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REVIEW FROM ASN EB 2015 SYMPOSIUM
Early Child Development and Nutrition: A Review
of the Benefits and Challenges of
Implementing Integrated Interventions
1–4
Kristen M Hurley,
5
*AishaKYousafzai,
6
and Florencia Lopez-Boo
7
5
Department of International Health, Center for Human Nutrition, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD;
6
Department
of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; and
7
Social Protection and Health Division, Inter-American Development
Bank, Washington, DC
ABSTRACT
Poor nutrition (substandard diet quantity and/or quality resulting in under- or overnutrition) and the lack of early learning opportunities contribute to the loss
of developmental potential and life-long health and economic disparities among millions of children aged <5 y. Single-sector interventions representing either
early child development (ECD) or nutrition have been linked to positive child development and/or nutritional status, and recommendations currentlyadvocate
for the development and testing of integrated interventions. We reviewed the theoretical and practical benefits and challenges of implementing integrated
nutrition and ECD interventions along with the evidence for best practice and benefit-cost and concluded that the strong theoretical rationale for integration is
more nuanced than the questions that the published empirical evidence have addressed. For example, further research is needed to 1) answer questions
related to how integrated messaging influences caregiver characteristics such as well-being, knowledge, and behavior and how these influence earlychild
nutrition and development outcomes; 2) understand population and nutritional contexts in which integrated interventions are beneficial; and 3)explorehow
varying implementation processes influence the efficacy, uptake, and cost-benefit of integrated nutrition and ECD interventions. Adv Nutr 2016;7:357–63.
Keywords: early child development, child nutrition, integrated interventions, care, behavior change
Introduction
Poor nutrition (substandard diet quantity and/or quality re-
sulting in under- or overnutrition) and lack of early learning
opportunities contribute to the loss of developmental and ac-
ademic potential and lead to lifelong health and economic dis-
parities in more than 200 million children aged <5 y (1, 2).
Moreover, the early provision of optimal nutrition and oppor-
tunities for learning (supported by responsive caregiving be-
haviors that are prompt, contingent on children’s actions,
and developmentally appropriate and stimulating) have been
linked to positive early child development (ECD)
8
outcomes
(3). ECD typically refers to early childhood with a strong focus
on the first 2–3 y of life and describes the gradual unfolding of
children’s sensory-motor, cognitive-language, and social-emo-
tional capacities shaped by interactions between the environ-
ment, experience, and genetics (4).
The 2007 Lancet series on child development in developing
countries reported that programs with multiple components,
including health, nutrition, and psychosocial stimulation,
might be most successful in promoting children’s early devel-
opment (5). Thus, recommendations currently advocate for
the development and testing of integrated nutrition and
ECD interventions (3, 5). The scientific basis and theoretical
framework for integrating nutrition and ECD interventions
is discussed in the corresponding review (6), and over the
last decade, a substantial number of studies have been under-
taken to evaluate the effect of integrated interventions on chil-
dren’s nutrition and development outcomes (7).
In this review, we summarize the current state of knowl-
edge related to the effectiveness of integrated nutrition and
ECD interventions, the theoretical and practical benefits
and challenges of their implementation, and the emerging ev-
idence for best practices and the cost-benefits. We conclude
1
This article is a review from the symposium “Integrated Nutrition and Early Child
Development Interventions: Preventing Health and Economic Disparities” held 30 March
2015 at the ASN Scientific Sessions and Annual Meeting at Experimental Biology 2015 in
Boston, MA. The symposium was sponsored by the American Society for Nutrition (ASN)
and the ASN Global Nutrition Council and supported by the Mathile Institute for the
Advancement of Human Nutrition and the Mead Johnson Pediatric Nutrition Institute.
2
The organizer has indicated that related reviews of this symposium will be submitted for
publication in an upcoming issue of Advances of Nutrition.
3
The authors reported no funding received for this study.
4
Author disclosures: KM Hurley, AK Yousafzai, and F Lopez-Boo, no conflicts of interest.
*To whom correspondence should be sent. E-mail: khurley2@jhu.edu.
8
Abbreviations used: BC, benefit-cost; ECD, early child development; SBCC, social and
behavior change communication.
ã2016 American Society for Nutrition. Adv Nutr 2016;7:357–63; doi:10.3945/an.115.010363. 357
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by identifying the current research gaps that need to be ad-
dressed to further evidence-based policy and practice for in-
tegrated nutrition and ECD programs.
Current Status of Knowledge
Effectiveness of Integrated Early Child Development
and Nutrition Interventions
In the last 2 years, systematic reviews and meta-analyses have
examined the effectiveness of ECD and nutrition interventions
separately (8) and integrated (7) on early child development
outcomes. Aboud et al. (8) reviewed interventions conducted
since 2000 and found that psychosocial-stimulation interven-
tions (n= 21) had a medium-effect size of d=0.43onchildren’s
cognitive development and that nutrition supplementation
and education interventions (n= 18), had a small-effect size
of d= 0.09. These findings suggest that integrated nutrition
and early child development intervention may have additive
or synergistic benefits for child development.
Grantham-McGregor et al. (7) examined the evidence for
additive or synergistic benefits to integrated interventions
on child development and growth outcomes. They reported
that few studies have been designed to address this question
and that there was little evidence to support the notion of
additive or synergistic benefits to either growth or develop-
ment outcomes as a result of integrated interventions. How-
ever, ECD interventions were consistently found to promote
children’s development, whereas nutrition interventions were
found to benefit children’sgrowthoutcomesandsometimes
benefit children’s development (7).
Given that poor nutrition and inadequate opportunities
for early learning are both risks for poor children’s develop-
ment (9, 10), nutritional and ECD inputs should be
optimized—and possibly integrated—for best developmental
outcomes. However, it is necessary to recognize that inte-
grated interventions must be designed to not only affect a
single child outcome but also multiple outcomes, including
growth, health, and development. Thus, it is first necessary
to review the rationale and feasibility of combining nutrition
and ECD interventions to elucidate platforms that might be
leveraged for optimizing integration.
The Benefits and Challenges of Implementing
Integrated Child Nutrition and Development
Interventions
From a program (or health service and systems) perspective,
the delivery of integrated nutrition and ECD interventions
might well be more efficient than the delivery of separate in-
terventions. Two primary advantages described by DiGiro-
lamo et al. (11) were increased access to early learning
opportunities for children and the promotion of a compre-
hensive approach for addressing the whole child. In re-
source-constrained contexts, integrated services may be an
effective strategy for increasing the number of young
children and families who are exposed to information
and resources that support healthy child growth and de-
velopment. The colocation of services and use of the same
delivery agent might help to address supply-side challenges
in providing adequate access to affordable services. With re-
spect to tackling demand-side challenges, families may find it
easier to support the holistic care needs of their young children
through a “one-stop-shop”type of service in which information
that stems from different interventions is integrated and a rela-
tionship with a health worker who understands the total needs
of the child and family is established (11).
In addition to program-level advantages, integrated nu-
trition and ECD interventions support caregiving. Few early
childhood interventions that occur within the first 2–3yof
life are child-directed alone but instead target the caregiver-
child dyad; for example, the success of an early development
intervention depends upon equipping caregivers with the
know-how to provide consistent learning opportunities
and responsive stimulation for their child within daily rou-
tines (12). Similarly, the provision of optimal infant and
young children’s feeding practices depends upon the care-
giver’s knowledge and capacity to provide age-appropriate
feeding responsivity and nutritional sufficiency, quality,
and diversity. The quality of care provided to young children
by their caregivers, typically parents, is the most proximal
factor that influences children’s survival, health, growth,
and development. Early nutrition and development inter-
ventions depend on the knowledge, skills, and capacity—
both emotional and financial—of caregivers to provide their
young child with optimal care for development and nutrit-
ion. A growing body of evidence from the disciplines of
both nutrition and ECD suggest that there are common
skills for effective caregiving and by enhancing these com-
mon skills it is possible to benefit outcomes for both nutri-
tion and child development. First, responsive care, or the
ability of the caregiver to contingently and appropriately re-
spond to their child’s cues, is a skill that needs to be sup-
ported for both infant and young child feeding (13–16), as
well as supporting healthy social-emotional and cognitive-
language development (17). Using the contexts of responsive
feeding or play (e.g., responding appropriately to nonverbal
and verbal cues of hunger, satiety, and feelings), are both ef-
fective ways of supporting responsive caregiving (14, 18).
Second, the low emotional availability of caregivers might
challenge the provision of optimal care for nutrition and de-
velopment for young children. The prevalence of maternal
depression is high in low-income (15.9% for pregnant
women and 19.8% for postpartum women) and high-in-
come countries (~10.0% for pregnant women and 13.0%
for postpartum women) (19) and can compromise the emo-
tional availability of caregivers to recognize and appropri-
ately respond to cues from infants and young children.
For example, studies have reported that maternal depression
is associated with nonresponsive child-feeding behaviors
(20), inadequate and excess dietary intakes (13, 21), and
the risk of child under- and overnutrition (22–24).
Furthermore, strategies to promote nutritional well-being
and development have incorporated interventions to support
the mental well-being of mothers. In Pakistan, the Thinking
Healthy program adapted principles of cognitive-behavioral
therapy for community health workers to use when counseling
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mothers to continue exclusive breastfeeding. The evaluation
reported a 60% reduced risk of cessation of exclusive breast-
feeding in the first 6 mo of an infant’s life (25). In another
program, interventions to support maternal well-being
were incorporated into a parenting program in Uganda. Par-
ents in the intervention group had significantly lower mater-
nal depressive symptoms than parents in the control group,
and the children of parents in the intervention group had
significantly higher cognitive development scores compared
with children of parents in the control group (26).
A concern surrounding the integration of nutrition and
ECD intervention is whether the number of messages be-
comes ineffective or burdensome for health workers and for
families (12, 27). By strengthening common caregiving capac-
ities combined with knowledge about appropriate nutrition
and development, integrated messages become potentially
more manageable—neither burdening the health worker nor
the family. Example messages might include “while breast-
feeding your child, you may use the opportunity to sing to
your child,”“while feeding your child talk responsively by en-
gaging your child in discussions about the food she is eating,”
or “when managing your child’s behavior, avoid strategies that
include food restriction or rewards.”
There are clear synergies in implementing care for early
child nutrition and development together that include leverag-
ing limited supply-side resources, responding to family de-
mand for the provision of holistic care, and leveraging
common caregiving competencies to support early child nu-
trition and development outcomes. Although addressing lim-
ited supply-side resources may be especially advantageous in
low-income contexts, the provision of integrated care and
common caregiving competencies may also be advantageous
in middle- and high-income contexts in which issues of over-
nutrition (and early care/feeding practices related to overnutri-
tion, such as feeding in the absence of hunger) are becoming
increasingly problematic or already exist. However, in popula-
tions where poverty and food insecurity is high (resulting in
micronutrient deficiencies, stunting, and wasting), the points
of integration may not only include common caregiving com-
petencies and knowledge on nutrition and ECD but may also
necessitate nutritional supplementation.
In summary, integrated approaches that include a focus on
the child (stimulation and nutrition), the parent (maternal
depression), and the parent-child relationship (knowledge
and responsive care skills for feeding, play, and communica-
tion) may well be more effective and sustainable than ap-
proaches that consider the child with little attention to the
family care context. However, to optimize the effectiveness
of integrated interventions, more research is necessary to un-
derstand both the combined effect and the effect of individual
interventions on a broad range of outcomes related to the de-
livery of care for children’s nutrition and development (e.g.,
reduction in maternal depressive symptoms and enhance-
ment in responsive care and feeding behaviors) and how
these variables might mediate young children’snutritionand
development outcomes. For example, research is needed to
understand how theoretical frameworks of care that combine
varying nutrition and development messages might be best
aligned and delivered. These messages and delivery strategies
have to be reflected in common curricula, training materials,
supervision, behavioral change techniques, and delivery
practices.
Lessons Learned for Successful Implementation of
Child Nutrition and Development Interventions
Best practice in nutrition interventions. Appropriate de-
livery techniques and platforms are critical to the success of
nutrition interventions. Best practices for child nutrition inter-
ventions include the provision of evidence-based nutrition-
specific interventions that address the immediate causes of
under- or overnutrition for infant and young children (28),
social and behavior change communication (SBCC) strategies
(29–31), and nutrition-sensitive interventions that draw on
complementary sectors such as agriculture, social safety nets,
early child development, and schooling to affect the underly-
ing determinants of poor nutrition, including limited access to
healthy foods and lack of adequate care (32).
The recent Lancet series on maternal and child nutrition re-
ported that a substantial reduction in the burden of undernu-
trition could be achieved if low-income populations had access
to 10 evidence-based nutrition-specific interventions (28). The
interventions target maternal nutrition during pregnancy
(multiple micronutrients, use of iodized salt, calcium intake,
and balanced energy protein supplementation), infant and
young child nutrition [promotion of optimal infant and young
child-feeding practices, food, and micronutrient supplementa-
tion (zinc and vitamin A)], and the management of acute
malnutrition (28). Evidence-based prevention of childhood
overweight/obesity demonstrates that interventions should tar-
get children early in life and should focus on improving dietary
quality, care/feeding practices, and physical activity (33, 34)
The promotion of healthy dietary patterns and feeding be-
haviors and the success of these interventions require the im-
plementation of SBCC strategies that target behavior change
among those who directly (parents) or indirectly (family
and community members) influence child nutrition outcomes
(31, 35). SBCC uses communication techniques to help
change behaviors by a process of providing individuals with
relevant behavior change messages through an interactive
and culturally appropriate mix of individuals, groups, and me-
dia contacts. A review of 6 SBCC complementary feeding in-
terventions in low- and middle-income countries found that
complementary feeding interventions that used 3–4(outof
6) behavior change techniques were most successful at im-
proving child feeding, diet, and growth outcomes (29). Tech-
niques included the provision of 1) structured information
and instruction; 2) performance activities (modeling healthy
eating, practice, feedback, and positive reinforcement); 3)
problem solving (identifying facilitators and barriers to behav-
ior change and solutions to reducing barriers); 4)socialsup-
port (peer, community, and authority support); 5)material
(nutritional supplements); and 6) small media (songs, role
plays, pictures, flash cards, and posters) (29). However, the de-
tails and fidelity surrounding the implementation of SBCC
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techniques are often not reported in the nutrition intervention
literature.
Finally, the success and sustainability of nutrition interven-
tions also require the implementation of large-scale nutrition-
sensitive interventions developed to address the underlying
determinant of nutrition risk, extending from poor agricul-
ture practices, poverty, and gender inequality to household
factors such as mealtime organization and responsive caregiv-
ing and feeding behaviors (32, 3).
Best practice in child development interventions. Yo u s af z a i
et al. (12) reviewed 31 studies that delivered integrated early
childhood interventions and identified several key features as-
sociated with successful programs. Common features in-
cluded the use of a structured curriculum (e.g., organized
by developmental stages), use of low-cost materials (e.g.,
homemade toys), and opportunities for parents to practice
play (stimulation) activities with their young children and re-
ceive feedback on how the interaction might be strengthened
as well as opportunities for problem solving. Both individual
contacts through home visit programs and group contacts
through parenting groups were reviewed. Few studies, to
our knowledge, have explored dosage, but in general fort-
nightly home visits lasting 30–60 min were reported in suc-
cessful interventions. Compliance was generally high in
home visit programs but variable in parenting groups (lower
compliance in longer-duration programs and a higher com-
pliance in shorter, more intense programs).
Behavior change techniques used in early child develop-
ment interventions have also been reviewed. In a systematic
review of 21 studies, Briscoe and Aboud (29) categorized the
types of SBCC techniques used in the interventions (using
the same list of techniques described previously), namely
structured information and instruction, performance activ-
ities, problem solving, social support, and small media; sim-
ilar to the finding for the complementary feeding studies,
they reported that the greater the number of SBCC applied
the more effective the intervention was at improving young
children’s cognitive development (r= 0.44, P< 0.05). Indi-
vidually, the 3 techniques with the strongest correlation to
children’s cognitive outcomes were the use of small media
(r= 0.51, P< 0.05), performance-based techniques (r= 0.34,
P< 0.12), and problem solving (r= 0.34, P< 0.12); however,
the numbers of studies that reported these techniques for cor-
relation analyses was very small (8).
Finally, similar to nutrition-sensitive approaches, sup-
porting the broader capacity of the family to provide optimal
care for their young children is likely to benefit early child
development. For example, conditional cash transfer pro-
grams, with conditions linked to attendance at well-child
visits or enrollment in preschool centers, have been shown
to benefit children’s growth and development through 2 po-
tential pathways (36). First, families may invest in better nu-
trition for their young children and in learning/play
materials. For example, mothers who received a noncondi-
tional cash transfer in Ecuador were likely to purchase a
toy for their young child. Second, reduced financial pressure
and stress may lead to improved psychosocial well-being in
the family and thus improved early child care practices (37).
Synergies for implementing integrated child nutrition
and development interventions. Common themes dictate
best practices (or the practices that are associated with pos-
itive outcomes) for both nutrition and child development
interventions. These themes include common recipients,
the inclusion of both intervention-specific (e.g., provision
of nutrition supplements and low-cost play material) and
intervention-sensitive strategies (e.g., promotion of positive
maternal mental health and economic opportunities), and
the provision theoretically based on SBCC techniques that
promote positive caregiving behaviors (Table 1) (38–46).
However, despite similarities across child nutrition and de-
velopment intervention, the best practices for implementing
integrated nutrition and development interventions are poorly
understood. Recent reviews of efficacy trials have failed to find
combined effects of integrated interventions (7), and at least 2
studies have reported dilution of independent growth (27) and
development (39) effects when combining community-based,
integrated interventions. The apparent lack of synergy and pos-
sible diluted effects may stem from a deviation from best prac-
tices with an attempt to deliver too many behavior change
messages, thereby weakening the community-based delivery
platform and the caregivers’ability to absorb and practice all
the recommended messages.
Evidence for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Integrated Child
Nutrition and Development Interventions
If optimizing alignment of care for nutrition and child de-
velopment delivery practices is effective, we must also con-
sider whether it is feasible and beneficial to programs with
respect to cost. Evidence for the benefit-cost (BC) of inte-
grated nutrition and child development programs is cur-
rently limited (46–49).
BC analyses allow for the assessment of different alterna-
tives of investments across different types of interventions or
multiple outcomes. They provide policymakers with the
necessary information to quantify the economic returns to
their policies. Integrated nutrition and child development
interventions could have an array of impacts, including im-
provements in nutritional status, cognitive development, ac-
ademic achievement, labor market outcomes, and crime
reduction. To calculate BC, the costs of service providers (in-
cluding wages and training), material cost, and rental price
of space and utilities need to be measured. Private costs,
such as time and transportation incurred by mothers, are
difficult to measure because data are not always available.
Alderman et al. (50) presented methodology on how to mea-
sure BC ratios of integrated programs, including issues such
as using comparable units of measurement, avoiding double
counting, considering dynamic effects, accounting for pri-
vate and social returns, and the fact that benefits might
not constantly depend on, for instance, the age of the child.
Figure 1 shows a summary of the current status of evidence
for BC ratios of integrated child nutrition and development
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interventions across 4 different studies (conducted in Nicaragua,
Colombia, Bolivia, and Jamaica). All studies tended to have
large sample sizes, ranging from 600 (49) to >10,000 (47).
All programs had components of nutrition or health and
child development combined, so it is not possible to tease
out their independent effects. The programs in Nicaragua,
Colombia, and Bolivia included a center-based component
of either full-day care or preschool, some of which were in
the caregiver’shome(46–48).
Beyond the synergies in impacts, the integration of nutri-
tionandECDmightleadtocostsavingsfromjointimplemen-
tation. However, the evidence base is too limited to reach
clear conclusions. Still, there are positive examples from Ja-
maica, even when considering the attenuation of benefits at
scale. One of the potential benefits of integrating ECD ser-
vices into the health sector is the potential for lower costs
as a result of synchronized training, monitoring and supervi-
sion, and the use of the same personnel. However, whether
TABLE 1 Similarities and differences in best practices across nutrition and ECD interventions
1
Best practice in nutrition Best practice in ECD
Recipients Adolescent females, women of reproductive age,
pregnant women, neonates, and infants and
young children (28)
Caregivers, infants, and preschool-aged children
through school entry (3)
Intervention-specific strategies
2
Provision of health care, nutrition education, and
nutrition supplements
Parenting education and support on a range of topics
(e.g., importance of play and communication,
positive discipline, practices, school readiness,
providing support to mothers and fathers) and
provision of play material and books (homemade,
low-cost, or via book and toy libraries)
Intervention-sensitive strategies
3
Agriculture (including biofortification and home-
gardening) (32); social safety nets (including
conditional and unconditional cash transfers,
school feeding programs, household food
distributions, and emergency assistance programs)
(32); ECD (13, 38); schooling (32)
Social safety nets (including conditional and uncon-
ditional cash transfers (36, 37); nutrition (education,
including responsive feeding, and supplements)
(38, 39)
SBCC techniques Information and instruction: communicating infor-
mation and verbal instruction about responsive
feeding and optimal feeding practices (type, fre-
quency, and preparation of infant foods) (40–45)
Information and instruction: communicating infor-
mation and verbal instruction about what
caregivers should do with their children
and why (8)
Performance activities: modeling, practicing, and
providing feedback for responsive feeding (40);
modeling optimal feeding practices (amount,
frequency, and preparation of infant foods) (41–45)
Performance activities: demonstrating and practicing
with feedback about how to talk and play with
children (8, 12)
Problem solving: identifying barriers and solutions to
support responsive feeding and optimal feeding
practices (40, 41)
Problem solving: addressing maternal depression,
need for family support, lack of time, lack of
resources, and not knowing how to talk to infants
(8, 12)
Social support: encouraging peer (40), community
(41), and authority (44) support, and support for
responsive feeding and optimal feeding practices
(type and amount of infant foods)
Social support: encouraging family support during
intervention home visits and facilitating peer
groups (8, 12)
Material: provision of nutritional supplements (38, 39) Material: play material (e.g., homemade, low-cost,
or via toy and book libraries) (8, 12)
Small media: illustrating responsive feeding and
optimal feeding practices (amount, frequency,
and preparation of infant foods) via pictures,
flipcharts, and posters (8, 13, 38)
Small media: illustrating stimulation practices via
posters, video, and discussion (8, 12)
1
ECD, early child development; SBCC, social and behavior change communication.
2
Interventions that address the immediate causes of poor outcomes.
3
Interventions that address the underlying causes of poor outcomes.
FIGURE 1 Benefit-cost ratios for
integrated programs to improve child
development outcomes. The benefit-cost
ratios are calculated by dividing the total
discounted present value of the benefits of
a program over the life course of an
individual by the total discounted costs
over the total duration of the program.
Both are expressed in monetary terms.
Care for nutrition and development 361
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there will be a negative or positive impact on the existing per-
sonnel and service is unknown.
Conclusions
In summary, the strong theoretical rationale for integration
is more nuanced than the questions that the past empirical
evidence has addressed and thus places greater emphasis
on a child and family approach and a need for studies that
allow us to examine important questions of mediation,
moderation, implementation, and cost. For example, further
research is needed to 1) answer questions related to how in-
tegrated messaging influences caregiver characteristics such
as well-being, knowledge, and behavior and how these char-
acteristics influence early child nutrition and development
outcomes; 2) understand population and nutritional con-
texts in which integrated interventions are beneficial;
and 3) explore how varying implementation processes influ-
ence the efficacy, uptake, and cost-benefit of integrated nu-
trition and ECD interventions.
Acknowledgments
All authors read and approved the final version of the
manuscript.
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