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The Effect of Pen and Paper or Tablet Computer on Early Writing – A Pilot Study

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Abstract

One consequence of the ongoing controversy on the implementation of digital tools in early writing instruction is a need to investigate the effect of different writing instruction tools such as pen(cil) and paper and tablet computers on early writing. The purpose of this pilot study is to develop a study design and a writing test to investigate the effect of writing instruction tool (tablet computer vs. pen and paper) and test format (digital vs. pen-and-paper) on early writing outcomes. For the writing test, our pilot study shows that pupils assessed by the digital test format wrote faster compared with those assessed by pen-and-paper format, independent of the writing instruction tool. Given the limitations of this pilot study in scope and its quasi-experimental nature, we provide some suggestions for the design of a larger scale study by taking into account the rapid development of the field of early writing instruction.

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... Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou, & Velay, 2005;, but a greater positive effect of typing on writing quantity, quality, and motivation (e.g. Goldberg, Russell, & Cook, 2003;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016). ...
... than did paper-and-pencil writing. Looking beyond the overall quality of the essay, and Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, Løver et al. (2016) reviewed 10 studies from 2005 to 2015 that compared the impact of typing and handwriting on primary school students' letter/alphabet transcription, writing of simple words and sentences, writing enjoyment, and writing experience. The researchers found that handwriting helped enhance writing fluency, letter recognition, and reproduction, whereas typing improved students' attitudes toward writing. ...
... This review also revealed that, in contrast to the robust findings of previous studies regarding typing's quantitative and qualitative enhancement of English essay writing (see Goldberg et al., 2003;Morphy & Graham, 2012;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, Løver et al., 2016), its impact on Chinese essay writing was mixed, depending on students' language proficiency and their ages. Current studies suggest that beginning level students from university may benefit more from typing, especially in writing quality and character accuracy (Chen, 2013;Zhang & Min, 2019;Zhu et al., 2016). ...
Article
The differential effects of typing and handwriting on language performance have attracted much research attention, including literature reviews and meta-analyses in the field of English-language education. However, how these two modes of language production interact with the unique characteristics of Chinese characters and the various dimensions of Chinese language learning and performance remains an open question. The present study therefore presents a synthetic review of empirical studies examining the effects of typing and handwriting on Chinese language performance. The study found that typing has a greater effect on Chinese learners' phonology recognition and phonology-orthography mapping than handwriting, and this advantage was more salient in Chinese than in English. Unlike in English, where it only benefited orthographic recognition of letters, handwriting had positive effects on Chinese learners' orthography recognition and orthography-semantic mapping at both the character and lexical levels. Moreover, in contrast with consistent findings concerning the positive effect of typing on English writing performance, the effects of typing on Chinese writing performance were mixed. The findings suggest that the effects of typing and handwriting might manifest differently in the two languages , calling for differential theorization of the cognitive impact of typing on English and Chinese language processing.
... At the same time, handwriting instruction, in particular cursive writing instruction, seems to be losing ground. For example, in Finland after autumn 2016 first-graders will learn both printing and forming words with upper and lower case letters, and keyboard skills (Søby, 2015), while in France the current curriculum focuses more than its predecessor on cursive handwriting (Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016). ...
... In particular, for children who are struggling with fine motor skills this method might reduce frustration in their earlier period of writing instruction. In contrast, the proponents of traditional, pen-and-paper-based writing instruction methods refer to studies in the field of neuroscience where a positive association is shown between handwriting and activities in certain areas of the brain (brain circuits) (Wollscheid et al., 2016). ...
... Good learning in writing also requires both slow ("deep attention") and fast processes ("hyper attention"). Therefore, contrary to those advocating writing instruction methods based on digital writing tools only (Wollscheid et al., 2016), paper and pen still seem to add a value of necessity together with digital technology rather than eccentricity in these MTE contexts. In order to meet the requirements of these different processes, that is, not only grammar, longhand, and orthography, but also graphically appealing and well-structured texts, teaching structures should be developed that serve the newer media ecology, encompassing the rituals used to maintain an altered continuity, order, and boundary from those found in the old school (cf. ...
Article
This article concerns how teachers of Mother-Tongue Education (MTE) and pupils in Swedish secondary schools look upon and relate to the keyboard and screen and pen and paper, respectively, for writing in the context of MTE. The results showed that both teachers and pupils found that the computer on one side and the pen and paper on the other circumscribed different writing processes. Paper and pen offered greater resistance when writing than a computer. It was concluded that writing on a computer had been culturally appropriated in the MTE and represented the frame for both teachers and students from which they assessed the advantages and disadvantages of each technology, but also that paper and pen added a value of necessity rather than eccentricity for the pupils, in contrast to the teachers, in order to meet the requirements concerning grammar, longhand, and orthography.
... En intervención con uso de tablet, realizando tareas de transcripción y dictado, no se observaron diferencias entre el grupo de intervención y control cuando fueron evaluados a través de lápiz y papel (Wollscheid et al., 2016). ...
... juguete-papel: M = 2.19, p = .076). (Wollscheid et al., 2016) 47 3er grado Tablet en todas las materias. ...
Article
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Antecedentes: En esta revisión sistemática se investiga la evidencia actual sobre el uso de smartphones y tablets (SP&T) en niños, ya que se ha generado un creciente interés en constatar su impacto en diferentes aspectos del desarrollo psicológico y el aprendizaje. Método: se realizó una búsqueda de artículos en las bases de datos EBSCO, Pubmed, Science Direct, Scopus y Web of Science. Se seleccionaron 42 artículos que cumplían con los criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Se realizó un análisis de contenido extrayendo información sobre edades de las/os participantes, tipos de dispositivos, materiales de intervención y variables independientes/dependientes. Resultados: se muestra evidencia científica sobre asociaciones positivas entre el uso de aplicaciones móviles y el desarrollo de habilidades cognitivas claves para el aprendizaje (habilidades matemáticas, lectoescritura, idiomas) y habilidades socioemocionales (reducción de ansiedad), así como asociaciones negativas entre tiempo de pantalla, calidad del sueño y salud. Conclusiones: se concluye que a pesar de la evidencia mostrada en esta revisión aún se debe seguir investigando en esta temática considerando diferentes aproximaciones metodológicas, ya que es una materia amplia y multidimensional.
... Secondly, it is seen that traditional paper-and-pencil-based and technology-based writing studies have been conducted with various research methodologies and theoretical perspectives. Some studies have investigated the effects of traditional paper-and-pencil-based writing instruction and technology-based writing instruction on variables such as quality of written texts, writing speed and writing fluency from a quantitative viewpoint (Berninger, Abbott, Augsburger, & Garcia, 2009;Connelly et al., 2007;Crook & Bennett, 2007;Genlott & Gr€ onlund, 2013;Nair, Tay, & Koh, 2013;Sessions, Kang, & Womack, 2016;Warren, Dondlinger, & Barab, 2008;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016). Studies comparing the effects of traditional paper-and-pencil-based writing instruction and technology-based writing instruction on students' writing skills have produced inconsistent findings. ...
... Some studies have revealed that students who write with a word processor write more slowly and less fluently, and that the texts they produce are of lower quality (Berninger et al., 2009;Connelly et al., 2007;Crook & Bennett, 2007). Other studies have shown that students who write with technological tools write longer texts and that their texts are of better quality (Goldberg, Russell, & Cook, 2003;Little, Clark, Tani, & Connor, 2018;Sessions et al., 2016;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016). Some studies, however, have found no difference between writing performances of students who write with technology (using blogs and programs for converting speech into text) and those of students who write by using a traditional paper and pencil (Haug & Klein, 2018;Nair et al., 2013). ...
Article
The aim of this study is to explore the effect of digital writing instruction with tablets on fourth-year primary school students' writing performance and writing knowledge. This study, in which quantitative and qualitative data are collected together, is based on the simple view of writing and a new literacies perspective. The participants consisted of 96 students, of whom 47 were in the control group and 49 were in the experimental group. According to the quantitative findings, firstly, both the quality and number of words of the stories written during the process by students participating in the instruction with tablets were significantly higher than those of students who wrote with paper and pencil. Secondly, although writing quality scores for posttest stories of students participating in the instruction with tablets were significantly higher than those of students who wrote with paper and pencil, no significant difference was found between their numbers of words in the posttest. Thirdly, the posttest writing knowledge scores of students participating in the instruction with tablets were significantly higher than those of students who wrote with paper and pencil. The qualitative findings revealed that the students’ sharing of their writing on the class blog, their utilisation of multimedia components for writing training, and the opportunity for online social interaction enriched the writing instruction process with regard to the new literacies.
... Furthermore, elementary teachers subscribed to the importance of using word-processing programs and of touch-typing skills for students to perform well on standardized tests (Poole & Preciado, 2016). However, touch-typing instruction is not yet part of standard school curricula in most countries (Connelly, Gee, & Walsh, 2007;Poole & Preciado, 2016;Van Gelderen, 2010;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016), and research on the effects of touchtyping interventions on school performance such as spelling and writing has been limited (Christensen, 2004). Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effect of a touch-typing course on students' spelling and narrative-writing skills on the computer. ...
... However, the study of Lewis et al. (1991) was published 20 years ago, and since then, the situation in the educational school system has changed. Nowadays, implementation of digital tools in educational settings is growing, and the possibilities to practice touch-typing are ample for most children in elementary school in Western societies (Wollscheid et al., 2016). Further investigation is needed to find out what the effects of a touch-typing course are in the long run. ...
Article
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This study investigated the effect of a touch‐typing course on the spelling and narrative‐writing skills on the computer of elementary school students. Data of 207 students in Grades 4, 5, and 6 were analysed using a pretest–posttest design. Students in the experimental group (n = 154) followed a touch‐typing course, and those in the control group (n = 53) did not. The experimental group showed more progress in typing, spelling, and narrative‐writing skills on the computer than the control group. It can be concluded that the touch‐typing course had a positive effect, not only on typing skills but also on spelling and narrative‐writing skills on the computer. Lay Description What is known • Typing skills are important for the quality of the typewritten text output. • In touch‐typing with automaticity of transcription, workting‐memory load is decreased. • Studies on the effect of a touch‐typing course are rare. What this paper adds • This study investigated the effect of a touch‐typing course on spelling and narrative writing. • We used a design with an experimental (with typing‐course) and a control group (no course) • The experimental group showed more improvement in typing, spelling and narrative writing. Implications for practitioners • It is important for the quality of student's text output to learn how to touch‐type • Touch‐typing can be learned in a teacher-directed course, containing 15 training sessions of 1.5 hours each • Practice of 20 minutes a day is necessary
... Alors que le contrôle de la production manuscrite se fait sur la même unité spatiale, celui de l'écriture tapuscrite sépare l'espace de production motrice, le clavier (horizontal), et l'espace d'affichage de la rédaction, l'écran (vertical). Cette distinction de l'espace moteur et de l'espace visuel demande donc un partage attentionnel (Wollscheid et al., 2016). En effet, l'attention visuelle serait plus économique en écriture manuscrite puisque l'ordinateur impose des va-et-vient entre clavier et écran ce qui est coûteux chez le dactylographe débutant. ...
Article
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Context: Specific Written Language Learning Disorder is characterised by difficulties in learning to read (dyslexia) and write (dysorthographia), which can have an impact on school performance. In this context, various pedagogical arrangements can be put in place. However, when difficulties are too important, the use of computer can be proposed. Using a computer as a means of compensation requires occupational therapy, in particular to learn how to write on a keyboard and to master writing software. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the spelling performance of students with a Specific Written Language Learning Disorder on a computer keyboard. The main aim is to define the interests and limitations of using the computer as a compensatory tool. Hypothesis: The spelling disorder of students with Specific Written Language Learning Disorder should be apparent in both handwritten and typed form. However, regular, long-term occupational therapy treatment should increase pupils' autonomy in mastering compensatory tools and, consequently, their spelling accuracy in the typed mode. Method: 11 students from 10 to 14 years old with Specific Written Language Learning Disorder who use computers as a means of daily compensation took part in this study. They produced two written narratives, one by hand (handwritten condition) and one on a computer keyboard (typed condition). The length of the narratives, as well as spelling accuracy and the type of spelling errors produced, were recorded. Results: There was no significant difference between the two writing modes on the two variables tested. Overall, participants with Specific Written Language Learning Disorder made no more spelling errors in the handwritten condition than in the typed condition. Moreover, they produce more morphological spelling errors (inflectional and derivational) than lexical and phonological errors, whatever the mode of production. A qualitative analysis qualifies these overall results, since the participants who received long and regular occupational therapy treatment made greater use of the aids made available to them and produced fewer spelling errors in the typed condition than in the handwritten condition. Nevertheless, computer proficiency is not only linked to occupational therapy follow-up. It also depends on the child's co-morbidities, such as attention deficit disorder, and his or her motivation to perform the written task. Conclusion: The use of computers as a tool to compensate for spelling difficulties in children with Specific Written Language Learning Disorder needs to be considered individually for each child with a specific learning disability.
... Many studies support the seemingly ineluctable transition to technology. One study of third-grade students shows that writing speed is a certain benefit of computer-based tests (Wollscheid et al., 2016). In another, sixth-grade students who had taken a keyboarding class produced more legible text by computer than on paper, suggesting that keyboard input might 3 L2 Journal Vol. ...
Article
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Is paper or computer better for assessing L2 students’ writing? The ineluctable transition to technology might suggest this question has already been answered. However, the technology divide in L2 assessments may have indeed widened since the pandemic: whereas some teachers have fully embraced technology in assessments as in instruction, others are reluctant to eliminate paper, owing to concerns about the reliability, integrity and authenticity of L2 production on computer. This article shares observations from several French classes at an American high school in which assessments that were otherwise identical were offered to students on both paper and computer. These observations revealed several overlapping areas of L2 research that merit further consideration, including instructor bias between media, academic integrity of student work, and the need to align the technological literacies between instructors and students. The reflection that follows points to specific directions for further empirical research on the effects of input medium on L2 learners in K-12 and higher education.
... The most possible reason for this problem is due to the excessive use of the stylus pens on tablets as compared to the use of the usual pens on paper by the students. A pilot study in Norway involving primary school children has demonstrated that pupils who have been used to the on-screen writing method wrote far more words during the on-screen test in comparison with the same group of pupils but were tested on papers (Wollscheid et al., 2016). The loss of marks from the Progress Tests and Semester Examinations among the students due to this issue could lead to inaccurate findings of teaching effectiveness by the lecturers. ...
... The most possible reason for this problem is due to the excessive use of the stylus pens on tablets as compared to the use of the usual pens on paper by the students. A pilot study in Norway involving primary school children has demonstrated that pupils who have been used to the on-screen writing method wrote far more words during the on-screen test in comparison with the same group of pupils but were tested on papers (Wollscheid et al., 2016). The loss of marks from the Progress Tests and Semester Examinations among the students due to this issue could lead to inaccurate findings of teaching effectiveness by the lecturers. ...
... The most possible reason for this problem is due to the excessive use of the stylus pens on tablets as compared to the use of the usual pens on paper by the students. A pilot study in Norway involving primary school children has demonstrated that pupils who have been used to the on-screen writing method wrote far more words during the on-screen test in comparison with the same group of pupils but were tested on papers (Wollscheid et al., 2016). The loss of marks from the Progress Tests and Semester Examinations among the students due to this issue could lead to inaccurate findings of teaching effectiveness by the lecturers. ...
... The most possible reason for this problem is due to the excessive use of the stylus pens on tablets as compared to the use of the usual pens on paper by the students. A pilot study in Norway involving primary school children has demonstrated that pupils who have been used to the on-screen writing method wrote far more words during the on-screen test in comparison with the same group of pupils but were tested on papers (Wollscheid et al., 2016). The loss of marks from the Progress Tests and Semester Examinations among the students due to this issue could lead to inaccurate findings of teaching effectiveness by the lecturers. ...
... Learning to write is a complex and protracted process, which involves the development of both foundational (e.g., handwriting and spelling) and process writing skills (e.g., planning and revising texts) (Kellogg, 2008). In today's digital world, children's first writing experiences are often using keyboards, and in some educational contexts children are expected to use computers for text composing as early as they start schooling (Parette et al., 2000;Wollscheid et al., 2016;Zhang & Min, 2019). In some countries, there has been a move to online assessment of students' literacy skills in high-stakes testing, including writing (e.g., Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA] 2018, Biantoro and Arfianti 2019, National Assessment Governing Board 2010. ...
Article
Full-text available
The predictive relationship between handwriting automaticity and children's writing performance is well documented. However, less is known about the relationship between keyboarding automaticity and children's keyboard-based writing performance. In this exploratory study, we examined the unique contributions of automaticity in both writing modalities in predicting Grade 2 students (N = 49) paper-based and keyboard-based writing performance (i.e., compositional quality and fluency) after controlling for students' literacy skills (i.e., spelling, word reading, and reading comprehension), attitudes toward writing, gender, and nesting due to classroom. Multilevel modelling results showed that automaticity predicted students' paper-based compo-sitional quality and keyboard-based compositional quality and fluency. Findings further suggested that the relationship between automaticity and writing performance was stronger in keyboard-based text composing than in paper-based text composing. These results reinforce the role of automaticity of transcription skills in predicating the writing performance of beginning writers across modalities and stress the significance of explicit pedagogy and frequent instances of practice to promote the mastery of transcription skills across modalities in the early years of schooling.
... Learning to write is a complex and protracted process, which involves the development of both foundational (e.g., handwriting and spelling) and process writing skills (e.g., planning and revising texts) (Kellogg, 2008). In today's digital world, children's first writing experiences are often using keyboards, and in some educational contexts children are expected to use computers for text composing as early as they start schooling (Parette et al., 2000;Wollscheid et al., 2016;Zhang & Min, 2019). In some countries, there has been a move to online assessment of students' literacy skills in high-stakes testing, including writing (e.g., Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA] 2018, Biantoro and Arfianti 2019, National Assessment Governing Board 2010. ...
... Nevertheless, there is evidence of good DW practices at school, namely through applications such as the iPad, which provides vast learning opportunities for students to produce texts in flexible and recursive ways (Franklin & Gibson, 2015;Kervin & Mantei, 2016;Wollscheid et al., 2016). Concerning higher education, various approaches are used to integrate digital tools into writing instructions successfully. ...
Article
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The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the digital transformation of higher education worldwide. It also has facilitated digital writing in remote classrooms and beyond. During lockdowns, digital writing has become a constant way of communication in our lives. The research examines the COVID-19 pandemic impact on digital writing transformation in higher education. It also assumes the dependence of writing modes on distance learning types. Empirical evidence gathered through quantitative and qualitative research methods involves higher education teachers and students surveyed in a Ukrainian university to understand their perceptions and experience of writing online during the Coronavirus lockdowns in 2020-22. The research results reveal trends in transforming writing modes (traditional vs digital), writing conditions, and educational technology. Furthermore, the research shows that the higher education transition to digital format during the COVID-19 pandemic has encouraged the digitalisation of writing, and even new modes of collaboration through digital writing. They include detailed description and visualisation of interactive learning activities with additional ICT tools that can optimise the educational process. The findings and guidelines can contribute to studying digital writing in higher education during and post-pandemic. Practitioner Notes Practitioner Notes 1. EdTech integration in educational settings promotes new modes of digital writing. 2. Higher education in the pandemic is characterised by increased digital writing and dominance over handwriting. 3. There are 'student-used' and 'teacher-used' digital writing tools in distance learning. 4. Writing modes and written e-feedback (typed and delivered electronically) depend on distance learning types, digital tools and participants. 5. Implementation of additional digital tools and apps can enlarge the EdTech potential for synchronous digital writing practices in a virtual educational environment.
... Evidence in support of the benefits of digital written composition in primary (elementary) schools is, however, mixed. A small number of studies have evaluated effects of introducing writing on tablet or computer in normal writing lessons, with minimal additional change to how writing is taught. 1 There is some evidence of benefit from introducing digital writing into classes of students (third grade or higher) who have, through traditional handwriting-first instruction, already achieved some level of written composition ability (Moore & Turner, 1988;Owston & Wideman, 1997;Wollscheid et al., 2016; but see Dybdahl et al., 1997). Three studies, to our knowledge, have systematically explored effects of digital writing from the start of school. ...
... However, writing has not changed immensely so far in this era (Stanley, 2013, p.99), as Friedman (2005 emphasizes the inevitability of information technologies' involvement in schools and in students' education life (as cited in Pamuk et al., 2013). In many countries, computers, tablets, and smartphones have become part of school equipment (Wollscheid et al., 2016;Liabo et al., 2014). Seeing the advantages of technology brought into play, many countries, including Türkiye have been studying the issue and implemented projects such as the FATIH project which aims to revolutionize the education system in Türkiye (Pamuk et al., 2013;Kulik, 1983 as cited in Dalton & Hannafin, 2015). ...
Article
The current study aims to display descriptive information on using word processing tools to enhance writing skills in the process of learning the English language. Writing is an important skill that includes creative thinking, refining, organizing, and editing ideas to have effective communication. However, due to its artificial nature, writing is a skill that should be enhanced by means of constant practice. Therefore, it can be challenging for both native speakers and second language learners to produce a proper writing task. With the development of technology, many programs have emerged like Ms. Word processor and Grammarly which can be used to create and edit writing. Many studies discussed the advantages and disadvantages of pen-and-paper writing and computer-assisted writing. Pen-and-paper writing can have a positive effect on the motor skills and cognitive development of the students; while computer-assisted writing can improve the writing quality and skills of the learners. However, these results could be affected by, for instance, the incompetency of students with the use of word processors.
... Second, the data we use now inevitably has some limitations, because, in fact, we only use the textual information of the essay. However, in the real world, in addition to using the computer to complete the writing, pen and paper writing is a typical way (Wollscheid et al., 2016), and the essay will be stored in the form of pictures. In pen and paper writing, more factors, such as the learner's handwriting and the neatness of the scroll surface, will lead to the final score. ...
Article
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In an online learning system, the automatic scoring of an essay is key to providing immediate feedback on essays submitted by students. To the best of our knowledge, existing approaches ignore the multidimensional and heterogeneous characteristics of essays or rely too heavily on the manual creation of features; therefore, a more comprehensive method of scoring essays is required. To address this issue, this paper proposes an enhanced hybrid neural network for automated essay scoring that extracts and fuses the linguistic, semantic, and structural attributes of an essay to achieve a comprehensive representation. Specifically, linguistic attributes include not only lexical features extracted from the words of an essay but also syntactic features obtained from sentences and syntax trees. Semantic attributes include the dynamic textual semantic representation and topic similarity obtained by the text encoder. We also considered the structural attributes. The text encoder provides the overall structural representation, while the sentence similarity matrix provides the two spatial features of connectivity and aggregation. Finally, we fused the three attributes and six features to achieve a more objective and comprehensive automatic scoring. We found that our model improves the Kappa index by an average of 1.4% over the current best model when tested against four state‐of‐the‐art models using eight public data sets.
... Such advantages should remedy common difficulties among [34]. The findings of the study revealed that word processing programs can make many aspects of the writing process easier for students, including assisting students with spelling and handwriting difficulties to write more fluently, which had fairly impacted on the length and writing quality (e.g., [80,81]). Nowadays this type of technology integration is common in elementary classrooms. ...
Article
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Concerns about learning how to write are ubiquitous in elementary schools across the world, one reason why this is the case is that many students received insufficient writing instruction in elementary classrooms. The lack of specific instructional practice and adaptions have impeded students’ writing development. Given the changing nature of literacy and the importance of early writing, integrating technology and writing in elementary classrooms provided a potential solution for this problem. This paper examined 20 empirical studies published between 1990 and 2020 by conducting a meta-analysis to measure the impact of technology on the writing performances of elementary students. The results of this meta-analysis confirmed that technology has a medium effect on writing quality and a strong effect on writing quantity for elementary school students. Subsequently, the authors analyzed the effect sizes of moderating variables by including study features such as types of technology integration, writing genres, demographics, and methodological characteristics. The authors have found that the type of technology integration and writing genres are two important variables affecting the casual relationship of technology and writing performances for elementary students. This aspect has been overlooked by previous literature. The novel findings indicated how we can address writing issues and change classroom writing practices for the better across the world by increasing stakeholders’ awareness about the importance of elementary school writing, with the goal of developing visions for curriculum and instruction at the classroom, school, and policy levels. Recommendations for more research on elementary school writing with advanced technology were discussed.
... New technologies are pervasive in our everyday life and computers are increasingly used at school (Wollscheid et al., 2016). The possibility of typewriting replacing handwriting from the very outset of literacy acquisition thus raises the question of its impact on reading development and on written language perception. ...
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Based on evidence that learning new characters through handwriting leads to better recognition than learning through typing, some authors proposed that the graphic motor plans acquired through handwriting contribute to recognition. More recently two alternative explanations have been put forward. First, the advantage of handwriting could be due to the perceptual variability that it provides during learning. Second, a recent study suggests that detailed visual analysis might be the source of the advantage of handwriting over typing. Indeed, in that study, handwriting and composition –a method requiring a detailed visual analysis but no specific graphomotor activity– led to equivalent recognition accuracy, both higher than typing. The aim of the present study was to assess whether the contribution of detailed visual analysis is observed in preschool children and to test the variability hypothesis. To that purpose, three groups of preschool children learned new symbols either by handwriting, typing, or composition. After learning, children performed first a four-alternative recognition task and then a categorization task. The same pattern of results as the one observed in adults emerged in the four-alternative recognition task, confirming the importance of the detailed visual analysis in letter-like shape learning. In addition, results failed to reveal any difference across learning methods in the categorization task. The latter results provide no evidence for the variability hypothesis which would predict better categorization after handwriting than after typing or composition.
... This discrepancy in findings may result from different characteristics of the writing environments with which students may be more or less skilled. For example, composing with pen and paper or with a computer requires different input devices (a pen or a physical keyboard), common motor and visual spaces in handwriting but different ones when typing (the pen on the sheet vs. the keyboard below the computer monitor; Wollscheid et al., 2016), with visual spaces of various sizes which can result in different global senses of the text (Hansen & Haas, 1988). Of interest, differences in typing skills lead to attentional division: low skilled typists need to divide their attention between the motor and visual spaces while high skilled typist can focus their attention onto the visual space (the text displayed on the screen). ...
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The present study investigated cognitive effort of handwriting and typing of undergraduate students. In Experiment 1, we used a secondary reaction time task to assess the cognitive effort required by undergraduates when carrying out handwriting and typing copying tasks. Students had longer reaction times, indicating greater cognitive effort, when typing than when handwriting. In experiments 2a and 2b, we investigated whether the additional cost of typing affected an ongoing activity. Participants performed a short-term memory task that required them to type or write by hand words to recall. As Experiment 1 suggested that typewriting was more effortful than handwriting, so it should leave fewer resources to devote to memorizing words, which would result in a better handwritten than typed recall. Overall, handwriting led to better recall than typing, particularly with the longest lists of words. This implies that, even in undergraduates, typing is still more effortful than handwriting and therefore has a negative impact on performance on an ongoing activity. The educational implications of the findings are discussed.
... The argument that information and communication technology should be actively incorporated in education to enhance the capabilities of digital media use of future generations is mainly supported by researchers in Nordic countries and Australia [25,26]. As remote learning continues across the globe in the era of COVID-19, the use of digital media in education has drastically increased. ...
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Factors of graphomotor skills may serve as indicators to determine a writer’s handwriting proficiency or acclimation to different writing surface textures. This study examines differences in children’s graphomotor skills based on types of writing medium and gender. Participants were 97 six-year-old Korean preschool children who had not received formal writing training prior to the study. Writing tasks were completed on a tablet screen and paper. Writing samples were analyzed using the Eye and Pen software to investigate spatial, temporal, and pressure exertion exhibited during the writing tasks. A repeated measures ANOVA revealed differences in graphomotor skills such as print size, writing speed, and writing pressure. Writing on a tablet screen decreased clarity of writing; print size and speed increased as the stylus slides across the tablet surface with relatively less friction, thereby decreasing the exertion of writing pressure. Analysis of writing differences according to gender indicated that boys generated larger print sizes than girls. Results suggest that while simple writing tasks may be feasible on the tablet screen, providing children with a larger writing medium and encouraging larger print sizes for writing practice, especially for boys, may be beneficial in the development of graphomotor skills among young learners.
... There are also other factors regarding to space and movement parameters which are taken into consideration along with the fact that some material written by hand requires more attention by the writer. At the same time, typing is assisted by keyboard and by the existence of a ready-made vocabulary database [30]. People who have been accustomed to using electronic media seem to be more skilled in writing, in contrast to those who prefer handwriting instead of using a smartphone [31]. ...
Conference Paper
Living in a new environment has provoked a series of challenges for adults in the field of using their written skills. The notion of texting used in many applications existing on the market has helped students to demonstrate their way of thinking in a new form, that of a smartphone. Contradictions have existed in the effect of texting by hand and on screen, a matter which has been labeled as a top priority for researchers. In a rapidly changing world where forms of communication are rapidly changing and developing, this research attempted to delve into the relationship between martphones, texting, the amount of time that people spend on using applications, and the differences produced in how they affect people’s communication and handwriting. Participants were 316 adults, aged from 18 to 22 years old, who were selected through convenient sampling. They took part voluntarily in the specific research in which a set of questions regarding their preferences and the time spent on social media was given. They were also asked to write two answers -in handwriting and electronically regarding their feelings during the quarantine. All possible precautions were taken to avoid biased answers to the questions given to the participants (anonymity, different order of media writing). All these elements had a common parameter; the quarantine which was imposed on the Greek state due to COVID-19 in spring 2020. In a nutshell, the results have shown that both genders' performance in handwriting was significantly better than in texting.
... D'autres ont aussi constaté que la vitesse d'écriture d'élèves des trois cycles du primaire était plus élevée avec le crayon (Berninger et coll., 2009 : n = 225 ;Connelly et coll., 2007 : n = 300 ;Crook et Bennett, 2007 : n = 72) tout comme la longueur (Berninger et coll., 2009) et la qualité des textes produits (Connelly et coll., 2007). Les études qui ont rapporté des performances plus élevées avec le clavier ont été réalisées auprès de petits échantillons et sont soit peu récentes ou comportent des lacunes méthodologiques qui restreignent la portée des résultats (Barrera et coll., 2001 ;Beck et Fetherston, 2003 ;Keetley, 1995 ;Jones, 1994 ;Genlott et Grönlund, 2013 ;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte et Løver, 2016). L'étude comparative de Collins et ses collaborateur⋅rice⋅s (2013) fait toutefois exception. ...
Article
L’usage du numérique en classe primaire et son potentiel pour soutenir la motivation et la compétence en écriture ont fait l’objet de plusieurs études, mais peu d’entre elles ont comparé les mêmes élèves selon qu’elles·ils écrivent au crayon ou au clavier. Cette étude a pour objectif de comparer la motivation et la performance d’élèves de 2 e , 4 e et 6 e année du primaire (N = 254) dans ces deux conditions. Les élèves ont réalisé deux tâches d’écriture et répondu à un questionnaire évaluant leur motivation. Les scores obtenus sur les indicateurs de motivation (4) et de performance (8) ont été soumis à des tests t pour échantillons appariés. Globalement, les élèves sont plus motivé·e·s pour écrire au clavier, mais leurs performances sont meilleures au crayon. Un portrait détaillé des avantages de ces deux outils d’écriture est brossé en considérant les différents indicateurs et les niveaux scolaires.
... 54 Therefore, the writers who use paper and pencil have to pay higher visual attention to the writing process. 55 In contrast, the PC writing demands only identification of the letters, since the letters are presented. 56 Consequently, the act of handwriting seems to activate more brain regions such as posterior cortical regions in the left hemisphere and central motor and sensory regions 56 , and potentially promotes greater brain changes than the computerized and oral training. ...
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BACKGROUND: Although cognitive training is effective for people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), it is not clear which format is more effective. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of the same language programs when carried out via computer, paper/pencil and orally in people with MCI. METHODS: Seventy-one participants with MCI were randomly classified in 3 experimental and 2 control groups. The experimental groups attended 48 sessions of language training for 6 months. The control groups attended either unstructured sessions or they were on waiting list. RESULTS: Mixed measures analysis of variance, at the follow-up, showed a significant cognitive abilities improvement among the experimental versus control groups. At the end of the language training, the 3 groups presented improvement in cognitive abilities and daily function, while the control groups remained at the same performance level. CONCLUSION: All 3 cognitive language training methods were equally significantly effective.
... Bazı araştırmalar geleneksel olarak nicel bakış açısından kağıt kaleme dayalı yazma öğretimi ve tablet ya da klavye ile yazma öğretiminin öğrencilerin yazılarındaki kelime sayısı, hızı ve niteliği gibi değişkenler üzerindeki etkisini incelemiştir. Geleneksel yazma becerilerinin gelişiminde klavye ya da tablet gibi teknolojilerin destekleyici bir araç olarak kullanılabileceği ortaya konmasına rağmen, nicel ve bilişsel bakış açısından kelime işlemcinin mi yoksa kâğıt kalemin mi daha etkili olduğu hakkında hâlâ tutarsız bulgular vardır (Berninger, Abbott, Augsburger, & Garcia, 2009;Connelly, Gee, & Walsh 2007;Crook & Bennett, 2007;Sessions, Ok Kang, & Womack, 2016;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver 2016;. Wollscheid ve diğerleri (2016) yaptıkları son bir çalışmada ilkokul düzeyinde tablet bilgisayarlar ve kağıt kalemle yazmayı karşılaştıran araştırmaları incelemişlerdir. ...
... Handwriting, in addition to writing with digital tools, may be a solution for preventing long-term negative effects on motor control skills, and may prevent the ongoing marginalisation of handwriting in writing instruction (Mangen & Balsvik, 2016). This is also highlighted in a Norwegian study, where the authors suggest that at times, as now, when there is a change in early writing instruction, at least in Scandinavian countries, there is a need for studies of effects to provide answers on how to combine handwriting and digital writing instruction, with the aim of improving students' writing skills (Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte & Løver, 2016). ...
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This study compares three different writing conditions – pen and paper, tablet, and tablet with access to speech synthesis – within a class of fourth graders in Sweden. The aim was to examine if these different conditions for writing had any impact on students’ creation of narrative text. The empirical data consists of students’ texts, composed under these three conditions, completed with data from participant observations. The theoretical model, the Wheel of Writing, in combination with a process analysis described in Systemic Functional Linguistics, served as a basis for analysis of the texts. Observations were analysed using content analysis. Findings presented in this article are partly in line with previous research. Speech synthesis seemed to play a crucial role in improving students’ writing. The texts were affected in terms of increased text length, spelling, structure, and content when using digital resources. These results were most obvious for students with Swedish as their second language. One core finding, which was true for most students, was that processes describing action verbs increased when students wrote digitally. Contradicting this, when students wrote by hand they used more processes, describing feelings and verbal processes.
... Only a few studies to date have examined young children's digital writing with touch-screen tablets (Bigelow, 2013;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, & Løver, 2016). A recent review by revealed that there is currently mixed or no conclusive or consistent evidence that either digital or nondigital writing tools favor early writing outcomes. ...
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Mothers play a key role in scaffolding children’s writing using traditional tools, such as paper and pencil. However, little is known about how mothers scaffold young children’s writing using touch-screen tablets (e.g., iPads) and the associations between maternal scaffolding and emergent literacy. Mother-child dyads (N = 47; M child age = 3.43 years) were video recorded as they wrote words using an iPad and a paper and pencil. Maternal print and grapho-phonemic mediation behaviors were measured. Children were assessed on letter name and letter-sound knowledge, letter writing and name writing, and print concepts. No significant differences were found in the level of maternal mediation provided in the tablet or paper-pencil condition. Maternal print mediation was positively associated with letter name and letter-sound knowledge and emergent writing in the tablet and paper-pencil conditions. Grapho-phonemic mediation was significantly related to children’s understanding of letter-sound correspondence and print concepts in the paper-pencil condition, but not the tablet condition. Supporting parents in using grapho-phonemic mediation during tablet use to foster early literacy learning should be considered in future research.
... When examining discussions in a wiki, researchers found that the online collaborative environment has helped to redefine students' ideas of ownership (Gress, Fior, Hadwin, & Winne, 2010;Li & Kim, 2016;Morton-Standish, 2014). Technological tools, such as wikis, could help build students' authorial presence as they allow for a large number of collaborators to contribute and work together, share ideas and clarify thoughts (Kessler, 2009;Onrubia & Engel, 2009;Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte & Løver, 2016), resulting an increase in critical thinking throughout the collaborative writing process (Suwantarathip & Wichadee, 2014;Teow, 2014;Wheeler, Yeomans & Wheeler, 2008). This, however, is dependent on the task instructions as some studies highlighted that the usage of technology with collaborative writing could dampen the performance of the students. ...
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This study aims to present how collaborative writing as a pedagogical practice has developed over the last decade. We conducted a synthesis of published research that has investigated collaborative writing from a variety of perspectives, in first and second languages, and in diverse contexts internationally including students in primary, secondary schools, and universities. Three general claims, supported by evidence, emerged from our analyses of 68 empirical studies published in refereed journals from 2006-2016: (1) technology has facilitated collaborative writing tasks; (2) most students are motivated by an improvement in their writing competencies in collaborative writing tasks; and (3) collaborative writing is effective in improving accuracy of student writing and critical thinking. Pedagogical implications will be briefly discussed.
... All activities, from tracing shapes to writing words and digits need to be completed by writing with the stylus. The use of the stylus as an appropriate technology for the development of handwriting, reading and writing skills is supported by the findings reported in [38]. ...
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Electronic pads (E-pads) in medical education and examination revolutionize pattern schemes and enhance better learning methods. This review addresses E-pad implementation in medical school examinations, which mainly focuses on the usefulness of this technology, including its capacity to enable easy assessment, improve interactivity and engagement, make automatic exams that adapt to user personality and feedback, maintain data security, and to ensure accessibility and inclusivity during assessments. E-pads enlighten the assessment process by providing ease of digital test administration, and standardization of format and grading processes, hence delivering an efficient and consistent output. Interactivity features such as touchscreen interfaces combined with incorporating multimedia elements in the app arouse the engagement, understanding, and comprehension abilities of the learners. Learners' progress is met with adaptive testing algorithms that adjust the examination to their performance levels. In return, learners are supported by feedback mechanisms that create personalized learning paths. Next, E-pads can tackle issues with data security by encryption protocols and remote invigilating tools. Also, the usability of personalised accessibility features provides equality in access to college students with disabilities. Moving ahead, emerging technologies in E-pad will contribute to continuous improvement by integrating advanced features for autonomous item generation and adaptive testing. Through the extension of the potential of E-pad technology, medical educators can create more vibrant and inclusive examination conditions, and in addition, uplift the traditional way of education, so that the students can stand their ground towards modern healthcare practice.
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Given the increasing prevalence of touchscreen devices that are intended for educational purposes, this study explored children’s transfer of learning from touchscreen media compared with video and offline face-to-face learning. Seventy-six 5- to 6-year-old Chinese kindergarten children (M=68.21months, SD=3.57, Range=62-76 months, 30 boys, 46 girls) were randomly assigned to learn eight Chinese characters using a touchscreen-based app, a video, or through face-to-face interaction. Learning was measured via the recall task scores, recognition task scores, recall efficiency, and recognition efficiency. The results revealed that children’s recall and recognition task scores improved when learning took place using the touchscreen or face-to-face. Children’s recall efficiency and recognition efficiency were strongest in the face-to-face condition, followed by the touchscreen condition and the video condition. The effects of instructional format on children’s recall and recognition scores and recall efficiency were moderated by age: younger children’s recall and recognition scores in the face-to-face condition and the touchscreen condition were significantly higher than in the video condition, yet older children’s recall and recognition scores did not differ between conditions. However, for recall efficiency, younger children’s recall efficiency in the face-to-face condition and the touchscreen condition was significantly higher than in the video condition; older children’s recall efficiency in the face-to-face condition was higher than in both the touchscreen and video conditions. In conclusion, face-to-face interactions and a touchscreen-based app were both helpful ways for children to learn Chinese characters compared to video, but face-to-face learning showed advantages over touchscreen learning in recall efficiency for older children.
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Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is associated with below average writing achievement. However, little is known about specific aspects of written language impacted by NF1, changes in writing over time, and associations between cognitive aspects of the NF1 phenotype and writing. At three timepoints over six years, children with NF1 and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) completed Woodcock-Johnson tests of writing mechanics (Spelling, Punctuation & Capitalization, handwriting), written expression of ideas (Writing Samples), writing speed (Writing Fluency), and tests of general cognitive ability, executive function, memory, and attention. Children (N = 76, mean age = 12.8 ± 3.4 years) completed at least one baseline writing subtest. Overall writing scores were in the Average range (M = 93.4, SD = 17.4), but lower than population norms (p = 0.002). Scores were highest on Writing Samples (M = 95.2, SD = 17.3), and lowest for Punctuation & Capitalization (M = 87.9, SD = 18.8, p = 0.034). Writing scores were mostly stable over time. Nonverbal reasoning was related to some tests of writing mechanics and written expression of ideas. Short-term memory and inattention explained additional variance in Writing Samples and Spelling. Poor handwriting was associated with writing content beyond the impact of cognitive factors. Children with NF1 and PNs may benefit from early screening and writing support. Interventions should address the contribution of both cognitive and handwriting difficulties in written language.
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In many classrooms across the globe, students are expected to comprehend and produce handwritten and computer-generated texts as soon as they start school. As we progress towards digitalisation in education, it has become necessary to understand the effects of writing modality on students’ literacy performance and development. The current meta-analysis integrates findings from 22 international studies involving 6168 participants, comparing the effects of handwriting and keyboarding on the writing and reading performance of primary-aged students. Moderator analyses were executed to determine if grade level, keyboarding experience, timed measurement of letter writing, types of tasks measuring letter writing fluency, and study design moderated modality effects on writing outcomes. Results revealed a significant effect size when comparing writing quality between handwriting and keyboarding, with students producing better quality passages via handwriting than keyboarding (ES = 0.53). Results also revealed that only grade level significantly moderated the effect size for letter writing fluency and written word production. Findings indicated that handwriting and keyboarding practices are associated with improvements on specific reading skills in primary education, with no clear superiority of modality. We discuss implications for literacy research and teaching both locally and globally.
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There is a strong body of research showing associations between handwriting automaticity and children's writing performance. However, less is known about keyboarding automaticity and young students' writing performance. We investigated the relationship between handwriting and keyboarding automaticity and writing performance in both modalities in a sample of 49 students, as well as children's attitudes toward writing in each modality. We also examined the frequency and the nature of the teaching strategies implemented to support children's writing development at school, and the writing practices and support that children reported experiencing at home. Our findings showed statistically significant associations between letter writing automaticity in both modalities and the quality and the length of Year 2 children's handwritten and keyboarded texts. Results further suggested statistically significant moderate to strong associations between all handwriting and keyboarding variables assessed. While our findings concur with research stressing the importance of preparing students to become "hybrid" writers by mastering both handwritten and keyboarding modalities, they also stress the need to examine contextual factors, such as teaching and home writing practices, to gain a more comprehensive view of factors impacting children's writing acquisition and development.
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With the development of new technology, products such as tablets have begun playing an increasingly important role in early childhood education. This study investigated the effect of an educational tablet app based teaching method and a conventional teaching method on young children’s implicit memory. Participants (N = 123) aged between aged three to five from a preschool were divided into four groups, the number cognition and reading comprehension experimental and control groups. The experimental groups underwent using the educational tablet apps for 2 months, while the control group followed regular teaching activities. Participants’ implicit memory were analyzed before and after the training. Among the four groups, the implicit memory of children in the number cognition tablet instruction group improved significantly, followed by the reading comprehension conventional group. The result reinforces previous findings that learning contents presented by different teaching methods could promote young children’s implicit memory development.
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When the elderly have a working memory burden, the cognitive burden can be transferred to mobile touch devices. However, the decline of physical function and cognitive ability affects the ability of the elderly to interact with mobile devices. Optimizing the interaction of mobile touch devices is one of the effective ways to reduce the cognitive burden of the elderly. This study intended to investigate the effects of the input and feedback methods on mobile touch devices on cognitive offloading behaviors in older adults. The experiment adopts a 3 × 3 within-subject design, and the independent variables include 3 input methods (mouse, direct touch, and stylus) and 3 feedback methods (visual feedback, auditory feedback, and combined audiovisual feedback). Thirty elderly participants were invited to complete a visual working memory test and subjective preference questionnaires. The results of the study show that (i) the input methods have a significant effect on the cognitive offloading of the elderly, who, under the stylus condition, have the most offloaded working memory and lower cognitive load; (ii) the feedback methods have a significant effect on the cognitive offloading of the elderly, among which they, under the combined visual and auditory feedback, offload working memory more frequently and have lower cognitive load; and (iii) in terms of subjective evaluation, both the input and feedback methods affect the satisfaction of the elderly: among the 3 input methods, the elderly displayed the highest satisfaction with the stylus, and among the 3 feedback methods, the elderly have the highest satisfaction with the combined audio-visual feedback. Studies have shown that the input and feedback methods of mobile touch devices are important factors affecting the cognitive offloading behavior and subjective evaluation of the elderly. The conclusions of this research provide an important reference for designing interactive methods suitable for the elderly.
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Background The impact of mobile technology usage on student learning in various educational stages has been the subject of ongoing empirical and review research. The most recent meta‐analyses on various types of mobile technology use for potential benefits of learning covered the empirical studies up to about nine years ago. Since then, the use of mobile technology in primary and secondary education has increased tremendously, and numerous empirical studies have been conducted on this topic, but their conclusions were inconsistent. Objectives The purpose of this systematic review is to re‐examine this issue by meta‐analyzing the empirical research studies from the last nine years, with a focus on cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning outcomes in primary and secondary education, and to examine the potential moderators that may have contributed to the heterogeneity across findings. Methods Based on our inclusion and exclusion criteria, we found 85 studies of 78 peer‐reviewed papers (N = 9157) from electronic databases and major journals in educational technology and mobile learning between 2014 and 2022. We then examined 15 moderators that were expected to affect student learning outcomes. Results and Conclusions Compared with traditional technology and non‐technology groups, using mobile technology produced medium positive and statistically significant effects on primary and secondary students' learning, in terms of cognitive (g = 0.498, 95% CI [0.382, 0.614]), affective (g = 0.449, 95% CI [0.301, 0.598]) and behavioural (g = 0.339, 95% CI [0.051, 0.627]) learning outcomes. Further moderator analyses revealed that student factors (i.e., community type, students’ socioeconomic status), learning process (i.e., hardware used, student‐to‐hardware ratio, teaching method) and study quality (i.e., learning topic/content equivalence, degree of technology use in the control group) were among the variables that moderated the summary effect sizes for at least one learning outcome dimension significantly. The findings and their implications for researchers, policymakers and practitioners are discussed.
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Das Kölner Projekt DiSK ist Teil der „Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung“ von Bund und Ländern und zielt auf die Förderung digitalisierungsbezogener Kompetenzen ange- hender Lehrer*innen durch innovative Lehr-/Lernformate ab. Arbeitsgrundlage ist ein Modell mit drei Kompetenzbereichen: Professioneller Umgang, Pädagogische Inwert- setzung und Unterrichtliche Vermittlung. Mit diesem sind mehrere konzeptuelle und methodische Herausforderungen verbunden, die wir in diesem Beitrag diskutieren.
Thesis
Avec la généralisation des outils numériques, l’ordinateur tend de plus en plus à remplacer l’écriture manuscrite dans la majorité des activités scolaires et académiques faisant appel à l’écriture (e.g., rédaction, prise de notes, évaluations, etc.). Évaluer son niveau de maîtrise et comprendre ses conséquences sur ces activités est donc indispensable, d’un point de vue théorique, mais aussi pédagogique. Cette thèse a eu pour premier objectif d’évaluer le niveau de maîtrise de la frappe au clavier par rapport à l’écriture manuscrite et son impact sur l’activité en cours. Le niveau de maîtrise de la frappe au clavier a été évalué via l’effort cognitif avec le paradigme des temps de réaction secondaires à une tâche de copie (Expérience 1), puis les performances de rappel dactylographique et manuscrite à une tache de mémorisation à court terme ont été évaluées (Expériences 2a et 2b). Le second objectif de cette thèse a été d’étudier les conséquences de cette différence de maîtrise sur la production de texte lorsque les demandes de la planification, de la traduction et du contrôle augmentent également (Expériences 3, 4 et 5). Spécifiquement, les conséquences sur la coordination des processus rédactionnels via les périodes d’exécution et sur la qualité textuelle ont été évaluées. Les résultats montrent d’une part que le coût cognitif de la dactylographie est plus élevé que celui de l’écriture manuscrite chez des étudiants de Licence et que ce coût a impacté la performance de rappel à une tâche de mémoire à court terme. D’autre part, les rédacteurs qui ont utilisé un ordinateur rédigeaient leur texte avec moins de coordination parallèle des processus, et produisaient des textes de moindre qualité lexicale, syntaxique et orthographique mais en maintenant la qualité globale de leur texte. Les résultats révèlent aussi que la coordination parallèle des processus se déroule principalement pendant les périodes d’exécution de production et que les processus qui interviennent le plus pendant ces périodes d’exécution sont la transcription et la traduction.
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Many researchers have conducted research on online learning systems, but in Indonesia, online learning experiences occur more during the COVID-19 pandemic, including junior high school students. Students switch from learning writing in the classroom to distance learning (online). This resulted in students undergoing two different experiences in learning to write EFL. Seeing this, the authorsried to conduct research on the comparison of student satisfaction in learning writing between offline and online classes. The subjects of this study were 40 students of 8th-grade junior high school from UPT SMP Negeri 32 Gresik. The method was a mixed method using questionnaires and interviews. The results indicated that there were valid differences between offline and online students' writing learning satisfaction. From the independent sample T-Test, it is stated that the value of sig. tailed 2 is 0.000 <0.05, which means that the results were proved to be valid and showed a satisfaction score difference between learning writing in offline and online classes. The authors also describe the findings of the comparison into the following three factors, namely instructor-related factor, learner-related factor, and learning environment-related factor. The conclusion obtained is that students prefer to learn writing in offline classes, but the experience gained from learning writing online is very good and has its own satisfaction value.
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Digital technology has an increasing influence on writing processes. In this context, the question arises whether changes in writing mode (i.e., handwriting vs. computer‐keyboard typing) also require changes in writing assessments. However, data directly comparing writing mode influences in children with and without developmental writing deficits are scarce. This study investigated the influence of writing mode in German‐speaking, typically developing children and children with developmental dyslexia (DD) from two different levels. Results showed on a general level that writing mode influenced overall spelling accuracy, writing time, and self‐corrections comparably in children with and without DD. On a rule‐specific level, outcomes for writing time and self‐corrections substantiated these findings. However, as regards spelling accuracy, a mode effect was only apparent for capitalization, whereas other spelling rules were resistant to writing mode influences. Present findings suggest that a mode effect is present only for typing specific aspects (e.g., capitalization) rather than reflecting a general influence on orthographic principles (e.g., grapheme–phoneme assignment, morphologic principles). These mode‐specific aspects seem to comparably affect the writing performance of typically developing children and children with DD. We recommend writing assessments to consider that different writing modes may influence individual spelling rules differently.
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Genre analysis of academic writing has garnered worldwide attention, especially in academic discourse analysis that involves rhetorical move patterns and metadiscourse stance features. As there is a lack of research investigating both aspects concurrently, this study was conducted to draw a comparison between the ‘Conclusion’ sections of 16 Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) related research articles (RAs) and 16 Malaysian TESL undergraduates’ Final Year Projects (FYPs) according to both aspects. The identification of both aspects was based on Yang and Allison’s (2003) ‘Conclusion’ section framework and Hyland’s (2005a; 2005b) Interactional Model of Metadiscourse. The findings showed that the most commonly occurring rhetorical move pattern and stance features for both corpora were Move 2 (i.e. evaluating the study) and attitude markers, respectively. It is also found that there was an inappropriate usage of both rhetorical move patterns and stance features in Malaysian TESL undergraduates’ FYPs. This finding suggested that Malaysian TESL undergraduates need to be more equipped with the knowledge of academic writing and the mastery of genre knowledge. As such, the findings of this study have informed the pedagogical implications, and further studies are mandatory.
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This study reports a randomized control trial intervention investigating the impact of delivery format (computer versus paper) on students’ reading and spelling skills, reading motivation and self-esteem using a web-based early literacy tool, A Balanced Approach for Children Designed to Achieve Best Results for All (ABRACADABRA) alongside a paper version of this tool. Based on critiques of technology by Clark (1983) and the Time-Displacement Hypothesis of technology (Vandewater, Bickham, & Lee, 2006), we predicted negative effects of technology on reading, spelling, and reading-related motivation, and self-esteem at post-test. The ABRACADABRA intervention was supplemental, delivered in three weekly 15-minute supplemental reading sessions for eight weeks. Results first showed no difference in the pace and depth of delivery across format and also showed comparable improvements in participants’ reading and spelling at post-test in both the computer-based and paper ABRACADABRA instruction conditions and little evidence of difference by medium of intervention delivery on reading motivation, self-esteem, and enjoyment. It was concluded that the computer-based intervention does not have negative effects over its paper counterpart on students’ literacy skills, and related literacy percepts, and provide no support for the Clark or Time-Displacement Hypotheses in this context.
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Touch devices such as tablets and smartphones are widely adopted in educational settings and have many desirable features. However, research supporting the use of touch devices to improve academic achievement is emergent and has not been evaluated through a meta‐analysis. We conducted a meta‐analysis of 65 group and single case design research studies, published 2010–2018, to evaluate the effects of touch device implementation on academic achievement. The overall mean effect sizes were moderate for group design and single case design studies. Participant, intervention, and study attributes were also evaluated to describe the research and how these attributes may moderate the results. Overall, results suggest that touch devices may be an effective tool for enhancing academic achievement. The need to conduct additional, rigorous research on the use of touch devices as well as implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
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Improving educational attainment continues to be an ongoing aim for education policies across the OECD member countries, further brought into focus by the international comparison league tables published by this organisation (OECD, 2010). From a national policy perspective, improving educational outcomes for young people is seen as important for a country’s future competitiveness in the international market, for social policies aiming to reduce social inequalities, and as an essential element in school standards development. For local policies, it is the most important competitive tool for schools who want to attract keen families and students to their education community. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it is imperative to young people themselves, whose chances of employment and economic independency hinges on their success and engagement at school. Schools have long been providing information and communications technology (ICT) to pupils, as means to introduce students to the use of ICT, to enhance their learning experiences in other subjects, and as an advertising tool to attract the most eligible students. Increasingly, as ICT equipment becomes more affordable, some schools are purchasing ICT in order to improve students’ attainment, for example by providing each student with a tablet, offering reduced-rate internet subscription or by ICT-immersion programmes, which embed all classrooms with communications technology and computers. Often these programmes are particularly focused on reaching out to pupils who are under-achieving or who are at a social disadvantage that reduces their ability to obtain ICT privately. Due to the fast developments in ICT, public institutions will always be behind in terms of what kind of technology they can afford to offer their students. There is potential for vast spending on ICT, and it is imperative for teachers, education policy makers, and local planners to know whether and how money spent will impact on the learning of pupils who receive it. This review aims to identify studies that have evaluated the impact of ICT immersion programmes and programmes that have provided ICT equipment to students aged 4-18. The outcomes of interest will be attainment in core subjects: maths, science, reading, writing, history and languages, and impact on students’ engagement in school. If a study contains cost information, this will be collected and considered for a cost-effectiveness estimate. While the main aim of the review is to consider impact on all students within the specified age range, the review will consider the impact on socially disadvantaged students in particular.
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This article explores how resources used in test situations shape pupils' writing and to some extent their possibilities to represent their knowledge. Two conditions (pen-and-paper and digital) are investigated in two subjects. The theoretical underpinnings stem from a design-oriented and multimodal perspective on learning (Jewitt, 2009; Kress, 2010; Selander & Kress, 2010). Findings presented in this article are in line with previous research, which has shown that digital writing technologies have an impact on pupils' writing process (Haas, 1996; Stapleton, 2012; Genlott & Grönlund, 2013) and that the modes and media used for learning shape communication and to some extent delimit what is possible to represent as knowledge in a given situation (Kress, 2003; Jewitt, 2009; Selander & Kress, 2010).
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It is increasingly recognised by researchers, governments and educators around the world that ICT presents many opportunities for teaching and learning in primary (elementary) education. A lack of ICT in the classroom may be seen as disadvantageous for children because without access to this, they are denied opportunities to acquire some of the skills and attributes they need to become full participants in an increasingly ICT mediated and globalised world (UNESCO, 2008). Even so, it needs to be acknowledged that having ICT in the primary curriculum and classroom does not guarantee enhanced learning, and may represent little more than new means of reaching pre-existing, and perhaps inappropriate or outdated, ends (Adams, 2011). Furthermore, ICT in education needs to be supported by appropriate policies (Tondeur, van Keer, van Braak & Valcke, 2008) at all levels and effective professional development for teachers (Lim, 2007).
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While there are many ways to author text today, writing with paper and pen (or pencil) is still quite common at home and work, and predominates writing at school. Because handwriting can bias readers’ judgments about the ideas in a text and impact other writing processes, like planning and text generation, it is important to ensure students develop legible and fluent handwriting. This meta-analysis examined true- and quasi-experimental intervention studies conducted with K-12 students to determine if teaching handwriting enhanced legibility and fluency and resulted in better writing performance. When compared to no instruction or non-handwriting instructional conditions, teaching handwriting resulted in statistically greater legibility (ES = 0.59) and fluency (ES = 0.63). Motor instruction did not produce better handwriting skills (ES = 0.10 for legibility and −0.07 for fluency), but individualizing handwriting instruction (ES = 0.69) and teaching handwriting via technology (ES = 0.85) resulted in statistically significant improvements in legibility. Finally, handwriting instruction produced statistically significant gains in the quality (ES = 0.84), length (ES = 1.33), and fluency of students’ writing (ES = 0.48). The findings from this meta-analysis provide support for one of the assumptions underlying the Simple View of Writing (Berninger et al., Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 291–304, 2002): text transcription skills are an important ingredient in writing and writing development.
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Reading is critical to students' success in and out of school. One potential means for improving students' reading is writing. In this meta-analysis of true and quasiexperiments, Graham and Herbert present evidence that writing about material read improves students' comprehension of it; that teaching students how to write improves their reading comprehension, reading fluency, and word reading; and that increasing how much students write enhances their reading comprehension. These findings provide empirical support for long-standing beliefs about the power of writing to facilitate reading.
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This paper presents a critical review on studies that compared the effects of word processing-assisted writing and pen-and-paper writing on the quality of writing and higher level revisions. I argue that, the mixed results can be attributed to flaws in the research design, including forcing students who were skilled in writing with computers to compose with pen and paper during the data collection, using thinking-aloud protocols for evaluation, and failing to state the time limit for and the venue of conducting the writing task. I conclude by suggesting directions for future research.
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Early fine motor writing skills are quickly becoming recognized as an important school readiness skill associated with later academic success (Dinehart and Manfra, 2013; Grissmer et al., 2010; Son and Meisels, 2006). Yet, little is known about the development of handwriting, the extent to which it is of value in the early childhood classroom and the best means by which to teach handwriting, or at least handwriting readiness, to young children. The current work reviews the literature on handwriting and its place in early childhood education. Overall, this article serves as a call for (a) researchers to continue examining the role of handwriting in the early education and development of young children and (b) practitioners to develop and implement programmes they know to be best practice in teaching early handwriting or handwriting ‘readiness’ skills.
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Prior research has shown superior orthographic learning resulting from spelling practice relative to repeated reading. One mechanism proposed to underlie this advantage of spelling in establishing detailed orthographic representations in memory is the motoric component of the manual movements evoked in printing or writing. This study investigated this contention directly by testing the effects of typing vs. printing on the orthographic learning achieved through spelling practice, and further evaluated whether practice modality interacts with pre-existing individual characteristics. Forty students in grade 2 (mean age 7 years 5 months) were introduced to 10 novel non-words. Some of the students practiced spelling the items by printing, while the others practiced spelling them on a keyboard. Participants were tested for recognition and spelling of these items 1 and 7 days later. Results revealed high rates of orthographic learning with no main effects of practice modality, testing time, or post-test modality. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed an interaction between typing proficiency and practice modality, such that pre-existing keyboarding skills constrained or facilitated learning within the typing-practice group. A similar interaction was not found between printing skills and learning within the printing group. Results are discussed with reference to both prominent reading theory and educational applications.
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Research Findings: Given the growing literature pertaining to the importance of fine motor skills for later academic achievement (D. W. Grissmer, K. J. Grimm, S. M. Aiyer, W. M. Murrah, & J. S. Steele, 201019. Grissmer , D. W. , Grimm , K. J. , Aiyer , S. M. , Murrah , W. M. , & Steele , J. S. ( 2010 ). Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school readiness indicators . Developmental Psychology , 46 , 1008 – 1017 . [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®]View all references), the current study examines whether the fine motor skills of economically disadvantaged preschool students predict later academic performance in 2nd grade. More specifically, we expand on the current literature and evaluate whether 2 types of fine motor skills—fine motor object manipulation and fine motor writing—predict academic achievement above and beyond the effects of demographic characteristics and early language and cognition skills. Results indicate that performance on both fine motor writing and object manipulation tasks had significant effects on 2nd-grade reading and math achievement, as measured by grades and standardized test scores. Stronger effects were yielded for writing tasks compared to object manipulation tasks. Practice or Policy: Implications for researchers and early childhood practitioners are discussed.
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Learning to read and write is a basic skill that unfortunately not everybody acquires sufficiently. Lack of teachers and time in school are some of the reasons, but in addition the enormous rise in informational activities due to the Internet and other information technology-enabled opportunities has made literacy skills increasingly important to ever more people. This means literacy education must be improved so more children in the world get better chances. In order to contribute to developing better methods for learning to read and write in early years this study tests a new method developed to improve reading and writing learning in early ages. The ICT (Information and communication technologies) supported “Integrated Write to Learn” (iWTR) method lets children in 1st grade use computers and other ICT tools to write texts and subsequently discuss and refine them together with class mates and teachers. Handwriting is postponed to 2nd grade. While the traditional method requires students to go through two development processes in parallel, a cognitive (learning to read and) a motor (learning to write with a pencil), iWTR works with one process at a time, first cognitive development, then (from grade 2) motor skills training. iWTR extends previous WTR methods by more social work methods using a web site and peer comment for providing social meaning and feedback.The method was tested using two test groups and two control groups (total n = 87) by systematically measuring performance in reading and writing using standard tests in combination with observations and student evaluation to assess social and individual effects of work methods.The results show that while reading skills were improved considerably the biggest improvement concerned writing skills. Students in the test group wrote longer texts with better structure, clearer content, and a more elaborate language.
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This study charts the terrain of research on writing during the 6-year period from 1999 to 2004, asking "What are current trends and foci in research on writing?" In examining a cross-section of writing research, the authors focus on four issues: (a) What are the general problems being investigated by contemporary writing researchers? Which of the various problems dominate recent writing research, and which are not as prominent? (b) What population age groups are prominent in recent writing research? (c) What is the relationship between population age groups and problems under investigation? and (d) What methodologies are being used in research on writing? Based on a body of refereed journal articles (n = 1,502) reporting studies about writing and composition instruction that were located using three databases, the authors characterize various lines of inquiry currently undertaken. Social context and writing practices, bi-or multi-lingualism and writing, and writing instruction are the most actively studied problems during this period, whereas writing and technologies, writing assessment and evaluation, and relationships among literacy modalities are the least studied problems. Undergraduate, adult, and other postsecondary populations are the most prominently studied population age group, whereas preschool-aged children and middle and high school students are least studied. Research on instruction within the preschool through 12th grade (P-12) age group is prominent, whereas research on genre, assessment, and bi- or multilingualism is scarce within this population. The majority of articles employ interpretive methods. This indicator of current writing research should be useful to researchers, policymakers, and funding agencies, as well as to writing teachers and teacher educators. (Contains 6 tables and 3 notes.)
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Third graders with low compositional fluency ( N=96) were randomly assigned to 4 time-equated treatments in an instructional experiment (24 lessons over 4 months): spelling (alphabetic principle plus its alternations), composing (reflective discussion plus teacher scaffolding), combined spelling (alphabetic principle) plus composing (teacher scaffolding), and treated control (writing practice, no instruction). All treatments increased compositional fluency. Spelling and combined spelling plus composing were most effective for word-specific spelling (taught words). Teaching alternations improved phonological decoding and transferred to spelling in composing. Composing and combined spelling plus composing were most effective for persuasive essay writing. Only combined spelling plus composing increased both spelling and composing. Results are related to the simple view of writing that integrates diverse theoretical traditions and instructional practices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Handwriting is a complex human activity that entails an intricate blend of cognitive, kinesthetic, and perceptual-motor components. Children are expected to acquire a level of handwriting proficiency that enables them to make skillful use of handwriting as a tool to carry out their work at school. Poor handwriters have difficulty developing their writing skills and, as a result, often suffer in their educational and emotional development. This article highlights the importance of handwriting and reviews the development of methods used to evaluate handwriting difficulties. Included also is a discussion of methodological aspects of current handwriting evaluations and a presentation of research on the use of a computerized system that may be helpful in better understanding the handwriting process of poor writers. The article concludes by outlining future directions in handwriting evaluation that combine the assessment of the handwriting product with computerized analysis of the handwriting process.
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Meta-analyses were performed including 26 studies conducted between 1992–2002 focused on the comparison between K–12 students writing with computers vs. paper-and-pencil. Significant mean effect sizes in favor of computers were found for quantity of writing (d=.50, n=14) and quality of writing (d= .41, n=15). Studies focused on revision behaviors between these two writing conditions (n=6) revealed mixed results. Others studies collected for the meta-analysis which did not meet the statistical criteria were also reviewed briefly. These articles (n=35) indicate that the writing process is more collaborative, iterative, and social in computer classrooms as compared with paper-and-pencil environments. For educational leaders questioning whether computers should be used to help students develop writing skills, the results of the meta-analyses suggest that on average students who use computers when learning to write are not only more engaged and motivated in their writing, but they produce written work that is of greater length and higher quality.
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This study investigated the comparability of scores for paper and computer versions of a writing test administered to eighth grade students. Two essay prompts were given on paper to a nationally representative sample as part of the 2002 main NAEP writing assessment. The same two essay prompts were subsequently administered on computer to a second sample also selected to be nationally representative. Analyses looked at overall differences in performance between the delivery modes, interactions of delivery mode with group membership, differences in performance between those taking the computer test on different types of equipment (i.e., school machines vs. NAEP-supplied laptops), and whether computer familiarity was associated with online writing test performance. Results generally showed no significant mean score differences between paper and computer delivery. However, computer familiarity significantly predicted online writing test performance after controlling for paper writing skill. These results suggest that, for any given individual, a computer-based writing assessment may produce different results than a paper one, depending upon that individual’s level of computer familiarity. Further, for purposes of estimating population performance, as long as substantial numbers of students write better on computer than on paper (or better on paper than on computer), conducting a writing assessment in either mode alone may underestimate the performance that would have resulted if students had been tested using the mode in which they wrote best.
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A large body of data supports the view that movement plays a crucial role in letter representation and suggests that handwriting contributes to the visual recognition of letters. If so, changing the motor conditions while children are learning to write by using a method based on typing instead of handwriting should affect their subsequent letter recognition performances. In order to test this hypothesis, we trained two groups of 38 children (aged 3-5 years) to copy letters of the alphabet either by hand or by typing them. After three weeks of learning, we ran two recognition tests, one week apart, to compare the letter recognition performances of the two groups. The results showed that in the older children, the handwriting training gave rise to a better letter recognition than the typing training.
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Fast and accurate visual recognition of single characters is crucial for efficient reading. We explored the possible contribution of writing memory to character recognition processes. We evaluated the ability of adults to discriminate new characters from their mirror images after being taught how to produce the characters either by traditional pen-and-paper writing or with a computer keyboard. After training, we found stronger and longer lasting (several weeks) facilitation in recognizing the orientation of characters that had been written by hand compared to those typed. Functional magnetic resonance imaging recordings indicated that the response mode during learning is associated with distinct pathways during recognition of graphic shapes. Greater activity related to handwriting learning and normal letter identification was observed in several brain regions known to be involved in the execution, imagery, and observation of actions, in particular, the left Broca's area and bilateral inferior parietal lobules. Taken together, these results provide strong arguments in favor of the view that the specific movements memorized when learning how to write participate in the visual recognition of graphic shapes and letters.
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Young children’s literacy experiences at home shape the development of emergent literacy skills. Due to the increasing use of touch screen tablets (e.g., iPads) in homes and early education settings it is important to investigate the relationship between digital tools and emergent literacy. The present study examined the relationships between children’s (N = 57; aged 2 to 4 years) emergent literacy skills and home use of tablets for writing and reading. Correlational analysis showed a positive association between children’s access to apps and print knowledge. A positive association was found between the frequency of writing with tablets and print awareness, print knowledge, and sound knowledge. No associations occurred between emergent literacy skills and frequency of e-book reading. Further research is needed to investigate the effects of tablet writing on emergent literacy development.
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The aim of this study is to contribute to an understanding of how digitalization affects early literacy practices in terms of literacy teaching (methods, materials, routinized activities, etc.) and the use of literacy genres in digitalized writing. The study has an overall ethnographical design, where we as researchers, over the course of two years, follow a group of first grade teachers when they “go digital” in their literacy teaching. The study is theoretically influenced by New Literacy Studies, genre theory and multimodality. “Going digital” here includes both the new digital tools that the classrooms have been equipped with (e.g. computers, smart boards, projectors, etc.) and the use of a specific early literacy method, learning to read through writing on computers – without using a pencil. The method involves a change from children learning to read and write by using textbooks for reading and pencils for writing to using computers from the start. The children’s own texts are used as important reading material. When children use digital writing tools their texts become longer and they also use a wider range of literacy genres, specifically more factual genres.
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In the light of the continuing digital revolution in education and learning in general, and in literacy instruction in particular, the purpose of this review is to assess the emerging literature on such digital writing tools as computers and tablets compared with traditional writing tools like pen(cil) and paper, on early writing outcomes among first writers. We limited our review to studies published in international peer-reviewed journals during the last decade, within different theoretical perspectives. We identified a relatively small number of studies that can be categorized, as qualitative studies applying a case study design or within-subject design, and as quantitative studies, either quasi-experimental or cohort studies. These studies can be located within three research perspectives: 1) cognitive psychology, 2) neuroscience and learning and 3) socio-cultural theoretical perspective. While findings across the three perspectives were inconsistent, they were rather consistent within each perspective. While studies with a cognitive psychological and those with neuroscience and learning perspective point in favor of handwriting, studies with a socio-cultural perspective rather point in favor of digital writing. The studies that used a cognitive psychology and neuroscience and learning approach applied quasi-experimental or cohort designs, while studies based on a socio-cultural perspective mainly were qualitative. When analyzing the studies regarding methodological quality we found three flaws: small sample size (of quantitative studies); a lack of nesting effects; and inadequately controlling for experience for early writing. Facing an interdisciplinary research topic in rapid development, we provide some implications for further research, and suggestions in particular in terms of methodological challenges.
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Drawing on a wealth of theoretical and empirical work, Education in a Digital Worldtackles a number of pressing questions, such as, how are global trends in educational technology refracted through national policies and processes? How exactly are educational technologies linked to issues of global economics and the fortunes of national and international economies? To what extent are digital technologies implicated in the commercialisation, marketization and commodification of education? These questions, and others, are addressed throughout eight wide-ranging chapters, which consider topics such as the national policy strategies of countries across North and South America, Europe and East Asia, the educational technology portfolios of international organizations such as the United Nations and Microsoft, as well as the role of education and technology in international development and the on-going efforts to provide one laptop per child across low-income regions and countries. Through these examples Selwyn develops a detailed analysis of education, technology and globalisation, drawing together arguments and debates from various academic perspectives. Written in a detailed but accessible manner, this is an essential book for anyone wishing to gain a better understanding of the role of education and technology in contemporary globalised society.
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This article investigates the different shapes in which reading and writing practices occur when paper/pen are compared with keyboard/screen. The focus is on the bodily aspects of these practices. Reading and writing are viewed as techniques of the body, which over the years have become increasingly mediated by technologies. The analysis is grounded in the theory of social practice. Research material consists of written essays collected from 25 students at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland, in 2013. Results show that paper as material is considered suitable and adaptive to numerous reading purposes and bodily positions, while regarding the screen the places and positions of reading are viewed as more limited due to the material boundary conditions presented by devices. Students describe handwriting as a more flexible and relaxed bodily practice than typing, although the worsening skills of handwriting are recognized too. Skills and competences turned out to be less decisive factors than materials and images when trying to explain the differences in reading and writing practices when a paper/pen is compared with a keyboard/screen. Finally, the study argues that digital reading writing interfaces do not determine the ways we read and write as strongly as previously suggested.
Article
This full-year experimental study examined how methods of writing instruction contribute to kindergarten students' acquisition of foundational and compositional early writing skills. Multiple regression with cluster analysis was used to compare 3 writing instructional groups: an interactive writing group, a writing workshop group, and a traditional writing instruction control group. Results revealed significant differences among the 3 methods of instruction for influencing student learning of compositional writing skills. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Article
Effectiveness of iPad computerized writing instruction was evaluated for 4th-9th graders (n = 35) with diagnosed specific learning disabilities (SLDs) affecting writing: dysgraphia (impaired handwriting), dyslexia (impaired spelling), and oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax composing). Each of the 18 two-hour lessons had multiple learning activities aimed at improving subword- (handwriting), word- (spelling), and syntax- (sentence composing) level language skills by engaging all four language systems (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) to create a functional writing system. To evaluate treatment effectiveness, normed measures of handwriting, spelling, and composing were used with the exception of one non-normed alphabet writing task. Results showed that the sample as a whole improved significantly from pretest to posttest in three handwriting measures, four spelling measures, and both written and oral syntax construction measures. All but oral syntax was evaluated with pen and paper tasks, showing that the computer writing instruction transferred to better writing with pen and paper. Performance on learning activities during instruction correlated with writing outcomes; and individual students tended to improve in the impaired skill associated with their diagnosis. Thus, although computers are often used in upper elementary school and middle school in the United States (US) for accommodations (alternatives to pen and paper) for students with persisting SLDs affecting writing, this study shows computers can also be used for Tier 3 instruction to improve the writing skills of students in grades 4-9 with history of persisting writing disabilities.
Article
Factors affecting the free writing speed of 11-year-old students were investigated using the Group and Individual Assessment of Handwriting Speed. Intelligence, gender, legibility and whether the student has special educational needs or speaks English as an additional language were all found to impact on writing speed to a significant extent. In one of the two schools studied, the students wrote significantly faster than the students in the other school. This ‘teacher effect’ was found to be independent of the other significant factors examined in the study and was attributed largely to instructional differences between schools and teachers. The average writing speed was 36% lower than published norms for this test, implying that 70.2% of the students would be eligible for extra time in examinations and raising doubts regarding the validity of these norms. It was concluded that vulnerability to teacher effects and other factors makes free writing an unreliable method of measuring writing speed, especially when group administered, and calls into question its use to justify the provision of examination access arrangements or accommodations.
Article
This paper describes a literature review, institutional audit and analysis of practice in the area of digital literacy provision, based on research across the UK Higher Education sector. It concludes that institutions need to place greater value on ‘literacies of the digital’, and better prepare their students and their own organizational processes to thrive in an age of digital knowledge practices. It extends the debate about individual entitlement and provision to ask whether digital literacy offers an opportunity for the academy to redefine its relationship to knowledge in society. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Article
Taking notes on laptops rather than in longhand is increasingly common. Many researchers have suggested that laptop note taking is less effective than longhand note taking for learning. Prior studies have primarily focused on students' capacity for multitasking and distraction when using laptops. The present research suggests that even when laptops are used solely to take notes, they may still be impairing learning because their use results in shallower processing. In three studies, we found that students who took notes on laptops performed worse on conceptual questions than students who took notes longhand. We show that whereas taking more notes can be beneficial, laptop note takers' tendency to transcribe lectures verbatim rather than processing information and reframing it in their own words is detrimental to learning.
Article
The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of digital technologies on writing and reading in Finland. The perceived affordances of reading and writing on paper and digitally are compared by analysing written essays collected from 25 communication students in 2013. Research design is replicated from a study of Fortunati and Vincent that concerns Italian students. Results show that Finnish students perceive more positive than negative affordances regarding reading on paper, while reading on screen attracts fewer virtues. In this respect, results are in line with the Italian study. Unlike in Italy, students in Finland value writing on a keyboard especially because it enables editing the text quickly and efficiently and thus increases textual productivity. The study shows that Finnish students take some affordances of digital writing for granted and do not recognise their non-digital alternatives. This implies that they are perhaps more embedded in the digital world than Italian students. The Technological Frames approach is utilised to expound these country differences.
Article
Fourth graders with learning disabilities in transcription (handwriting and spelling), LD-TD, and without LD-TD (non-LD), were compared on three writing tasks (letters, sentences, and essays), which differed by level of language, when writing by pen and by keyboard. The two groups did not differ significantly in Verbal IQ but did in handwriting, spelling, and composing achievement. Although LD-TD and non-LD groups did not differ in total time for producing letters by pen or keyboard, both groups took longer to compose sentences and essays by keyboard than by pen. Students in both groups tended to show the same pattern of results for amount written as a larger sample of typically developing fourth graders who composed longer essays by pen. Results for that sample, which also included typically developing second and sixth graders, showed that effects of transcription mode vary with level of language and within level of language by grade level for letters and sentences. However, consistently from second to fourth to sixth grade, children wrote longer essays with faster word production rate by pen than by keyboard. In addition, fourth and sixth graders wrote more complete sentences when writing by pen than by keyboard, and this relative advantage for sentence composing in text was not affected by spelling ability. Implications of the results for using computers for accommodations or specialized instruction for students with LD-TD are discussed.
Article
Writing behaviors of grade 1 children were explored as they used word processors to support their writing. Information was gathered in the form of field notes and audiotape transcripts from classroom observation sessions, along with informal interviews with students and teachers. Themes which emerged from the data analysis suggested a combination of influences at work in the classroom environment. These included (a) changes in the classroom culture with regard to tolerance of student talk during writing sessions; (b) the length and characteristics of student–teacher interactions; and (c) teacher instructional practices about writing with and without a word processor. Different aspects of the physical environment where the students wrote—classroom or computer lab—were found to have the potential to influence students' writing behavior and possibly the written work produced. Student writing behavior using word processors and pencil-and-paper revealed differences in reading and rereading of the work in progress. In view of these findings, considerations for classroom practice, including (a) developing realistic expectations, (b) adjusting instruction, (c) scheduling feedback, (d) adjusting minilesson timing, and (e) teaching students collaborative work skills are shared.
Article
The principle of developmental dissociations is illustrated as a technique for studying functional brain organization in developing children with and without frank brain damage. Specific developmental dissociations described include disparities between (a) the cognitive and motor systems; (b) declarative and procedural knowledge; (c) fine motor, orthographic, oral language, reading, and writing function; (d) corresponding orthographic-phonological code connections; and (e) lexical analysis and lexical selection in reading. The educational implications of these dissociations are discussed. First, the developmental dissociations observed between the cognitive and motor systems and between declarative and procedural knowledge in motorically impaired individuals suggest that sensorimotor experience may not be a prerequisite for all intellectual development, as Piaget claimed, and that an abnormal sensorimotor period may impair the acquisition of procedural knowledge relatively more than the acquisition of declarative knowledge. Second, the dissociations observed among fine motor, orthographic, oral language, reading, and writing function support a model of noncontingent, normal variation or developmental independence in acquiring neurodevelopmental skills and academic skills, which fall along a continuum in a range typically found in normally developing readers and writers and which vary considerably within and across individuals in their relative level of development. Third, the dissociations between corresponding orthographic-phonological codes can contribute to problems in acquiring word recognition skills. Finally, the dissociation between lexical analysis and lexical selection accounts for children who can extract meaning from silent reading of text but whose oral reading is dysfluent. We argue, in keeping with the spirit of the Piagetian tradition, that developmental dissociations offer a technique for dissecting the components of biofunctional brain systems and thus for studying the constructive processes of the learner whose nervous system continually interacts with the environment.
Article
In an age of increasing technology, the possibility that typing on a keyboard will replace handwriting raises questions about the future usefulness of handwriting skills. Here we present evidence that brain activation during letter perception is influenced in different, important ways by previous handwriting of letters versus previous typing or tracing of those same letters. Preliterate, five-year old children printed, typed, or traced letters and shapes, then were shown images of these stimuli while undergoing functional MRI scanning. A previously documented ‘‘reading circuit’’ was recruited during letter perception only after handwriting—not after typing or tracing experience. These findings demonstrate that handwriting is important for the early recruitment in letter processing of brain regions known to underlie successful reading. Handwriting therefore may facilitate reading acquisition in young children.
Article
Children's speed and fluency of writing has elsewhere been shown to correlate with the quality of their composition. Here, we compared speed and fluency of text production when children aged between 6 and 11 used either a pen or a computer keyboard. Younger children were reliably slower and less fluent when writing at a keyboard. All children were slower when the text was more demanding. These impediments to smooth writing were shown to be associated with the different patterns of visual attention required by the two writing tools. It is argued that writing is usefully approached as a tool-mediated activity whose coordination presents developmental challenges. Moreover, the results suggest grounds for investing more in helping children towards greater confidence in visual–manual control of the keyboard.
Article
A battery of predictor measures (neuromotor, orthographic, visual-motor integration, syllable and phoneme segmentation, word finding, sentence syntax, reading, and verbal intelligence) and of writing criterion measures (handwriting, spelling, and composition) was administered to an equal number of girls and boys in the first, second, and third grades (N=30) to study the developmental skills children bring to the task of learning to write. This developmental approach is an important complement to the prevailing process and product approaches to writing research. Multiple regression and canonical correlation results supported thehypothesis that lower-level developmental variables are related to beginning writing skills. Rapid, automatic production of alphabet letters, rapid coding of orthographic information, and speed of sequential finger movement were the best predictors of handwriting and composition skills. Orthographic-phonological mappings and visual-motor integration were the best predictors of spelling. Canonical correlation analysis identified anorthographic-linguistic dimension and anautomaticity dimension in the battery of developmental skills and of writing products. Results also supported the hypothesis that the translation component in process models of writing has two separable sub-components — text generation and transcription. Lower-level developmental skills are thought to constrain the transcription sub-component.
Article
This paper describes a pilot study that investigated the usability of handwriting recognition for text entry in a free writing activity. The study was carried out with eighteen children aged 7 and 8; each used three different writing methods to construct short pieces of text. The methods used were; pencil and paper, the QWERTY keyboard at a computer, and a pen and graphics tablet. Where the pen and graphics tablet was used, the handwritten text was recognised by the software and presented back to the children as ASCII text. Measures of user satisfaction, quantity of text produced, and quality of writing produced, were taken. In addition, for the handwritten work, the recognition process was evaluated by comparing what the child wrote with the resulting ASCII text. The results show that the children that took part in the study generally produced lengthier texts at the graphics tablet than at the QWERTY keyboard but that the non-technical solution, the pencil and paper was, in this instance, the overall best method for composing writing. To further the debate on the possibilities for digital ink and tablet technologies, key usability problems with the handwriting recognition interface are identified and classified, and solutions to these usability problems, in the form of design guidelines for both recognition-based and pen-based computer writing interfaces, are presented. Additionally, some reflections on how studies of text input and free writing composition can be evaluated are offered.
Article
Although prior research has identified general procedural and qualitative differences between word-processed and pen and paper writing, little attention has been directed toward identifying how these differences relate to the prior word processing experiences of individual students. Additionally, few researchers have addressed the issue of fairness when discussing the use of word processors in writing assessment. This study investigates this relationship by comparing essays composed with pen and paper for a direct writing assessment to those composed with a word processor by students having different levels of experience with using word processors for writing.
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This experiment aimed at studying the benefits of different types of training (visual, motor, or visual-motor), in comparison to a control group, on 5-year-olds' performance in a task of writing cursive letters. The visual-motor training was shown to be the most effective training. The efficacy of visual training was clear at the letter quality level, and the impact of the motor training was shown at the movement fluency level. We assume that the visual training better contributes to learning the shape of the letter trajectory, while the motor training better contributes to improve handwriting movement execution.
Article
Previous studies on visuomotor priming have provided insufficient information to determine whether the reach-to-grasp potentiation of a non-target object produces a specific effect during response execution. In order to answer this question, subjects were instructed to reach and grasp a response device with either a power or a precision grip, depending on whether the stimulus they saw was empty or full. Stimuli consisted of containers (graspable with either a power or a precision grip), with non-graspable stimuli added as a control condition (geometrical shapes). The image of the non-target object was removed during the execution phase. Results demonstrate slower execution responses related to motor incompatibility, though conversely, no faster responses with motor compatibility. Moreover, any visuomotor priming effect required that the container be displayed during response execution. These data suggest that during response execution, motor incompatibility produces a disruptive effect likely due to competition between two cerebral events: motor control of the actual response execution and visual object reach-to-grasp neural simulation.
Article
Gender differences in mean level of reading and writing skills were examined in 122 children (80 boys and 42 girls) and 200 adults (115 fathers and 85 mothers) who showed behavioral markers of dyslexia in a family genetics study. Gender differences were found in writing and replicated prior results for typically developing children: Boys and men were more impaired in handwriting and composing than were girls and women, but men, who were more impaired in those writing skills, were also more impaired in spelling than women. Men were more impaired than women in accuracy and rate of reading passages orally, but boys were not more impaired than girls on any of the reading measures. Males were consistently more impaired than females in orthographic skills, which may be the source of gender differences in writing, but not motor skills. Population-based studies that report gender differences in reading in children with dyslexia may be confounding reading and writing disorders--the latter being the true source of gender differences in both children and adults with dyslexia.
Article
Background: It is well established that handwriting fluency constrains writing quality by limiting resources for higher order processes such as planning and reviewing. According to the 'simple view of writing' then slow keyboarding speed should hinder the quality of keyboarded essay compositions in the same way that slow handwriting hinders handwritten essay compositions. Given a lack of touch-typing instruction in UK schools it was hypothesized that children's written compositions produced via the keyboard would be worse than produced by hand. Aims: To extend the work of Christensen (2004) and Rogers and Case-Smith (2002) by examining the relationship between handwriting fluency and keyboarding fluency throughout the primary school and studying the link between word-processed compositional quality and keyboarding fluency. Samples and methods: The handwriting fluency and keyboarding fluency of 300 children in primary school were measured. Year 5 and year 6 children completed a measure of compositional quality by hand and by keyboard. Results and comment: There was a high correlation between handwriting and keyboarding speed and handwriting speed was consistently faster than keyboarding speed across all ages. Only a small minority of children in years 5 and 6 had faster keyboarding than handwriting speed. Results showed that children's compositional quality was superior in the handwritten scripts as opposed to the keyboarded scripts. Keyboarded scripts were up to 2 years behind handwritten scripts in development. Writing by keyboard does not necessarily lead to improvements in script quality, compared with handwritten scripts. Explicit keyboarding instruction (touch-typing) is needed to develop keyboarding fluency and unlock the full potential of the word processor for children's writing.