnic stereotypes. Second, in support of an ethnicity hypothesis, stereotypes of ethnic groups were generally more similar to stereotypes of the men than of the women in each group. Third, a gender hypothesis postulated that stereotypes of men and women will be most similar to stereotypes of White men and White women, less similar to ethnic minority men and ethnic minority women, and least similar to Black men and Black women. This hypothesis was confirmed for target women, but results for target men were mixed. Collectively, our results contribute to research, theory, and practice by demonstrating that ethnic and gender stereotypes are complex and that the intersections of these social categories produce meaningful differences in the way groups are perceived.
While the presence of women in law school and the legal profession has improved greatly, the uncomfortable reality is that women tend to occupy positions in the legal profession that subordinate them to men. This reality is even more glaring when the position of black women is examined. Black women carry the burden of multiple consciousness which influences every aspect of their professional lives. Multiple consciousness means that black women must be mindful of their professional identity, their gender and their race in navigating the pipeline to power. This paper will explore the multiple consciousness that intersecting identities invoke and offer modest suggestions for the advancement of black women that may prove useful for all women seeking to advance in the legal profession.
Research exploring the perspectives of stigmatized people has examined general processes related to experiencing prejudice. Past work, however, has invoked the assumption that prejudices against different group memberships are experienced in a similar manner. Across three studies we directly compare experiences of racism and sexism among female minorities and show, in contrast, that people respond to different forms of prejudice in distinct ways. In Study 1 we examined the attributions invoked by Asian women to explain prejudice and discovered that participants made stronger internal attributions to explain racism than sexism. In Study 2 we investigated emotional reactions to prejudice and found that Asian women report experiencing more depression following a race-based rejection than a gender-based rejection. In Study 3 we observed that Asian women reported perceiving more racism than sexism in their environments. Implications for advancing theories of prejudice experiences are discussed.
Jezebel's sexual lasciviousness, Mammy's devotion, and Sapphire's outspoken anger-these are among the most persistent stereotypes that black women encounter in contemporary American life. Hurtful and dishonest, such representations force African American women to navigate a virtual crooked room that shames them and shapes their experiences as citizens. Many respond by assuming a mantle of strength that may convince others, and even themselves, that they do not need help. But as a result, the unique political issues of black women are often ignored and marginalized. In this groundbreaking book, Melissa V. Harris-Perry uses multiple methods of inquiry, including literary analysis, political theory, focus groups, surveys, and experimental research, to understand more deeply black women's political and emotional responses to pervasive negative race and gender images. Not a traditional political science work concerned with office-seeking, voting, or ideology, Sister Citizen instead explores how African American women understand themselves as citizens and what they expect from political organizing. Harris-Perry shows that the shared struggle to preserve an authentic self and secure recognition as a citizen links together black women in America, from the anonymous survivors of Hurricane Katrina to the current First Lady of the United States.
Part I. From There to Here - Theoretical Background: 1. From visiousness to viciousness: theories of intergroup relations 2. Social dominance theory as a new synthesis Part II. Oppression and its Psycho-Ideological Elements: 3. The psychology of group dominance: social dominance orientation 4. Let's both agree that you're really stupid: the power of consensual ideology Part III. The Circle of Oppression - The Myriad Expressions of Institutional Discrimination: 5. You stay in your part of town and I'll stay in mine: discrimination in the housing and retail markets 6. They're just too lazy to work: discrimination in the labor market 7. They're just mentally and physically unfit: discrimination in education and health care 8. The more of 'them' in prison, the better: institutional terror, social control and the dynamics of the criminal justice system Part IV. Oppression as a Cooperative Game: 9. Social hierarchy and asymmetrical group behavior: social hierarchy and group difference in behavior 10. Sex and power: the intersecting political psychologies of patriarchy and empty-set hierarchy 11. Epilogue.
Three studies tested basic assumptions derived from a theoretical model based on the dissociation of automatic and controlled processes involved in prejudice. Study 1 supported the model's assumption that high- and low-prejudice persons are equally knowledgeable of the cultural stereotype. The model suggests that the stereotype is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of the stereotyped group and that low-prejudice responses require controlled inhibition of the automatically activated stereotype. Study 2, which examined the effects of automatic stereotype activation on the evaluation of ambiguous stereotype-relevant behaviors performed by a race-unspecified person, suggested that when subjects' ability to consciously monitor stereotype activation is precluded, both high- and low-prejudice subjects produce stereotype-congruent evaluations of ambiguous behaviors. Study 3 examined high- and low-prejudice subjects' responses in a consciously directed thought-listing task. Consistent with the model, only low-prejudice subjects inhibited the automatically activated stereotype-congruent thoughts and replaced them with thoughts reflecting equality and negations of the stereotype. The relation between stereotypes and prejudice and implications for prejudice reduction are discussed.
We integrate stereotype fit and interdependence theories to propose a model that explains how and why decision makers discriminate in selection decisions. Our model suggests that decision makers draw on stereotypes about members of different social groups to infer the degree to which candidates possess the specific ability required for the task. Decision makers perceive candidates that have a greater ability required for the task as less (more) instrumental to their personal outcomes if they expect to compete (cooperate) with the candidate, and they discriminate in favor of candidates that are perceived as more instrumental to them. We tested our theory in the context of racial (Studies 1-3) and age (Study 4) discrimination in selection decisions with all-Male samples and found evidence consistent with our predictions. By explaining when and why decision makers discriminate in favor of, but also against, members of their own social group, this research may help to explain the mixed support for the dominant view that decision makers exhibit favoritism toward candidates that belong to the same social group. In addition, our research demonstrates the importance of considering the largely overlooked role of interdependent relationships within the organization in order to understand discrimination in organizations.
This paper examines the impact of women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations on hierarchical and peer relationships among professional women at work. I propose that social identity is the principal mechanism through which the representation of women influences their relationships. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of interview and questionnaire data are used to compare women's same-sex relationships in firms with relatively low and high proportions of senior women. Compared with women in firms with many senior women, women in firms with few senior women were less likely to experience common gender as a positive basis for identification with women, less likely to perceive senior women as role models with legitimate authority, more likely to perceive competition in relationships with women peers, and less likely to find support in these relationships. These results challenge person-centered views about the psychology of women's same-sex work relationships and suggest that social identity may link an organization's demographic composition with individuals' workplace experiences.
We assess evidence for gender differences across a range of relationships and consider whether the form and quality of these relationships affect the psychological functioning of men and women differently. Data from a national panel survey provide consistent evidence that men's and women's relationships differ. However, we find little evidence for the theoretical argument that women are more psychologically reactive than men to the quality of their relationships: Supportive relationships are associated with low levels of psychological distress, while strained relationships are associated with high levels of distress for women and for men. However, if women did not have higher levels of social involvement than men, they would exhibit even higher levels of distress relative to men than they currently do. We find little evidence for the assertion that men and women react to strained relationships in gender-specific ways--for example, with alcohol consumption versus depression.
Drawing on macro and micro domains in gender research, we meta-analytically test whether occupational, industry, and job-level factors mitigate or exacerbate differences in performance evaluations (k = 93; n = 95,882) and rewards (k = 97; n = 378,850) between men and women. Based on studies conducted across a variety of work settings and spanning nearly thirty years, we found that the sex differences in rewards (d = .56) (including salary, bonuses, and promotions) were fourteen times larger than sex differences in performance evaluations (d = .04) and that differences in performance evaluations did not explain reward differences between men and women. The percentage of men in an occupation and the complexity of jobs performed by employees enhanced the male-female gap in performance and rewards. In highly prestigious occupations women performed equally but were rewarded significantly lower than men. Only a higher representation of female executives at the industry level enabled women to reverse the gender gap in rewards and performance evaluations. Our configurational analysis also revealed that some occupational, job, and industry level attributes of the work context are jointly associated with higher differences in rewards and performance evaluations.
In applying social role theory to account for the content of a wide range of stereotypes, this research tests the proposition that observations of groups' roles determine stereotype content (Eagly & Wood, 2012). In a novel test of how stereotypes can develop from observations, preliminary research collected participants' beliefs about the occupational roles (e.g., lawyer, teacher, fast food worker, chief executive officer, store clerk, manager) in which members of social groups (e.g., Black women, Hispanics, White men, the rich, senior citizens, high school dropouts) are overrepresented relative to their numbers in the general population. These beliefs about groups' typical occupational roles proved to be generally accurate when evaluated in relation to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Then, correlational studies predicted participants' stereotypes of social groups from the attributes ascribed to group members' typical occupational roles (Studies 1a, 1b, and 1c), the behaviors associated with those roles (Study 2), and the occupational interest profile of the roles (Study 3). As predicted by social role theory, beliefs about the attributes of groups' typical roles were strongly related to group stereotypes on both communion and agency/competence. In addition, an experimental study (Study 4) demonstrated that when social groups were described with changes to their typical social roles in the future, their projected stereotypes were more influenced by these future roles than by their current group stereotypes, thus supporting social role theory's predictions about stereotype change. Discussion considers the implications of these findings for stereotype change and the relation of social role theory to other theories of stereotype content. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
This article presents a four-category framework to characterize the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. The framework distinguishes between prescriptions and proscriptions that are intensified by virtue of one's gender, and those that are relaxed by virtue of one's gender. Two studies examined the utility of this framework for characterizing prescriptive gender stereotypes in American society (Study 1) and in the highly masculine context of Princeton University (Study 2). The results demonstrated the persistence of traditional gender prescriptions in both contexts, but also revealed distinct areas of societal vigilance and leeway for each gender. In addition, they showed that women are seen more positively, relative to societal standards, than are men. We consider the implications of this framework for research on reactions to gender stereotype deviants and sex discrimination.
The figure of the Mammy dominated American television in the 1940s and 1950s. As we transitioned into the twenty-first century, this imagery re-emerged as a result of the Black male in drag. Tracing the development of this figure from the 1950s to the specific case of Eddie Murphy in drag, this paper examines how Black Motherhood and the Mammy continues to be a part of the African American cinematic experience.
We contribute to a current debate that focuses on whether individuals with more than one subordinate identity (i.e., Black women) experience more negative leader perceptions than do leaders with single-subordinate identities (i.e., Black men and White women). Results confirmed that Black women leaders suffered double jeopardy, and were evaluated more negatively than Black men and White women, but only under conditions of organizational failure. Under conditions of organizational success, the three groups were evaluated comparably to each other, but each group was evaluated less favorably than White men. Further, leader typicality, the extent to which individuals possess characteristics usually associated with a leader role, mediated the indirect effect of leader race, leader gender, and organizational performance on leader effectiveness. Taken together, these results suggest that Black women leaders may carry a burden of being disproportionately sanctioned for making mistakes on the job.
Dynamic stereotypes characterize social groups that are thought to have changed from the attributes they manifested in the past and even to continue to change in the future. According to social role theory’s assumption that the role behavior of group members shapes their stereotype, groups should have dynamic stereotypes to the extent that their typical social roles are perceived to change over time. Applied to men and women, this theory makes two predictions about perceived change: (a) perceivers should think that sex differences are eroding because of increasing similarity of the roles of men and women and (b) the female stereotype should be particularly dynamic because of greater change in the roles of women than of men. This theory was tested and confirmed in five experiments that examined perceptions of the roles and the personality, cognitive, and physical attributes of men and women of the past, present, and future.
Although past research has noted the importance of both power and gender for understanding volubility—the total amount of time spent talking—in organizations, to date, identifying the unique contributions of power and gender to volubility has been somewhat elusive. Using both naturalistic data sets and experiments, the present studies indicate that while power has a strong, positive effect on volubility for men, no such effect exists for women. Study 1 uses archival data to examine the relationship between the relative power of United States senators and their talking behavior on the Senate floor. Results indicate a strong positive relationship between power and volubility for male senators, but a non-significant relationship for female senators. Study 2 replicates this effect in an experimental setting by priming the concept of power and shows that though men primed with power talk more, women show no effect of power on volubility. Mediation analyses indicate that this difference is explained by women’s concern that being highly voluble will result in negative consequences (i.e., backlash). Study 3 shows that powerful women are in fact correct in assuming that they will incur backlash as a result of talking more than others—an effect that is observed among both male and female perceivers. Implications for the literatures on volubility, power, and previous studies of backlash are discussed.
Backlash effects are defined as social and economic reprisals for behaving counterstereotypically (Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629–645). The present chapter outlines an impression-management dilemma that women face and describes the literature on backlash effects in organizations. Because women are perceived to be less competent, ambitious, and competitive (i.e., less agentic) than men, they may be overlooked for leadership positions unless they present themselves as atypical women. However, the prescriptive nature of gender stereotypes can result in negative reactions to female agency and authority (i.e., backlash). This dilemma has serious consequences for gender parity, as it undermines women at every stage of their careers. It also has consequences for organizations, as it likely contributes to female managers’ higher rates of job disaffection and turnover, relative to male counterparts. In addition to specifying the consequences of backlash for women and organizations, we consider potential moderators of backlash effects and the role that backlash plays in maintaining cultural stereotypes. Finally, we outline potential avenues for future research.
In this article, the authors identify three methodological short-comings of the classic Princeton trilogy studies: (a) ambiguity of the instructions given to respondents, (b) no assessment of respondents' level of prejudice, and (c) use of an outdated list of adjectives. These shortcomings are addressed in the authors' assessment of the stereotype and personal beliefs of a sample of University of Wisconsin students. In contrast to the commonly espoused fading stereotype proposition, data suggest that there exists a consistent and negative contemporary stereotype of Blacks. Comparing the data from the Princeton trilogy studies with those of the present study, the authors conclude that the Princeton trilogy studies actually measured respondents' personal beliefs, not (as typically assumed) their knowledge of the Black stereotype. Consistent with Devine's model, high- and low-prejudiced individuals did not differ in their knowledge of the stereotype of Blacks but diverged sharply in their endorsement of the stereotype.
A two-part study contrasted the utility of free-response and checklist methodologies for ascertaining ethnic and gender stereotypes. Descriptions of data collection, organization, and cluster and entropy analyses are provided. Results indicate that important differences emerge between data resulting from free-response methodology and those obtained with traditionally employed adjective checklists. These differences include the generation of a large percentage of physical descriptors and within-ethnic-group gender differences in stereotype content. A major finding is the generation of a large number of distinct responses coupled with low-frequency use of any particular response. Study 2 specifically examined whether free-response data are more schematic than checklist data. Results indicate that free-response data have a greater dependency and may thus be indicative of schematic response. This schematic response may, in turn, indicate more automatic processing than is evident with data from checklist methodologies.
This study examines the structural validity of scores from the Bem Sex Role Inventory using a maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Six hundred and sixty-five graduate and undergraduate students participate in the study. A seven firstorder factor model almost identical to the model reported in a previous CFA study is used as the baseline comparison model. The data for testing these models are obtained from an exploratory sample randomly selected from the whole sample. A hierarchical factor structure model with seven first-order factors (compassionate, interpersonal affect, shy, dominant, decisive, athletic, and self-sufficient) and two second-order factors (masculinity and femininity) fit the data quite well. The fit indices based on the validation sample collectively indicate a very good fit. The results of this study are notably consistent with the hierarchical factor models suggested in two previous CFA studies.
The study sought to examine the degree to which Chicano and Anglo students agree on the sex roles as presented in the literature characterizing the traditional Mexican family. Results of a family, sex role questionnaire yielded significant differences for sex and ethnicity. A factor analysis identified the underlying variables of the questionnaire to be highly loaded on sex-role stereotypes. Although there was disagreement with the questionnaire for both the Chicano and Anglo participants, Chicano males agreed more with stereotypic sex roles than Chicano females, Anglo males, and Anglo females. Implications of the findings and directions for further research are discussed.
Abstract—Recent studies have documented that performance in a domain is hindered when individuals feel that a sociocultural group to which they belong is negatively stereotyped in that domain. We report that implicit activation of a social identity can facilitate as well as impede performance on a quantitative task. When a particular social identity was made salient at an implicit level, performance was altered in the direction predicted by the stereotype associated with the identity. Common cultural stereotypes hold that Asians have superior quantitative skills compared with other ethnic groups and that women have inferior quantitative skills compared with men. We found that Asian-American women performed better on a mathematics test when their ethnic identity was activated, but worse when their gender identity was activated, compared with a control group who had neither identity activated. Cross-cultural investigation indicated that it was the stereotype, and not the identity per se, that influenced performance.
Scholars have highlighted the detrimental influence of racially charged stereotypes and images on self-perception and well being. Others have suggested that identity components (e.g., ethnic identity and self-concept) serve a protective function. The purposes of this study were (a) to explore the relationship among stereotypic images, beauty standards that are consistent with “colorism,” and identity components of African American girls and (b) to determine the impact of these variables on girls' sexual attitudes. African American girls (N = 270) between the ages of 10–15 years old completed a self-report questionnaire, which included a new measure, the Modern Jezebel Scale, that was used to assess stereotypic images. A series of multiple regressions were performed using identity components, stereotypic images, and colorism as independent variables and sexual attitude variables as the outcome. In addition, interaction effects were explored to determine if identity components moderated the influence of stereotypic images and colorism on sexual attitudes. As expected, findings revealed significant positive relationships among stereotypic images, colorism, and sexual risk. In addition, significant interactions were found between identity components and stereotypes. Instead of identity serving as a buffer against the negative effects of societal messages, endorsement of stereotypes and colorism increased sexual risk in the context of identity components. Results suggest that a strong identity may not be enough to reduce sexual risk if girls cannot critically analyze the societal messages that they receive. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.
There are multiple views in human resource management and organizational behavior concerning gender differences in measures of job performance. Some researchers suggest that males generally are evaluated higher than females across a variety of situations that include job performance measurement. At the same time, the presence of specific status cues in expectation states theory (EST; similar to the concept of individuating information) suggests that measures of job performance will be more similar than different for males and females. Previous analyses are unclear in their results for the measurement of the construct of job performance because they have included, and/or focused on, additional constructs (e.g., hiring suitability, leadership performance aggregated with leadership satisfaction) or have used student samples in lab experiments. The authors of this article conducted a meta-analysis of job performance measures from field studies. They found that females generally scored slightly higher than males (mean d = −.11, 80% credibility interval of −.33 to .12). Other analyses suggested that, although job performance ratings favored females, ratings of promotion potential were higher for males. Thus, ratings of promotability may deserve further attention as a potential source of differential promotion rates. These findings and processes are discussed within the context of EST.
One conclusion emerging from the stereotyping literature is that behavioral information can undercut stereotyping of individuals. Two studies examined whether this holds for descriptive but not prescriptive stereotypes. In Study 1, participants whose descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes had been measured chose between equally qualified male and female job applicants. Results indicated that descriptive stereotypes did not predict gender bias, but prescriptive stereotypes did. In Study 2, participants whose descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes had been measured provided evaluations of either male or female job applicants who were enacting either masculine or feminine roles. Results indicated that descriptive stereotypes did not predict gender bias, but prescriptive stereotypes fostered—among male participants—a bias against females enacting masculine roles and in favor of males enacting masculine roles. These studies suggest that prescriptive stereotyping can persevere after behavioral information has undercut descriptive stereotyping. Thus, the studies underline both the tenacity of stereotyping and the need to reconsider the generalization that information deters stereotyping.
Two processes of stereotyping, subtyping and subgrouping, are compared. Subtyping occurs when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype. The more recently defined process of subgrouping refers to the perceiver's organization of information in terms of clusters of individuals based on their similarities and dif - ferences; subgroups can include confirmers and disconfirmers. We consider how subtypes and subgroups are defined, operationalized, and measured, their conse - quences for stereotype change, and the role of typicality. It is concluded that the clearest difference between subtyping and subgrouping is in terms of their conse - quences (subtyping leads to the preservation and subgrouping to differentiation of the stereotype). There are, however, some similarities between the processes, and at- tention is drawn to what future research is required, both to deepen our knowledge of each process and clarify their distinction.