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Can You Have Your Vigorous Exercise and Enjoy It Too? Ramping Intensity Down Increases Postexercise, Remembered, and Forecasted Pleasure
Abstract
There is a paucity of methods for improving the affective experience of exercise. We tested a novel method based on discoveries about the relation between exercise intensity and pleasure, and lessons from behavioral economics. We examined the effect of reversing the slope of pleasure during exercise from negative to positive on pleasure and enjoyment, remembered pleasure, and forecasted pleasure. Forty-six adults were randomly assigned to a 15-min bout of recumbent cycling of either increasing intensity (0%-120% of Watts corresponding to the ventilatory threshold) or decreasing intensity (120%-0%). Ramping intensity down, thereby eliciting a positive slope of pleasure during exercise, improved postexercise pleasure and enjoyment, remembered pleasure, and forecasted pleasure. The slope of pleasure accounted for 35%-46% of the variance in remembered and forecasted pleasure from 15 min to 7 days postexercise. Ramping intensity down makes it possible to combine exposure to vigorous and moderate intensities with a pleasant affective experience.
... The participants involved in the studies were adults, aged between 18 and 80, with an average of 47 years. The majority of participants in the studies were women [7,12,[21][22][23], followed by four studies that had a larger sample of men [1,2,24,25], and the sample sizes varied between 46 [25] and 344 participants [7]. ...
... The participants involved in the studies were adults, aged between 18 and 80, with an average of 47 years. The majority of participants in the studies were women [7,12,[21][22][23], followed by four studies that had a larger sample of men [1,2,24,25], and the sample sizes varied between 46 [25] and 344 participants [7]. ...
... In this sense, the use of lotteries is very useful considering the influence of weekly consequences, reducing the impact of procrastination. Research has used a similar strategy to support patient adherence to medication, as well as increased physical activity and weight loss [2,25]. ...
In recent years, weight gain and reduced physical activity in the general population have contributed to the development of obesity and other health problems; on the other hand, studies in behavioral sciences have been used to modify behaviors for a healthier life, so the objective of this study was to identify the evidence of interventions in behavioral sciences on adherence to physical activity and weight loss in obese patients. This systematic review study is based on a search of the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane. Studies assessed the evidence from intervention studies that assessed the influence of intervention studies of behavioral sciences on public health. The articles were published between 2013 and 2023. The systematic search of the databases identified 2951 articles. The review analyzed 10 studies. Behavioral science interventions presented evidence through strategies such as multicomponent interventions, lottery and financial incentives, message framing, message framing with financial incentive and physical activity, and psychological satisfaction, demonstrating results in weight loss and maintenance and increased physical activity. This study presents scientific evidence through healthy behavior change methodologies, and future studies can explore these strategies in conjunction with public health technologies in the search for public–private partnerships to promote physical activity in adults.
... Recently, several researchers have joined the search for exercise protocols and experiences that are more pleasant and that will result in greater adherence (e.g., Hutchinson et al., 2020;Jones et al., 2018;Lacharité-Lemieux et al., 2015;Zenko et al., 2016). Several have focused on characteristics of the pattern of exercise. ...
... For example, several studies have investigated the effects of continuously reducing intensity on experienced pleasure during exercise, remembered pleasure (i.e., recollections of the pleasure or displeasure experienced during the exercise session), enjoyment, and forecasted pleasure (i.e., predictions about the pleasure or displeasure that will be experienced during future exercise sessions). Zenko et al. (2016) investigated the effects of ramping-down intensity during continuous exercise and found that the slope of pleasure (i.e., the rate and direction of change in affective valence) during exercise explained 35-46% of the variance in remembered and forecasted pleasure. Decreasing intensity resulted in more postexercise pleasure, more enjoyment, more remembered pleasure, and more forecasted pleasure. ...
... On the other hand, while higher intensity may be expected to reduce pleasure (or increase displeasure), it is possible that the changing intensity may be experienced as more interesting and engaging than a constant, unchanging intensity. Continuously decreasing intensity throughout an exercise session represents one strategy for introducing high-intensity exercise (at the beginning of exercise) while creating an overall pleasant exercise experience, at least among people with low cardiorespiratory fitness (Zenko et al., 2016) and sedentary or insufficiently active populations (Hutchinson et al., 2020(Hutchinson et al., , 2023. ...
... While all studies mentioned above were about the prediction of affective experiences through anticipated affect, Zenko et al. (2016) chose a reverse-order design. In this design, experienced pleasure was measured during a cycling test, while remembered pleasure of this experience and anticipated pleasure regarding future exercising were assessed 15 min and, again, 24 h after the test (Zenko et al., 2016). ...
... While all studies mentioned above were about the prediction of affective experiences through anticipated affect, Zenko et al. (2016) chose a reverse-order design. In this design, experienced pleasure was measured during a cycling test, while remembered pleasure of this experience and anticipated pleasure regarding future exercising were assessed 15 min and, again, 24 h after the test (Zenko et al., 2016). The level of experienced pleasure predicted the anticipated pleasure ratings for future physical activity (r = .61-.63), and a correlation was observed between remembered and anticipated pleasure (r = .84-.88). ...
... In another intervention, it was tested whether the workout intensity (moderate vs. challenging) influences participants' forecasting error, showing non-significant effects (Ruby et al., 2011, study 2). Zenko et al. (2016) also focused on the influence of intensity on anticipated affect. In their study design, they compared participants who did exercises in a decreasing intensity group with participants who did exercises with an increasing intensity. ...
... Here, we prioritize pleasure over physiological benefits under the assumptions that (a) physiological benefits will not be obtained unless people adhere to exercise, and (b) more pleasant exercise will result in more adherence ( On the other hand, while higher intensity may be expected to reduce pleasure (or increase displeasure), it is possible that the changing intensity may be experienced as more interesting and engaging than a constant, unchanging intensity. Continuously decreasing intensity represents one strategy for introducing high-intensity exercise while creating an overall pleasant exercise experience, at least among people with low cardiorespiratory fitness (Zenko et al., 2016) and sedentary or insufficiently active populations (Hutchinson et al., 2020(Hutchinson et al., , 2023. Intervals could represent another strategy, especially when compared to 40 minutes of continuous exercise in a laboratory setting (e.g., Jung et al., 2014). ...
... These results conceptually replicate prior research findings by Hutchinson et al. (2020Hutchinson et al. ( , 2023 and Zenko et al. (2016). In these studies, researchers experimentally manipulated the slope of pleasure during exercise by manipulating exercise intensity or resistance training load and found that improving affective responses during exercise impacted remembered pleasure. ...
... Overall, these findings are consistent with prior research (Hutchinson et al., 2023;Zenko et al., 2016). Interestingly, forecasted pleasure or anticipated affective states also seem to be predictive of global retrospective evaluations following exercise (Davis & Stenling, 2020). ...
... Interventions that manipulate the affective evaluation of exercise to promote PA are rare (Conroy & Kim, 2020;Williams, Rhodes, & Conner, 2019), but recent studies have developed such interventions drawing on the peakend rule (Hargreaves & Stych, 2013;Hutchinson, Zenko, Santich, & Dalton, 2020;Zenko, Ekkekakis, & Ariely, 2016). This rule is based on two mechanisms underlying the affective evaluation of PA. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, only four studies have directly manipulated the dynamics of effort intensity during exercise (Brewer, Manos, McDevitt, Cornelius, & Van Raalte, 2000;Hutchinson et al., 2023;Hutchinson et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). In their study, Zenko et al. (2016) randomly assigned 46 healthy adults into a 15-min exercise session on a recumbent bike either in an increasing or decreasing-intensity condition. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, only four studies have directly manipulated the dynamics of effort intensity during exercise (Brewer, Manos, McDevitt, Cornelius, & Van Raalte, 2000;Hutchinson et al., 2023;Hutchinson et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). In their study, Zenko et al. (2016) randomly assigned 46 healthy adults into a 15-min exercise session on a recumbent bike either in an increasing or decreasing-intensity condition. Results showed that the decreasing-intensity condition was associated with greater post-exercise pleasure, enjoyment, remembered pleasure (i.e., affective memories of the session), and forecasted pleasure (i.e., anticipation of the affect in a future session). ...
Decreasing the intensity of exercise at the end of a session has been associated with greater post-exercise pleasure and enjoyment. Here, we investigated whether this manipulation can enhance affective attitudes toward physical activity (PA) and promote PA in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Seven patients (72.9 ± 5.6 years, 3 women) were included in an eight-week within-subject study consisting of weekly exercise sessions. The first four weeks were used as a control condition. In the last four weeks, 9 minutes of lower-intensity exercise were added at the end of each session (experimental condition). Results of the linear mixed-effects models showed that the addition of lower-intensity exercise improved the explicit affective attitudes toward PA (b = 1.00, 95%CI = 0.36 to 1.64, P = 0.022). We found no evidence of an effect on implicit affective attitudes (P = 0.564), accelerometer-based PA (P = 0.417) and self-reported measures of PA (P = 0.122). Although not significant, self-reported PA per day was 36 minutes longer in the experimental than in the control condition. The findings of this early-phase study may suggest that reducing the intensity of an exercise at the end of the exercise sessions enhanced explicit affective attitudes toward PA in patients with PD. Yet, future well-powered and randomized studies are needed to provide more robust evidence.
... Remembered and forecasted pleasure are typically linked; how one recalls an exercise session is presumed to influence anticipated affective responses to subsequent exercise sessions (e.g., Davis & Stenling, 2020). Zenko et al. (2016) observed strong positive associations of remembered pleasure and subsequent forecasted pleasure assessed at 15 min (r = .84), 24 hr (r = .86), ...
... The importance of affective peaks and endings for remembered pleasure have been previously demonstrated in exercise contexts (Hargreaves & Stych, 2013;Hutchinson et al., 2020). Likewise, exercise studies have supported the positive effect of an improving affective trend on remembered and forecasted pleasure (Hutchinson et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). These findings have important implications for behavior. ...
... This model combines physiological considerations (i.e., inclusion of high-intensity work that enhances physiological adaptations to exercise) and psychological considerations (i.e., promoting more positive affective responses). The opposing-slopes approach was developed based on evidence from behavioral economics and Solomon's (1980) "opponent process" theory of acquired motivation (see Hutchinson et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). ...
This study compared the effects of an increasing-intensity (UP) and a decreasing-intensity (DOWN) resistance training protocol on affective responses across six training sessions. Novice participants ( M age 43.5 ± 13.7 years) were randomly assigned to UP ( n = 18) or DOWN ( n = 17) resistance training groups. Linear mixed-effects models showed that the evolution of affective valence within each training session was significantly moderated by the group ( b = −0.45, p ≤ .001), with participants in the UP group reporting a decline in pleasure during each session ( b = −0.82) and the DOWN group reporting an improvement ( b = 0.97; p s < .001). Remembered pleasure was significantly higher in the DOWN group compared to the UP group ( b = 0.57, p = .004). These findings indicate that a pattern of decreasing intensity throughout a resistance exercise session can elicit more positive affective responses and retrospective affective evaluations of resistance training.
... Moreover, forecasted pleasure/utility concerns how pleasant or unpleasant future experiences are predicted to be. Researchers have theorized that both remembered and forecasted pleasure can help predict whether behavior will be repeated (Karl et al., 2021;Zenko et al., 2016). Hence, such constructs could yield considerable value when evaluating the extent to which AR experiences can help retain visitors. ...
... The slider was initially positioned at the origin (0). The descriptors and slider were visible to participants but the numbers were not (Zenko et al., 2016). ...
... Presence was assessed by the Augmented Reality Immersion questionnaire (Georgiou & Kyza, 2017). Remembered pleasure and forecasted pleasure were measured using visual analogue scales (Lishner et al., 2008;Zenko et al., 2016). User engagement was assessed using items derived from tom Dieck et al. (2018). ...
Augmented reality (AR) is an emergent technology in tourism. However, research concerning the AR user experience is relatively scarce and seldom addresses the intentions of designers. Accordingly, we sought to: (a) explore the design intentions underlying a multi-user, purpose-built AR experience; (b) assess the extent to which users’ realized experience aligned with the designers’ intended experience; and (c) examine the relationships between users’ internal states and their associated behavior, in alignment with a Stimulus-Organism-Response framework. In Study 1, designers (n = 5) took part in a focus group and completed a design intentions survey. In Study 2, users (n = 48) tested the AR experience, and a range of subjective (e.g., affective responses) and objective (i.e., visual attention) data were recorded. Findings indicated designer–user disparities primarily at the organism and response levels. Additionally, users’ affective responses to the AR experience were strongly associated with visitor engagement.
... Remembered and forecasted pleasure are typically linked; how one recalls an exercise session is presumed to influence anticipated affective responses to subsequent exercise sessions (e.g., Davis & Stenling, 2020). Zenko et al. (2016) observed strong positive associations of remembered pleasure and subsequent forecasted pleasure assessed at 15 min (r = .84), 24 hours (r = .86), ...
... This model combines physiological considerations (i.e., inclusion of high-intensity work that enhances physiological adaptations to exercise) and psychological considerations (i.e., promoting more positive affective responses). The opposingslopes model was developed based on evidence from behavioral economics and Solomon's (1980) "opponent process" theory of acquired motivation (see Hutchinson et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). ...
... The opposing-slopes approach was first empirically tested in the context of exercise by Zenko et al. (2016), who randomly assigned participants to a 15-min bout of recumbent cycling of either increasing (UP) intensity (0-120% of watts corresponding to each participant's ventilatory threshold) or decreasing (DOWN) intensity (i.e., 120-0%). The DOWN condition elicited a positive slope of pleasure during exercise, meaning that participants felt increasingly more pleasure as the exercise task progressed. ...
... Contrary to this, engaging in regular physical activity is associated with improvements in health-related variables [22] . However, only a small percentage of the United States adult population are meeting the minimum physical activity guidelines, which is problematic [2,4,22,40] . Specifically, the majority of middle-aged women in the United States do not engage in the minimum physical activity guidelines to achieve health benefits [2,22,25] . ...
... Previous studies suggest participants considered walking as an enjoyable exercise [28] , which may encourage those individuals to more frequently participate in walking as a form of physical activity. Walking can also be a form of lowmoderate-or vigorous-intensity exercise that elicits high enjoyment levels, remembered pleasure, and forecasted pleasure in men and women aged 18-40 years old [40] . Therefore, having positive responses to walking may increase self-efficacy in middle-aged women, thereby increasing the likelihood they would engage in this type of physical activity. ...
... The participants responded to "how did the exercise session on the treadmill today make you feel" on a slider ranging from − 100 (very unpleasant) to 100 (very pleasant). A visual analog scale assessed forecasted affect (Zenko et al., 2016). Participants were shown a figure with descriptors anchored with − 100 (most unpleasant imaginable) to 100 (most pleasant imaginable) with an additional 13 descriptors empirically spaced across the scale (15-point scale). ...
... Instructions were "Use the figure above: Select the overall amount of pleasantness or unpleasantness that you PREDICT you will experience if you repeated the same exercise again (in the future)." Evidence supports the validity of remembered and forecasted measures through correlations with enjoyment (Zenko et al., 2016). ...
Objectives
Previous research reported that distraction strategies (e.g., music, podcast) result in more positive exercise experiences compared to no strategy or association (internal attention) strategies. Mindfulness is considered an associative strategy that also includes awareness with acceptance and non-judgement. Initial evidence suggests mindful exercise is similar in affective experience to distracted exercise. Whether these results for mindful associative attention hold at a controlled higher intensity is not clear. Therefore, this study tested if a guided mindful exercise condition differed from a podcast (distraction) exercise condition on affective and motivational responses at a controlled moderately high exercise intensity.
Method
An inactive female sample (n = 30) participated in a within-subjects crossover design consisting of a baseline and counterbalanced mindful and podcast 20-min continuous walking exercise conditions 1 week apart. Affect (in-task and post-task) and motivational responses were recorded. An interview to gather in-depth experiential responses was conducted after the final session.
Results
Experimental manipulation was supported with significantly higher (p < 0.001) state mindfulness and internal focus in the mindful compared to the podcast condition. No other differences (p > 0.05) emerged across the two conditions on any affect or cognitive outcomes. However, interviews revealed some aversive experiences to mindfulness condition by a third of the sample. Those high on trait intrinsic motivation experienced higher state intrinsic motivation, but only in the mindfulness condition.
Conclusions
Results help guide how and for whom guided mindfulness can be used to support positive exercise experiences. Those who do not appreciate the sensations of exercise experience may not benefit from an acute mindful exercise experience.
Preregistration
This study is not preregistered.
... The scale ranges from − 100 (very unpleasant) to 100 (very pleasant) in intervals of 1. A slider was positioned at the origin (0) but the numbers were not visible to participants (Zenko et al., 2016). Forecasted pleasure was assessed by means of the Empirical Valence Scale (Lishner et al., 2008). ...
... Forecasted pleasure was assessed by means of the Empirical Valence Scale (Lishner et al., 2008). Each participant was required to respond to the question "If you repeated the exercise session again, how do you think it would make you feel?" (Zenko et al., 2016). Fifteen empirically spaced verbal descriptors are depicted underneath the scale, ranging from − 100 (most unpleasant imaginable) to 100 (most pleasant imaginable). ...
... Previous research suggests that the anticipated pleasure of engaging in PA influences both experienced pleasure during exercise (Kwan et al., 2017;Sala et al., 2016) and future intentions to engage and actual engagement in the PA behaviour (Conner et al., 2015;Dunton & Vaughan, 2008;Helfer et al., 2015;Loehr & Baldwin, 2014). Anticipated pleasure of engaging in PA originates from many possible factors, including previous activity-related affective experiences (Calder et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016), the order of activity intensity (Ruby et al., 2011), and the physical and social setting (Calder et al., 2020). ...
... The values associated with each of the written anchor points from Lishner et al. (2008) were used to score the responses. While the Empirical Valence Scale has been used previously to assess anticipated pleasure from PA (Zenko et al., 2016), the current study was the first to adopt it as a rating measure in conjoint analysis. After the conjoint rating task, data was collected on key demographic information and relevant past PA variables, including habitual PA engagement using the Godin-Shephard Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (Godin & Shephard, 1985), a one-item measure of habitual pleasure from PA, and a behavioural automaticity subscale from the Self-Report Habit Index (Gardner et al., 2012). ...
The anticipated pleasure of participating in physical activity (PA) is one factor that may increase the likelihood of engagement and may be particularly important for long-term engagement. However, the impact of PA characteristics (e.g., intensity, location) on anticipated pleasure of PA remain unclear. This study used a conjoint analytic approach to evaluate the impact of activity intensity, physical context, and social context on the anticipated pleasure of engaging in PA across involvement segments. In conjoint analysis, participants provide overall ratings of hypothetical options (called profiles) described using levels of the selected study factors. Eight-hundred seventy-one participants (mean 48.3, SD 16.5 years, 66.9% female) evaluated 18 PA profiles that varied based on activity intensity, physical context, and social context. Three PA involvement segments were identified (low, moderate, high). Physical context was most impactful for highly and moderately involved participants; activity intensity had the highest impact for the least involved. Light intensity, outdoor PA performed alone or with family/friends was anticipated to be most pleasant for most participants. Vigorous intensity PA, PA performed at a fitness facility, and PA performed as part of a group elicited anticipated displeasure for those with low involvement. Physical context was most important for most people. Activity intensity was most impactful for frequent targets of PA intervention. PA promotion efforts should focus on light intensity activity, performed outdoors either alone or with family or friends to maximise anticipated pleasure for those least active. Conjoint analysis and audience segmentation show promise for future pleasure-related PA research. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Additionally, more positively valenced remembered affect (i.e., recalled affective response to a completed bout/interval of exercise), has also been found to predict future intentions to be physically active and adherence to exercise prescriptions (Kwan et al., 2017). Although the affective response during physical activity and remembered affect are distinct (the former is purely affective whereas the latter is cognitively processed), there is a strong correlation between the affective response during exercise and remembered affect (Hargreaves & Stych, 2013;Zenko et al., 2016). Nevertheless, some have argued that how an affective response to a behaviour is remembered, and not necessarily how it is experienced in the moment, may have a stronger influence on an individual's motivation to perform that behaviour in the future (Kahneman et al., 1993). ...
... The remembered affect reported in our study by participants randomised to the HIIT intervention was greater than those in MICT. However, it is important to recognise that although remembered affect and affect during physical activity are strongly correlated (Hargreaves & Stych, 2013;Zenko et al., 2016), this correlation is not perfect, and remembered affect may be influenced by memory heuristic biases (Stone et al., 2005). For example, exercise induced physiological changes such as muscle soreness or laboured breathing may no longer be present after the completion of a bout of exercise, and therefore may not have as large an influence on remembered affect as affect during exercise. ...
Background
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) experience general and PCOS-specific barriers that limit their engagement with exercise and contributes to high attrition from exercise programs, hindering the potential benefits of exercise to address their increased cardio-metabolic risk. A positive remembered affective response can predict future intentions and adherence to exercise prescription.
Objectives
To compare the longitudinal changes in remembered affect to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) in women with PCOS and to determine whether longitudinal changes in remembered affect are correlated with changes in fitness, body mass index, adherence and exercise enjoyment.
Methods
Physically inactive, overweight women with PCOS were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of either HIIT (n = 15) or MICT (n = 14) (3 sessions per week). Remembered affective valence (Feeling Scale) was collected after each exercise session. Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2peak) was assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Exercise enjoyment was assessed post-intervention.
Results
The longitudinal changes in the remembered affect were more positive in the HIIT group compared to MICT (β = 0.017, p = 0.047). HIIT was also considered more enjoyable than MICT (p = 0.002). Adherence was high in both groups (>90%). We found a moderate correlation with longitudinal changes between the remembered affect and change in fitness (rs = 0.398) and exercise enjoyment (rs = 0.376) using the combined group, however, these were not statistically significant (p = 0.054 and p = 0.064, respectively).
Conclusions
HIIT demonstrated a more positive longitudinal remembered affective response and greater exercise enjoyment compared to MICT in overweight women with PCOS.
... While positive affect may take time to emerge, moderate-intensity physical activity is generally associated with feelings of well-being, enjoyment, and energy both during and after activity [60][61][62]. Furthermore, laboratory research indicates that positive affect typically appears early-often within the first three minutes-and remains stable or increases as activity continues, unless prolonged fatigue sets in [63,64]. In contrast, high-intensity physical activity is often linked to initial negative affective states, such as discomfort or exertion, with positive affect emerging after the activity is completed [15]. ...
Background
To design effective tailored interventions to promote physical activity (PA) among older adults, insights are needed into the contexts in which older adults engage in PA and their affective and physical experiences. Sensor-triggered event-based ecological momentary assessment (EMA) is an innovative method for capturing real-life contexts, as well as affective and physical states, during or immediately after specific events, such as PA. This study aimed to (1) describe the physical and social contexts, and the affective and physical states during PA among older adults, (2) evaluate how these constructs fluctuate during PA episodes, and (3) describe affective states during PA according to the context.
Methods
An intensive longitudinal sensor-triggered event-based EMA study was conducted with 92 Belgian older adults (65 + years). During seven days, participants were monitored using a Fitbit, which triggered a smartphone-based questionnaire on the event-based EMA platform ‘HealthReact’ after a five-minute walk. Participants reported on contexts and affective (positive/negative valence) and physical states (pain and fatigue) during the PA event. Descriptive statistics and generalized mixed models were used for data analysis.
Results
Older adults predominantly engaged in daily physical activities, such as walking for transport, leisure walking, and gardening, rather than structured exercise. They consistently reported high positive affect, low negative affect, and minimal physical complaints during PA. Furthermore, older adults mainly engage in physical activities alone, particularly in outdoor settings. Variations in contexts, affect, and fatigue were mostly driven by within-subject differences. The model showed significant differences across times of day, with negative affect being highest in the evening and fatigue lowest in the morning. Additionally, the physical and social context influenced negative affect (but not positive affect), with outdoor activities performed alone and indoor activities performed with others being associated with lower negative affect.
Conclusions
While these findings could enhance the effectiveness of tailored PA interventions, it remains unclear whether the observed affective and physical states are causes or effects of PA, and whether the contexts in which the activities were performed align with older adults’ preferences. Further research is needed to explore these relationships and to better understand older adults’ preferred PA contexts.
... The WHO and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommended 75-150 minutes of exercise per week to maintain health, which can be increased to more than one hour per day if weight loss is desired [5]. The problem that always arises with exercise and restrictions is time, therefore; the limiting factor of time; should be considered when prescribing exercise, in addition to the issue of dose response and pleasure [6][7][8][9]. ...
Background Obesity is considered one of the chronic diseases associated with an increased risk of mortality and morbidity. Nowadays, exercise is considered one of the most effective treatments for it. In recent years, various studies have been carried out to find the most effective exercise prescription. Objective The aim of this scoping review is to answer the question of whether increasing the intensity of exercise is an effective solution to weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity. Method systematic reviews and Meta-analyses from 2017 to 2022 investigated high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in adults (18–65 years old) with obesity or overweight included. The expected outcomes were weight, body mass index (BMI), and total and abdominal fat mass. Results A total of four systematic reviews which included 165 RCT and 4427 participants were included. Long term-HIIT was effective in decreasing body weight, body mass index (BMI), and total and abdominal fat mass. Conclusion HIIT is a time-efficient exercise prescription to reduce weight, BMI, waist circumference (WC), and total and abdominal fat mass, however, the outcomes were similar and no significant differences were found compared to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT). The lack of time can be compensated for by increasing the intensity, but this is not the most effective option with the most effects, so according to the physiology of exercise, perhaps the most effective solution for losing weight is to prescribe exercises tailored to each person's physiology and based on critical power.
... Por sua vez, a resposta afetiva antecipada de longo prazo tem demonstrado ser um forte preditor de prática de atividade física futura (Dunton & Vaughan, 2008), valor preditivo este que não se verifica na de curto prazo (Helfer et al., 2015;Kwan et al., 2017). Outro construto do processamento afetivo que também demonstra um valor preditivo para com a prática de atividade física é o afeto recordado (Hutchinson et al., 2023;Zenko et al., 2016). ...
The rise of dual process-based behaviour theories reflects a shift from the predominant social-cognitivist paradigm towards a more considerable recognition of automatic/implicit factors in behaviour research. The present narrative review aims to provide a clearer definition of affect, emotion, and mood, followed by a presentation of dual process theory models that consider core affect an essential aspect of implicit processes and, direct or indirectly, of explicit processes. Some of the theories reviewed in this article are the Affective-Reflective Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise (ART), the Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity (TEMPA), the Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance Model (PAAM), and the Affect and Health and Behavior Framework (AHBF). This article thoroughly describes the associations between implicit (e.g., affect, habit) and explicit (e.g., intention, autoregulatory trace) determinants and the regular practice of physical activity and exercise. We suggest that the lack of acknowledgment that the implicit processes have suffered has limited the development and comprehension of interventions aiming to promote long-term behaviour adoption (e.g., exercise). Lastly, we briefly reflect on possible connections and overlaps in these models and with future directions and practical applications.
... Degré de plaisir ou de déplaisir an8cipé lors d'évènements à venir (Zenko, Ekkekakis, & Ariely, 2016). ...
Psychologie positive des activités physiques et sportives Corps, santé mentale et bien-être.
... Another option is to request participants to increase or decrease their running speed across the running session. Indeed, studies showed that decreasing the effort intensity throughout a running session is associated with greater retrospective pleasure (Fessler et al., 2024;Hutchinson et al., , 2023Zenko et al., 2016). Accordingly, this type of experimental procedure will allow one to examine whether the effect of RPE-based prediction error on running pleasure differs according to the dynamic of effort intensity (i.e., increasing vs. decreasing effort intensity). ...
Humans have the ability to mentally project themselves into future events (prospective thinking) to promote the implementation of health-oriented behaviors, such as the planning of daily physical exercise sessions. Nevertheless, it is currently unclear whether and how prospective thinking can assist individuals in generating future predictions about their own bodily states, such as when anticipating the level of perceived exertion to be experienced in a forthcoming physical exercise session and whether these predictions influence the subjective experience of pleasure in a session. Here, based on the literature on reward prediction errors, we argue that running sessions that are experienced with a lower intensity of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) than expected are associated with a higher level of pleasure and vice versa. To test this hypothesis, we created a novel marker, the RPE-based prediction error, by comparing RPE before (prospective RPE) and after (retrospective RPE) each running session among participants in a start-to-run program (N = 66). Retrospective ratings of running pleasure were assessed by the participant after each running session of the program. Using this approach, linear mixed models showed that a positive RPE-based prediction error (lower score of retrospective RPE than prospective RPE) is associated with a higher level of retrospective pleasure. This study thus demonstrates that the use of prospective and retrospective RPE is beneficial for predicting the experience of running pleasure. We further discuss how future studies should help to better understand the impact of RPE-based prediction error on exercise pleasure and whether this new marker may be used to ultimately impact humans’ commitment to physical exercise.
... Remembered pleasure was assessed using a visual analog scale in which participants placed a mark on a 200-mm line anchored by the descriptors "very unpleasant" (−100) to "very pleasant" (100) in response to the prompt "How did the exercise session make you feel?" This response was later scored by the researcher by measuring the distance of the mark from the left end of the line to produce a score ranging from −100 to 100 (Zenko et al., 2016). ...
PURPOSE: To determine the effect of immersive virtual reality use on finishing time of a vigorous-intensity self-regulated exercise task, and on relevant psychological variables.
METHOD: Healthy untrained adults (N = 21; 10 men/11 women; age = 22.9 ± 7.2 years; BMI = 24.0 ± 4.5 kg/m2) completed 1500-m exercise bouts on a rowing ergometer in a counterbalanced and randomized order, with and without use of a headset-delivered virtual reality fitness program. Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, affective valence, and attentional focus were collected every 300 m, in addition to finishing time. Data were analyzed with repeated measures as appropriate.
RESULTS: Intensity of both exercise bouts was considered vigorous according to heart rate results (>77% maximal heart rate). Finishing time was faster in the control condition (449.57 ± 82.39 s) than in the virtual reality condition (463.00 ± 91.78 s), p = 0.007. Compared to the control condition, the virtual reality condition was characterized by a more external attentional focus (52.38 ± 18.22 vs. 38.76 ± 17.81, p < .001). No differences were observed for remaining variables as a result of condition (p > 0.05 for all).
CONCLUSIONS: When a headset-delivered VR program was used during a self-regulated vigorous-intensity exercise task, participants were 13.6 seconds (~3%) slower than in a control condition. Attentional focus was manipulated to be more external with VR use, which may have ultimately distracted from the exercise objective. Recommendations for selecting an appropriate virtual reality experience for a given exercise task are discussed.
... This finding relates with research examining affective responses to exercise 42 and can guide health promotion interventions aiming to optimize temporal aspects of exercise related affect. Specifically, the recall of affective responses to exercise has been noted to be influenced by the duration of time elapsed since previous exercise activity 43 with implications for forecasted pleasure 44,45 as well as affective responses during physical activity. 46 Previous interventions have addressed time perspective to increase physical activity with young adults, 22 although the focus has predominantly centered on future time perspective and long-term health benefits. ...
Purpose
To examine associations between time perspective and health promotion behaviors of physical activity and weight management.
Design
Quantitative cross-sectional.
Setting
This study is part of the Betula project on aging, memory, and dementia in Northern Sweden.
Subjects
417 older adults aged between 55 and 85 years.
Measures
Swedish-Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory; Physical Activity in the past year, past week, and in comparison with others of similar age; Weight Management = Body Mass Index (BMI; kg/m²).
Results
After controlling for age, sex, and years of education, hierarchical linear regression indicated a Balanced Time Perspective was significantly associated with more physical activity in the past year (P = .04), the past week (P < .001), and in comparison with others (P < .01). Past Negative time perspective was associated with less physical activity in the past year (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .03). Present Fatalistic was associated with less physical activity during the past week (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .01). Present Hedonistic was associated with more physical activity the past week (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .03). Past Negative was associated with higher BMI (P = .02), and Future Negative were associated with lower BMI (P = .01). Taken collectively, greater positivity and flexibility across time perspectives was associated with more physical activity, whereas negative oriented time perspectives related with less physical activity and poorer weight management.
Conclusion
Time perspective can be associated with health behaviors in older adults and have implications for health across the lifespan. Health promotion interventions may target older adults’ enjoyment of exercise and weight management in the present, rather than highlight potential negative health outcomes in the future.
... Por sua vez, a resposta afetiva antecipada de longo prazo tem demonstrado ser um forte preditor de prática de atividade física futura (Dunton & Vaughan, 2008), valor preditivo este que não se verifica na de curto prazo (Helfer et al., 2015;Kwan et al., 2017). Outro construto do processamento afetivo que também demonstra um valor preditivo para com a prática de atividade física é o afeto recordado (Hutchinson et al., 2023;Zenko et al., 2016). ...
O crescimento de teorias comportamentais assentes em mecanismos de processamento duplo reflete uma mudança do paradigma cognitivista-social predominante, procurando um maior reconhecimento dos fatores automáticos/implícitos no estudo do comportamento. A presente revisão narrativa visa providenciar uma maior clareza quanto à definição de afeto, emoção e humor, apresentando de seguida modelos teóricos de processamento duplo que consideram os afetos básicos como aspeto essencial nos processos implícitos e, direta ou indiretamente, nos processos explícitos. Algumas dessas teorias que serão abordadas neste trabalho são: a Teoria Afetiva-Reflexiva da Inatividade Física e do Exercício (ART), a Teoria da Minimização do Esforço na Atividade Física (TEMPA), o Modelo de Adoção e Manutenção da Atividade Física (PAAM), e a Estrutura dos Afetos e do Comportamento Saudável (AHBF). Neste artigo será descrito com detalhe as associações entre os determinantes implícitos (e.g., afeto, hábito) e explícitos (e.g., intenção, traços autorregulatórios) e a prática regular de exercício físico. Sugerimos que a falta de consideração que os fatores associados ao processamento implícito têm sofrido, limitam a compreensão e criação de intervenções que possam promover a adoção e manutenção de um comportamento (e.g., exercício físico) a longo prazo. Por fim, concluímos com uma breve reflexão sobre as ligações entre modelos e possíveis sobreposições, bem como direções futuras de investigação e aplicações práticas.
... Walking can be a form of low-, moderate-, or vigorousintensity exercise [3] that elicits high enjoyment levels, remembered pleasure, and forecasted pleasure in adults aged 18-40 years old [26]. Having positive responses to physical activity can increase self-efficacy, which augments the likelihood of performing the physical activity [27][28][29]. ...
... Studies indicate that during exercise of a higher intensity, individuals are disposed to an associative focus due to the presence of more salient sensory signals informing of a greater disruption from resting homeostatic state (Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011;Zenko, Ekkekakis, & Ariely, 2016). In addition, there is an individual element to attentional focus (Hutchinson & Tenenbaum, 2007). ...
... Les paramètres internes de l'activité physique font quant à eux référence à la fréquence, l'intensité, la durée ou encore le type d'activité pratiquée lors d'une session d'activité physique, et peuvent eux aussi influencer les expériences affectives. Des études ont notamment montré qu'une diminution de l'intensité de l'effort physique était associée à une augmentation des réponses affectives positives Hutchinson et al., 2023 ;Hutchinson et al., 2020 ;Zenko et al., 2016). De plus, un nombre croissant d'études montre que lorsque les patients sélectionnent eux-mêmes l'intensité de leur effort physique, les réponses affectives associées sont plus positives que lorsque l'intensité est prescrite et donc imposée en termes de pourcentage de VȮ2max ou de fréquence cardiaque (Williams et al., 2016), et ce d'autant plus que les personnes sont âgées (Lee et al., 2020). ...
L’activité physique est associée à un large éventail de bénéfices pour la santé. Cependant, de nombreux patients n’atteignent pas les niveaux d’activité physique recommandés. À ce jour, les interventions visant à promouvoir l’activité physique chez les patients s’appuient majoritairement sur les modèles de motivation et de santé qui présentent les processus cognitifs comme un déterminant essentiel des comportements. Cependant, les méta-analyses indiquent que ces interventions sont plus efficaces pour modifier les intentions que pour modifier le comportement lui-même. Il est donc nécessaire de développer des interventions ciblant des mécanismes alternatifs. Dans ce sens, de récentes études ont montré qu’une propension automatique à minimiser l’effort perçu pourrait expliquer l’écart entre l’intention d’être actif physiquement et l’engagement effectif dans l’activité physique. Après une présentation du cadre théorique, cet article explique comment l’intégration de la théorie de la minimisation de l’effort dans la prise en charge des patients peut contribuer à promouvoir leur engagement dans une activité physique régulière. Enfin, des pistes et conseils pratiques sont proposés aux professionnels de la santé et de l’activité physique qui ont pour objectif de promouvoir cet engagement.
... The question was answered using a visual analog scale (VAS) ranging from unpleasant (−100) to pleasant (+100). 41 The VAS has been validated extensively in pain research, showing excellent testretest reliability coefficients 42 and as a measure of core affect demonstrating strong convergent validity and testretest reliability. 43,44 The VAS has been used extensively in exercise psychology research to measure remembered pleasantness. ...
Substantial research has supported using musical stimuli as an ergogenic aid before and during various forms of exercise. Researchers have demonstrated that music shifts attention from associative to dissociative, decreases perceived effort and discomfort, and increases arousal and pleasantness in longer‐duration, low‐to‐moderate‐intensity exercises. Strength training is shorter in duration and higher in intensity than aerobic or muscular endurance training. Limited research has examined the effects of music on strength performance and psychological outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the tempo of self‐selected music on isokinetic knee extension and flexion performance, effort, discomfort, attention, arousal, and pleasantness in resistance‐trained young adults. Thirty resistance‐trained college‐aged adults completed three exercise testing sessions. In a randomized, counterbalanced order, a repeated measures design was used to expose the participants to three conditions (fast music, slow music, and no music). The Biodex isokinetic dynamometer and standardized psychological Likert‐style scales were used to measure concentric maximum effort knee extension and flexion torque at 60°/s and psychological variables, respectively. This study found that music improves knee extension torque but not knee flexion in resistance‐trained young adults. In addition, music or the tempo of music did not influence any psychological outcomes during isokinetic strength testing. Therefore, listening to music is not detrimental to performance or psychological outcomes, but this study provides minimal support for music's use as an ergogenic aid during strengthening exercise.
... The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991) was administered at the end of the exercise to evaluate participants' enjoyment of the physical task. Remembered pleasure was assessed using a visual analog scale (Zenko et al., 2016) ranging from −100 (very unpleasant) to 100 (very pleasant), where participants answered the question: "How did the exercise session make you feel?" The psychological instruments were always administered in the same order. ...
The main objective of this study was to further understanding of the patterns of spectral connectivity during exercise in low- and high-tolerant individuals. Thirty-nine healthy individuals (i.e., 17 low- and 22 high-tolerant participants) took part in the present study. A state-of-the-art portable electroencephalography system was used to measure the brain's electrical activity during an incremental exercise test performed until the point of volitional exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Spectral coherence was used to explore the patterns of connectivity in the frontal, central, and parietal regions of the brain. Physiological, perceptual, and affective responses were assessed throughout the exercise bout. The spontaneous eyeblink rate was also calculated prior to commencement and upon completion of the exercise trial as an indirect assessment of the dopaminergic system. The present findings indicate that high-tolerant individuals reported lower levels of perceived activation, especially during the preliminary stages of the exercise test. Participants in the high-tolerance group also reported greater levels of remembered pleasure upon completion of the exercise test. The data also revealed that high-tolerant individuals exhibited increased connectivity of theta waves between frontal, central, and parietal electrode sites and increased connectivity of beta waves, primarily within the parietal cortex. Correlational analysis indicated the possibility that low- and high-tolerant individuals make use of different neural networks to process and regulate their psychophysiological state during exercise-related situations. This strategy could potentially represent a conscious decision to downregulate affective arousal and facilitate the neural control of working muscles during situations of physical stress.
... En définitive, la réponse affective à l'exercice est conditionnée par deux moments au cours de la séance : le moment le plus intense de la séance et la fin de la séance (Parfitt & Hughes, 2009). Une activité qui induit un pic d'intensité très élevée, et qui se termine sur une intensité d'exercice également élevée va avoir tendance à induire une réponse affective négative ce qui va laisser un mauvais souvenir dans la mémoire de l'individu (Zenko, Ekkekakis, & Ariely, 2016). A contrario, une activité dont le pic d'intensité ne dépasse pas le seuil de tolérance de l'individu (aux alentours du seuil ventilatoire 1), et qui se termine sur une intensité modérée, va plutôt générer une réponse affective positive et va laisser un bon souvenir . ...
Cette note de synthèse réalisée en vue de l’obtention de l’Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches vise à retracer les éléments saillants de mes travaux de recherche portant sur la promotion de la motivation à l’École et en contexte sportif, et sur la promotion de la motivation pour l’activité physique (AP) à des fins de santé. Elle est structurée en trois parties :
La première porte sur la promotion de la motivation pour l’AP à des fins de santé. Les
travaux qui s’inscrivent sur cet axe de recherche se sont intéressés à trois mécanismes de promotion de l’AP : des mécanismes cognitifs visant le développement des intentions d’AP, des mécanismes comportementaux visant le développement des capacités d’autorégulation facilitant l’implémentation des intentions, et des mécanismes affectifs visant le développement d’expériences d’AP positives.
La deuxième partie concerne la promotion de la motivation en EPS et en sport. Les travaux menés dans cette perspective, ont consisté à élaborer, tester, et répliquer plusieurs programmes de formation des enseignants et des entraineurs à dessein d’améliorer leur style motivationnel, ainsi que l’engagement et la motivation autonome de leurs élèves/sportifs.
Enfin, la troisième partie s’intéresse à la promotion de la motivation et du bien-être à l’école. Les travaux relatifs à cet axe se sont notamment intéressés au développement des compétences psychosociales des élèves en tant que vecteur de promotion de la motivation et du bien-être. Le projet ProMoBE consistant à combiner des leviers de la promotion de la motivation (i.e., formation au soutien des besoins psychologiques visant l’amélioration du style motivationnel) et des leviers de la promotion du bien-être (i.e., IPP-multi-composantes visant le développement des CPS) représente le coeur de cet axe de recherche.
... Vigorous physical activity can be particularly unpleasant for individuals who are not physically active (Bixby & Lochbaum, 2006;Lochbaum et al., 2004;Magnan et al., 2013) and our findings suggest the improvement in affective response that occurs post-exercise actually reflects a removal of negative feelings that is unlikely to reinforce future exercise. Rather than setting-up expectations of feeling good post-exercise, future interventions should focus on improving during-exercise affective response and/or intervening on individuals' post-behavior evaluations (e.g., reflective self-evaluations [Kwan et al., 2018]; remembered affect [Kwan at al., 2018;Kwan et al., 2017;Zenko et al., 2016]) to promote thinking about and evaluating the positive aspects of the exercise. Alternatively, future interventions for physically underactive individuals could highlight that they might experience improved calmness and less fatigue later on. ...
Background:
Affective response to exercise (i.e., how individuals feel during- and post-exercise) as well as post-behavioral evaluations of affective experiences with exercise (i.e., reflecting on the experience after engaging in exercise) may be important determinants of regular exercise.
Purpose:
We compared post-exercise affective response and post-behavioral evaluations of exercise between a physically active and underactive group. Physically active (n = 32) and underactive (n = 25) participants completed a 10-minute treadmill bout of vigorous exercise and reported affective valence, positive activated affect, negative activated affect, calmness, fatigue and relief at various points during and/or after the bout.
Results:
As expected, both groups reported an improvement in affective valence immediately post-exercise (ps < 0.001). This improvement in affective valence was associated with a concurrent decrease in negative affect (ps < 0.05) for the physically underactive group and was only associated with a concurrent increase in positive affect (ps < 0.02) for the active group. There were significant differences between physically active and underactive groups in pre-post exercise changes in positive activated affect (ps < 0.005). The underactive group reported greater relief than the active group at all-post exercise time-points (ps < 0.05).
Conclusions:
These findings have implications for understanding post-exercise affective response and post-behavioral evaluations of exercise and for interventions directed at influencing the post-exercise affective response and behavioral evaluations of exercise in physically underactive individuals.
... Although largely understudied, it is conceivable that some muscle groups would depict distinct affective responses, according to individual characteristics and adaptations, as seen for example, in the hamstrings and latissimus dorsi results during high-intensity stretching (both with negative scores and high standard deviations). If this hypothesis comes to be true, then the order of the exercises could also be relevant when promoting a positive affective experience during exercise, given that promoting positive endsession feelings is suggested to be relevant for exercise promotion (Hutchinson et al., 2023;Zenko et al., 2016). Additionally, different types of stretching may impose different experienced intensities. ...
Affective responses during exercise have been identified as a predictor of exercise adherence. However, research has been mostly limited to aerobic and resistance exercise. Considering that stretching activities are also an important component of physical fitness, this quasi-experimental study was designed to: 1) compare affective responses during and immediately after stretching exercises in apparently healthy adults, and 2) assess the consistency and repeatability of affect ratings obtained one week apart. For this purpose, we analyzed the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) ratings using Time (during and after stretching) x Intensity (light, moderate, vigorous) x Stretched Muscle Group (quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, latissimus dorsi, triceps) with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANCOVA) in 34 participants (21 males; aged 32.8 ± 8.6 years). The repeatability of FS and FAS ratings was assessed using two-way random-effects models, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and Bland-Altman plots. FS scores were higher following the stretching exercises, whereas FAS scores were lower, particularly in the vigorous intensity. In general, the inter-day repeatability for FS and FAS measurements was good across muscle groups. ICC tended to be higher at vigorous intensities. Ratings of core affect can be collected during static passive stretches using the FAS and FAS in ecologically valid settings. These results suggest that an adequate assessment of core affective responses to stretching activities should be performed during the exercises.
... Previous studies involving transcranial Doppler examinations and oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentration measurements in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) revealed that cerebral blood flow (CBF) velocity and increases under light-and moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (Rooks et al. 2010;Smith and Ainslie 2017). However, it is difficult for elderly individuals with declining physical function and/or joint disorders to perform higher intensity exercise, and high exercise intensity can inhibit exercise continuity and motivation (Ekkekakis et al. 2011;Zenko et al. 2016). Thus, middleand old-aged individuals often prefer water-based exercise because water resistance lowers the risk of falling during exercise and water buoyancy reduces the gravity-induced strain on joints. ...
Cerebral blood flow increases more during water-based exercise than land-based exercise owing to the effects of end-tidal CO2 (PETCO2) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) changes due to water immersion. However, it is unclear whether oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are increased more by water-based or land-based exercise. We hypothesized that oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC are higher during water-based exercise than land-based exercise when the exercise intensity is matched. To test this hypothesis, 10 healthy participants (age: 24.2 ± 1.7 years; height: 1.75 ± 0.04 m; weight: 69.5 ± 5.2 kg) performed light- to moderate-intensity cycling exercise in water (water-based cycling (WC); chest-high water at 30 °C) and on land (LC). Stroke volume, cardio output, heart rate, MAP, respiratory rate, PETCO2, and oxy-Hb in the PFC were assessed during 15 min of exercise, with exercise intensity increased every 5 min. Both WC and LC significantly increased oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC as exercise intensity was increased (intensity effect: p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in oxy-Hb concentrations during WC and LC in most prefrontal areas, although significant differences were found in areas corresponding to the left dorsolateral PFC (exercise effect: p < 0.001). Thus, WC and LC increase oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC in a similar manner with increasing exercise intensity, but part of the PFC exhibits enhanced oxy-Hb levels during WC. The neural response of the PFC may differ during water-based and land-based exercise owing to differences in external information associated with water immersion.
... Three subscales (intrinsic motivation, perceived choice, and perceived competence) from the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI; McAuley et al., 1989;Portuguese version: Fonseca & de Paula Brito, 2001) will be used. Minor adaptations to the wording will be made to ensure relevance to the context of exercise (e.g., vs. sport) following the example of adaptations in similar studies (e.g., Vazou- Ekkekakis & Ekkekakis, 2009;Zenko et al., 2016). For example, "I am satisfied with my performance at this task" (perceived competence) will be adapted to "I am satisfied with my performance in these workouts"; and "I believe I had some choice about doing this activity" (perceived choice) will be adapted to "I believe I had some choice during these workouts". ...
Research on the relationship between exercise-induced affect and exercise or physical activity behavior has gained momentum in recent years, yielding several observational and longitudinal studies. However, experimental tests demonstrating a causal role of affective responses on exercise adherence are lacking. Given the need to devise exercise prescriptions that can facilitate adherence and promote regular physical activity, a Randomized Controlled Trial targeting individual pleasurable responses in a health-club setting will be conducted. The experimental protocol will compare two individualized evaluation, prescription, and supervision methods, adjusted for intensity, with the aim to explore their impact on behavioral, affective, and motivational outcomes. The planned study will be a pragmatic randomized, single-blinded, controlled superiority trial with two parallel groups and an allocation ratio of 1:1. Apparently healthy volunteer participants (N = 46) between 18 and 45 years old, who are not regularly active, will be randomly allocated to a control or experimental group. The control group will follow a general American College of Sports Medicine exercise prescription; the experimental group will follow the same prescription but with enhancements aimed at promoting pleasure: (1) individualization based on individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity; (2) self-regulation of intensity; and (3) repeated assessments of core affect. The primary outcome will be post-intervention exercise-session attendance. Affective and motivational variables will be examined as secondary outcomes. The results are expected to advance exercise prescriptions by promoting affective regulation, thus helping to improve exercise adherence and related outcomes.
... For example, some of the included studies reported only post-exercise session measurements, while others, measured affect during the session/segment of the stretching activity (but none measured affect while the muscle was stretched); in other cases, assessments were made prior to and after the exercise session, excluding data regarding the affective panorama interpretation throughout the session. This poses a concern in interpreting data regarding the affective response to stretching exercise, since core affect can only be experienced in vivo, or in close proximity to the activity (Stevens et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2016). Importantly, affect recall (i.e., affect assessment via memory of previous feelings subjected to cognitive appraisal) does not reflect core affect that emanated from exercise. ...
Affective responses have been considered key determinants for exercise adherence, but research on affective responses to stretching activities is scarce. Given the role of these responses in exercise adherence, our aim in this review was to explore (a) the utility and feasibility of core affect in stretching-related activities as measured by the Feeling Scale (FS) and/or the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS); (b) the timing of administering these scales; and (c) the scales’ applicability and interpretability in this context. Inclusion criteria for studies in this review were experimental and non-experimental studies written in English that based affect assessment on the FS and/or FAS and that applied these scales to participants engaged in physical activity, individually or in groups. We also considered studies that focused on stretching activities that were either isolated or components of a class/activity and studies that used healthy participants of any age. Exclusion criteria were populations with mental health problems, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or diseases likely to alter pain perception or be associated with chronic pain, instrument validation studies, gray literature, and systematic reviews. We searched PubMed, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO databases, and we added studies retrieved manually from reference sections while following PRISMA guidelines. We used the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool for judging methodological quality of research articles. Our final analyses were based on 12 empirical studies published between 2003 and 2021with a total of 718 participants. Both scales were found to be useful and feasible in the most usual places for exercise, but core affect results cannot be properly interpreted due to variability of study protocols and the absence of guidelines for adequate baseline assessment. Most studies recorded affect responses pre-session, during session, and post-session. We observed no standardized timing or frequency of assessment, and there was high heterogeneity among stretching protocols. Currently, research in core affect assessment of stretching-related activities lacks sufficient methodological quality to draw generalizable conclusions.
... Increased concentrations of blood lactate combined with increased oxygen consumption are metabolically unsustainable and cause unpleasant feelings in the participants, urging them to stop the exercise [15]. The importance of this theory is that adherence to exercise may be influenced by affective responses, thus rendering them important components of exercise prescription [16,17]. ...
The current study examines the effects of a Tabata high-intensity interval training (HIIT) session on affective, cognitive and physiological indicators in women of different fitness levels. A total of 28 adult women (aged 24.2 ± 1.5 years) completed a 20 m shuttle run test and were then assigned to higher fitness and lower fitness groups (HF and LF, n = 14 each) according to their predicted aerobic power. On a separate occasion, participants completed a 30 min Tabata workout (six 4 min rounds separated by 1 min passive rest). Each round included eight exercises (20 s exercise and 10 s rest). Affective, physiological and cognitive responses were assessed prior to, during and after the protocol. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration increased similarly in both groups over time throughout the workout (p < 0.001). Total Mood Disturbance was higher for LF (111.4 ± 15.7) vs. HF (102.9 ± 11.7) (p = 0.48), vigor showed a level by time interaction of p = 0.006 and Activation–Deactivation Adjective Check List factors deteriorated over time (p < 0.001). The Concentration Grid Test was better overall for HF (10.5 ± 3.6) vs. LF (8.6 ± 3.6) (p = 0.05). The Feeling Scale and Rating of Perceived Exertion worsened similarly in both groups over time (p = 0.002 and p < 0.001, respectively). Positive and negative affect and arousal did not differ between groups or change over time (p > 0.05). These results show that, despite the different levels of aerobic fitness, physiological, metabolic, perceptual and affective responses were similar in the two groups of women during a 30 min Tabata session. This may imply that affective responses during this type of HIIT are independent of aerobic fitness.
... For example, it may be useful to educate novice exercisers in using the "talk test" (Reed & Pipe, 2014) to maintain intensities below anaerobic thresholds when it is not feasible to prescribe sub-VT heart rate ranges or absolute work rates identified through laboratory-based fitness testing. Individuals may also benefit from increasing the exercise "slope of pleasure" by starting an exercise session at a relatively high intensity and progressively reducing the speed and/or effort over time, which induces favorable changes in affective ratings (Zenko et al., 2016). Teaching individuals to manage intensity based on affective responses allows for more personalized prescriptions. ...
This study aimed to understand determinants of recalled in-task affective valence experienced during a regularly performed aerobic bout in adult exercisers aged 55+. Qualitative data were collected (January to March, 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic) using interviews wherein individuals (N = 16, 69% women, 61 ± 5 years) recalled deviations in affective valence in response to a regularly completed bout. Using thematic analyses, two themes emerged regarding how COVID-19 impacted regular exercise behaviors: (a) "loss" and (b) "adaptation." Two themes encompassed the determinants of recalled in-task affective valence: (a) "person-specific conditions" and (b) "external conditions." Finally, an increase in duration/intensity during a pleasant session was indicated by 44% of the participants, while 75% indicated a decrease in duration/intensity during an unpleasant session. The participants indicated that affective valence was determined by previously cited and novel factors that relate to exercise performed in naturalistic environments. Volitional modifications to planned exercise volume appear more responsive to feelings of displeasure.
Promoting physical activity is one of the most important issues in improving global public health. While existing research emphasizes the role of cognitive factors, affective response is proven to be a key predictor of exercise behavior. Affective priming is an efficient intervention aiming at improving affective response during and after exercise, yet its effect on affective response to exercise remains unclear. The current study conducted a meta‐analysis on the effect of affective priming on affective responses during and after exercise and tested several moderators of this relation using the Comprehensive Meta‐Analysis Version 3 (CMA3.0) program. Data from four studies yielded 19 effect sizes from 124 participants. Analyses revealed a moderate and positive effect of affective priming on affective responses ( d = 0.716). Moderation analyses indicated that this effect could be moderated by gender and the time of measuring affective responses. These results hold both theoretical and practical implications for future research on affective priming in the context of exercise and highlight the importance of considering affective processes in promoting exercise behavior.
In attempts to better understand factors that contribute to the initiation and continuation of exercise behavior, increasing research attention has focused on the pivotal role of affective responses to exercise. To further explore this topic, this study examined anticipated and remembered affective responses in a self-paced moderate-intensity running protocol with healthy adults. Participants (N = 25; 13 females; Mage = 29.2; SD = 4.34 years) performed two trials of 20 min running at a self-determined moderate intensity on a treadmill. The trials were performed 48 hr apart, and measures of anticipated affective response and remembered affect were collected prior to and after each trial. The findings indicated that participants generally anticipated a pleasant response to the moderate-intensity running activity. Anticipated affective responses recorded immediately prior to commencing running were lower than anticipated affect measured 24 hr in advance. Additionally, participants remembered their exercise-related affect to be pleasant, although it fluctuated over time and declined during a period that extended to 48 hr postexercise. Mounting evidence suggests that training programs aiming to promote the sustainability of exercise behavior can benefit from considering temporal fluctuations of affective responses when developing exercise prescription, supervision, and maintenance.
Background: Being able to choose elements of an exercise session, known as autonomy support, improves motor performance and psychological responses. Virtual reality (VR) programs provide many options for embedding autonomy support in exercise sessions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of autonomy support in a VR setting on physiological and psychological responses to self-regulated rowing exercise.
Methods: Using a repeated-measures crossover design, healthy untrained men and women (N = 20, age = 23.0 ± 7.4) completed exercise sessions on a rowing ergometer coupled with a head-mounted immersive VR application. In the Choice condition, participants chose the virtual environment, and in the Control condition, the environment was assigned to the participant. Participants were instructed to complete 1500 m as quickly as possible in both conditions, while ratings of perceived exertion, affective valence, and heart rate were recorded throughout the trials. Finishing time and remembered pleasure were assessed at the end of each session. Repeated-measures analyses with an alpha level of 0.05 were used for all variables as appropriate, with Bonferroni adjustments applied for any post hoc tests.
Results: There was a main effect of condition on affective valence which was higher in Choice (2.07 ± 1.67) than Control (1.64 ± 2.12, P = 0.03, η2 = 0.22). No other differences were detected between conditions for finishing time or the remaining variables.
Conclusion: During self-regulated exercise accompanied by an immersive VR application, being able to choose the virtual environment oneself leads to a more positive affective state without compromising exercise effort, physiological strain, or performance.
Background
Affective responses are increasingly recognized as potentially effective intervention targets that may facilitate exercise and physical activity behavior change. While emerging correlational evidence suggests that more pleasant affective responses are associated with higher participation and adherence, experimental evidence remains scarce. In light of this, we conducted a preregistered, pragmatic, single-blinded, superiority randomized controlled trial with two parallel groups, with the goal of determining the impact of an individualized exercise-intensity prescription targeting pleasure on exercise frequency.
Methods
Forty-seven non-regular exercisers were randomized into two groups. For both groups, the intervention consisted of three exercise sessions based on the Frequency-Intensity-Time-Type (FITT) principle. However, the experimental group also received an individualized intensity prescription based on prior assessment of preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity, as well as instructions emphasizing the promotion of pleasure as a basis for self-regulating exercise intensity. The primary outcome was gymnasium attendance over an eight-week follow-up period. Secondary outcomes were affective valence and arousal, post-exercise enjoyment, core affective exercise experiences, and anticipated and remembered affect.
Results
Forty-six participants were retained for analysis (Mage = 32.00; SD = 8.62 years; 56.5% female). Compared to the control group, the experimental group exhibited 77% higher session attendance (14.35 vs. 8.13 sessions) over the eight-week follow-up period (group main effect p = 0.018, η²p = 0.120; Cohen’s d ranged from 0.28 to 0.91 during follow-up). Also, the experimental group reported higher levels of pleasure during the intervention sessions (for all group main effects, p < 0.001, η²p from 0.33 to 0.37) and higher levels of remembered pleasure (group main effect p = 0.021, η²p = 0.116) and anticipated pleasure (group main effect p = 0.022, η²p = 0.114). No harm was detected.
Conclusions
These results demonstrate the practicality and effectiveness of an intervention aimed at enhancing affective responses to exercise in improving short-term session attendance.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrial.gov NCT05416593.
The study of the affective impact of physical activity and exercise has a long and fraught history. In this chapter we outline some of the longstanding issues, in the hopes that research moving forward will be more mindful of these. Included are: (a) what we are actually trying to assess; (b) measurement issues; (c) the timing of affective measurement; (d) research that highlights what we know and don’t know; and (e) suggestions for moving forward.
Objective
to (1) systematically review the chronic effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on maximal fat oxidation (MFO) in overweight and obese adults, and (2) explore MFO influencing factors and its dose-response relationships with HIIT and MICT.
Methods
Studies using a between-group design involving overweight and obese adults and assessing the effect of HIIT and MICT on MFO were included. A meta-analysis on MFO indices was conducted, and the observed heterogeneities were explored through subgroup, regression, and sensitivity analyses.
Results
Thirteen studies of moderate to high quality with a total of 519 overweight and obese subjects were included in this meta-analysis (HIIT, n = 136; MICT, n = 235; Control, n = 148). HIIT displayed a statistically significant favorable effect on MFO compared to no-training (MD = 0.07; 95%CI [0.03 to 0.11]; I² = 0%). Likewise, MICT displayed a statistically significant favorable effect on MFO compared to no-training (MD = 0.10; 95%CI [0.06 to 0.15]; I² = 95%). Subgroup and regression analyses revealed that exercise intensity (Fatmax vs. non-Fatmax; %VO2peak), exercise mode, BMI, and VO2peak all significantly moderated MICT on MFO. When analyzing studies that have directly compared HIIT and MCIT in obese people, it seems there is no difference in the MFO change (MD = 0.01; 95%CI [-0.02 to 0.04]; I² = 64%). No publication bias was found in any of the above meta-analyses (Egger's test p > 0.05 for all).
Conclusion
Both HIIT and MICT are effective in improving MFO in overweight and obese adults, and they have similar effects. MCIT with an intensity of 65–70% VO2peak, performed 3 times per week for 60 min per session, will optimize MFO increases in overweight and obese adults. Given the lack of studies examining the effect of HIIT on MFO in overweight and obese adults and the great diversity in the training protocols in the existing studies, we were unable to make sound recommendations for training.
Background
Extrinsic strategies affect the exercise experience but fall outside the frequency, intensity, time, and type (i.e., dose-determining) principles. To our knowledge, no systematic review has focused on extrinsic strategies to influence the affective responses to exercise. The objective was to identify extrinsic strategies that seek to influence affective responses during exercise and other motivationally relevant variables including post-exercise momentary affective valence, remembered and forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment.
Methods
For inclusion, eligible articles reported peer-reviewed original research, used acute bouts of exercise, and used a dimensional approach for measuring affective responses or measured enjoyment post-exercise. Web of Science, PubMed, and PsychINFO databases were last searched on 10th September 2021. Quality assessment was completed following the Effective Public Health Practice Project approach. Results were presented using a narrative synthesis.
Results
125 studies were included with sample descriptions, study design (extrinsic strategies, mode, type, intensity, and duration), measurement details, and results summarised for each study.
Conclusions
71% of studies were categorised as Weak according to the quality assessment tool with sampling practices (self-referred participants) and poor reporting of participant withdrawals/drop-outs the predominant reasons for Weak ratings. A wide variety of extrinsic strategies were reported with music, music videos, immersive virtual reality, outdoor exercise, caffeine, high-to-low pattern of exercise intensity, self-selected exercise intensity, and manipulation of self-efficacy offering promise as suitable strategies to positively change how people feel during exercise.
Systematic Review Registration
https://osf.io/jbh8v/.
Background
Obesity is considered one of the chronic diseases associated with an increased risk of mortality and morbidity. Nowadays, exercise is considered one of the most effective treatments for it. In recent years, various studies have been carried out to find the most effective exercise prescription.
Objective
The aim of this scoping review is to answer the question of whether increasing the intensity of exercise is an effective solution to weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity.
Method
systematic reviews and Meta-analyses from 2017 to 2022 investigated high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in adults (18–65 years old) with obesity or overweight included. The expected outcomes were weight, body mass index (BMI), and total and abdominal fat mass.
Results
A total of four systematic reviews which included 165 RCT and 4427 participants were included. Long term-HIIT was effective in decreasing body weight, body mass index (BMI), and total and abdominal fat mass.
Conclusion
HIIT is a time-efficient exercise prescription to reduce weight, BMI, waist circumference (WC), and total and abdominal fat mass, however, the outcomes were similar and no significant differences were found compared to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT). The lack of time can be compensated for by increasing the intensity, but this is not the most effective option with the most effects, so according to the physiology of exercise, perhaps the most effective solution for losing weight is to prescribe exercises tailored to each person's physiology and based on critical power.
Positive embodiment has emerged from the eating disorder field as a psychological construct describing positive experiences of inhabiting the body. As a positive construct associated with wellbeing, new theories, models, and measures may be of interest to researchers and practitioners in the field of positive psychology. No review to date has presented the literature on positive embodiment to this audience. This interdisciplinary inquiry highlights a shared interest in the promotion of wellbeing and the building of protective resources bridging positive psychology and disordered eating prevention. A systematic literature search of six databases was performed (APA PsychINFO, Science Direct, Scopus, CINAHL, Academic Search Complete, and SportDiscus) and empirical research is presented with attention paid to wellbeing concepts and opportunities for further research. This literature search located two measurement tools that operationalize positive embodiment which are explored along with their conceptual roots and underlying theories. This review incorporates quantitative and qualitative studies, and explores concepts across identified studies. Positive embodiment offers further understanding of the role of the body in wellbeing and nuance to the interconnections of concepts frequently viewed as separate, such as eating and exercise behaviour, agency and empowerment, self-concept and body image. Implications for integration in current positive psychology interventions are discussed, along with limitations of current knowledge and future research potential. As a narrative review, the subjective nature of inquiry is acknowledged and this project humbly intends to provide a landscape perspective of an emergent topic area in order to inform future research, practice, and policy possibilities. In conclusion, while research on positive embodiment is still emerging and more research is necessary to generalize, connections to wellbeing have been found, new measurement tools provide opportunities for further study, and practitioners may gain a greater appreciation for the role of the body in wellbeing.
Most U.S. adults, even more so those with psychiatric conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), do not engage in the recommended amount of physical activity (PA), despite the wide array of physical and mental health benefits associated with exercise. Therefore, it is essential to identify mechanistic factors that drive long-term exercise engagement so they can be targeted. Using the science of behavior change (SOBC) framework, this study examined potential predictors of long-term exercise engagement as a first step towards identifying modifiable mechanisms, in individuals with OCD, such as PA enjoyment, positive or negative affect, and behavioral activation. Fifty-six low-active patients (mean age = 38.8 ± 13.0, 64% female) with a primary diagnosis of OCD were randomized to either aerobic exercise (AE; n = 28) or health education (HE; n = 28), and completed measures of exercise engagement, PA enjoyment, behavioral activation, and positive and negative affect at baseline, postintervention, and 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-up. Significant predictors of long-term exercise engagement up to 6-months postintervention were baseline PA (Estimate = 0.29, 95%CI [0.09, 0.49], p = .005) and higher baseline PA enjoyment (Estimate = 1.09, 95%CI [0.30, 1.89], p = .008). Change in PA enjoyment from baseline to postintervention was greater in AE vs. HE, t(44) = -2.06, p = .046, d = -0.61, but endpoint PA enjoyment did not predict follow-up exercise engagement above and beyond baseline PA enjoyment. Other hypothesized potential mechanisms (baseline affect or behavioral activation) did not significantly predict exercise engagement. Results suggest that PA enjoyment may be an important modifiable target mechanism for intervention, even prior to a formal exercise intervention. Next steps aligned with the SOBC framework are discussed, including examining intervention strategies to target PA enjoyment, particularly among individuals with OCD or other psychiatric conditions, who may benefit most from long-term exercise engagement's effects on physical and mental health.
Introduction
From a public health perspective, it is important to gain more insight into how people can be motivated to maintain effective exercise routines. It is a common belief that moderate-intensity exercise is more pleasant and enjoyable than high-intensity training. This study aims to provide insight into (1) participants' expectations and preferences for training intensity prior to training, (2) how longer-term participation affect participants' experience of endurance training with continuous moderate-intensity training and high-intensity interval training.
Materials and methods
A total of 22 participants (14 women and eight men) between the ages of 21–30 volunteered for participation. Participants were randomized and divided into two equal groups. A total of 17 participants, nine women and eight men, completed the study. One group did moderate-intensity longer-lasting training and the other did high-intensity interval training. All participants completed three training sessions per week for 8 weeks. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant before and after completing the training intervention. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis. This study is a part of a larger study evaluating and comparing the effects on endurance capacity of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity training. Physiological data are previously published.
Results
The results describe participants expectations prior to training, and how they experienced the actual training. The overall experience of training comprises several factors that work together. Both expectations and actual experiences (e.g., of physical pleasantness or unpleasantness, of positive or negative emotions, and of actual results from the training) contribute to the participants' overall experience of exercise.
Conclusion
The major finding is that improved physical fitness was a stronger motivator than feelings of pleasantness. Experiencing good results seemed to downplay feelings of unpleasantness and reinforce positive feelings toward exercise. Lack of results reinforce negative feelings toward exercise. Participants reported high-intensity exercise as more unpleasant and exhaustive, but the interval training group were more satisfied and experienced the training as more motivating.
This study expanded the State Mindfulness Scale for Physical Activity (SMS-PA) to include acceptance items to better represent core elements of mindfulness. Young adults who just participated in physical activity (N = 394) completed a survey to assess state mindfulness and theoretically relevant constructs about affect, motivation, and body image. An exploratory factor analysis was used to reduce the item pool on half of the sample. A 19-item and 15-item version of the SMS-PA2 were further tested through confirmatory factor analysis on the second half of the sample demonstrating a theoretically based factor structure representing either a total score or four separate factors – monitoring of the mind and body and accepting of the mind and body. The SMS-PA2 scores demonstrated evidence supporting construct and incremental validity through associations with theoretically relevant variables. Initial evidence shows expanded predictive utility of the SMS-PA2.
The tendency to underestimate how enjoyable exercise will be—an affective forecasting error—is thought to undermine motivation for regular physical activity. We sought to clarify limitations of previous work by examining whether (a) physically inactive individuals show the same forecasting error as physically active individuals, and (b) experienced enjoyment mediates the relation between expected enjoyment and intentions, and whether physical activity levels moderate this relation. Prior to a 30-min workout, physically inactive (60 min of physical activity/week; N 18) and active (150 min of physical activity/week; N 24) individuals reported their expected enjoyment. Afterward, they reported experienced enjoyment and exercise intentions. We found a marginally significant interaction (p .07, partial 2 .08) between group (active, inactive) and time (expected, experienced enjoyment), suggesting the forecasting error differed for active and inactive individuals. Specifically, inactive individuals reported significantly lower expected enjoyment than active individuals (p .02, d .73), but reported similar levels of experienced enjoyment (p .27). We also found that experienced enjoyment mediated the relation between expected enjoyment and exercise intentions for inactive (ab .367, 95% confidence interval [CI] .075, .742) but not active individuals (ab .079, 95% CI .269, .089). The findings suggest that lower expectations for exercise enjoyment characterize physically inactive individuals and provide support for the conclusion that the affective forecasting error undermines motivation for regular physical activity. However, among inactive individuals, experienced enjoyment had a stronger relation with intentions to exercise regularly than expected enjoyment.
Contemporary theories of exercise behavior have been the products of the so-called cognitive revolution, which has shaped the dominant paradigm in psychology over the past several decades. Cognitive theories rely on the assumption that, in making behavioral decisions, humans collect relevant information and make their selections on the basis of a more-or-less rational analysis of this information. Although the dominance of cognitive theories in the field of exercise psychology is unquestionable, evidence suggests that they leave most of the variance in exercise behavior unaccounted and interventions based on them are of limited effectiveness in changing exercise behavior. This chapter reviews the history and evaluates the potential of an alternative approach, namely the hedonic theory of motivation. This idea, long neglected due the fascination of psychologists with informationprocessing models of the mind, attributes a substantial portion of the variance in decision-making to affective processes. Modern iterations of the idea emerging from the fields of neurology and behavioral economics reaffirm the ancient thesis that, in the long run, humans tend to repeat what makes them feel better and tend to avoid what makes them feel worse. Evidence from studies in the context of exercise suggests that affective responses to exercise vary greatly between individuals. Furthermore, despite a still-evolving methodological platform, preliminary studies show that affective responses to exercise predict subsequent exercise behavior. This line of research and theorizing offers a novel and intriguing perspective on the mechanisms underlying behavioral decision-making in the context of exercise. The literature reviewed in this chapter highlights the need for further research on the motivational implications of affective processes and lays the foundation for the development of a hedonic theory of exercise behavior.
Background:
The efficacy of high-intensity interval training for a broad spectrum of cardio-metabolic health outcomes is not in question. Rather, the effectiveness of this form of exercise is at stake. In this paper we debate the issues concerning the likely success or failure of high-intensity interval training interventions for population-level health promotion.
Discussion:
Biddle maintains that high-intensity interval training cannot be a viable public health strategy as it will not be adopted or maintained by many people. This conclusion is based on an analysis of perceptions of competence, the psychologically aversive nature of high-intensity exercise, the affective component of attitudes, the less conscious elements of motivated behaviour that reflect our likes and dislikes, and analysis using the RE-AIM framework. Batterham argues that this appraisal is based on a constrained and outmoded definition of high-intensity interval training and that truly practical and scalable protocols have been - and continue to be - developed. He contends that the purported displeasure associated with this type of exercise has been overstated. Biddle suggests that the way forward is to help the least active become more active rather than the already active to do more. Batterham claims that traditional physical activity promotion has been a spectacular failure. He proposes that, within an evolutionary health promotion framework, high-intensity interval training could be a successful population strategy for producing rapid physiological adaptations benefiting public health, independent of changes in total physical activity energy expenditure.
Summary:
Biddle recommends that we focus our attention elsewhere if we want population-level gains in physical activity impacting public health. His conclusion is based on his belief that high-intensity interval training interventions will have limited reach, effectiveness, and adoption, and poor implementation and maintenance. In contrast, Batterham maintains that there is genuine potential for scalable, enjoyable high-intensity interval exercise interventions to contribute substantially to addressing areas of public health priority, including prevention and treatment of Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Public health practitioners and researchers in behavioral medicine recognize the need to find effective physical activity interventions and prescriptions to curb the growth in inactivity and prevent chronic illness (Conn et al., 2009; Hagger, 2010; Hardcastle et al., 2012; Katzmarzyk and Lear, 2012). For example, researchers in exercise physiology have focused on the minimal dose of exercise needed to gain favorable physiological adaptations to cardiovascular and metabolic systems (Gibala et al., 2012). Efforts to identify a minimal dose of exercise are linked to the problem of exercise adherence with few people meeting current physical activity guidelines of 30 min per day of moderate intensity exercise. Given that time is the most commonly cited barrier to exercise (Trost et al., 2002; Sequeira et al., 2011), exercise professionals have focused attention on the development of time-efficient exercise interventions (Gibala, 2007). A recent development is the advocacy of Sprint Interval Training (SIT) as a means to attain substantial health benefits with a lower overall exercise volume. SIT is characterized by repeated, brief (4–6 × <30 s), intermittent bursts of all-out exercise, interspersed by periods (approximately 4.5 min) of active or passive recovery (Gibala et al., 2012). Research has consistently demonstrated that participation in SIT results in a host of physiological adaptations including improvements in health and fitness indicators (Burgomaster et al., 2006, 2008; Gibala et al., 2006, 2012; Rossow et al., 2010; Tong et al., 2011). In addition, these improvements have been reported to be equal or superior to traditional continuous aerobic training despite SIT involving a substantially lower total overall training volume (Rossow et al., 2010; Tong et al., 2011; Gibala et al., 2012; Cocks et al., 2013). Consequently, SIT is being advocated as a time-efficient alternative intervention for the achievement of fitness and health benefits through exercise (Gibala, 2007; Whyte et al., 2013).
Affect experienced during an exercise session is purported to predict future exercise behaviour. Compared to continuous moderate-intensity exercise (CMI), the affective response to continuous vigorous-intensity exercise (CVI) has consistently been shown to be more aversive. The affective response, and overall tolerability to high-intensity interval training (HIT), is less studied. To date, there has yet to be a comparison between HIT, CVI, and CMI. The purpose of this study was to compare the tolerability and affective responses during HIT to CVI and CMI. This study utilized a repeated measures, randomized, counter-balanced design. Forty-four participants visited the laboratory on four occasions. Baseline fitness testing was conducted to establish peak power output in Watts (Wpeak). Three subsequent visits involved a single bout of a) HIT, corresponding to 1-minute at ∼100% Wpeak and 1-minute at ∼20% Wpeak for 20 minutes, b) CMI, corresponding to ∼40% Wpeak for 40 minutes, and c) CVI, corresponding to ∼80% Wpeak for 20 minutes. The order of the sessions was randomized. Affective responses were measured before, during and after each session. Task self-efficacy, intentions, enjoyment and preference were measured after sessions. Participants reported greater enjoyment of HIT as compared to CMI and CVI, with over 50% of participants reporting a preference to engage in HIT as opposed to either CMI or CVI. HIT was considered more pleasurable than CVI after exercise, but less pleasurable than CMI at these times. Despite this participants reported being just as confident to engage in HIT as they were CMI, but less confident to engage in CVI. This study highlights the utility of HIT in inactive individuals, and suggests that it may be a viable alternative to traditionally prescribed continuous modalities of exercise for promoting self-efficacy and enjoyment of exercise.
Objective:
Two measures of affect-affective attitude (AA) and anticipated affective reaction (AAR)-have frequently been used individually, but rarely simultaneously, in correlational studies predicting health behaviors. This research assessed their individual and combined impact in predicting intention and action for a range of health behaviors, controlling for theory of planned behavior (TPB) variables.
Method:
Self-reported intentions and performance of health behaviors were the main outcome measures.
Design:
Study 1 is a meta-analysis of published studies (k = 16) measuring the relevant variables. In Study 2, adults (N = 426) completed questionnaires assessing TPB variables, past behavior, AA, AAR, and subsequent behavior for a range of health behaviors.
Results:
Across both studies, AA and AAR were only moderately intercorrelated, although both had significant correlations with both intentions and behavior. AA was a significant predictor of intentions and behavior after controlling for TPB variables (Studies 1 and 2) plus past behavior (Study 2). In Study 1, AAR was a significant predictor of behavior, but not intentions, when controlling for TPB variables. In Study 2, AAR was a significant predictor of intentions when controlling for both TPB variables plus past behavior (Study 2), but was not a significant predictor of behavior when controlling for either of these variables. Several relationships were moderated by health-behavior category.
Conclusions:
Both AA and AAR are important predictors of health behaviors and can have independent effects on intentions and action. Studies manipulating both variables to test their independent and combined effects on behavior change are required.
In research clinic settings, overweight adults undertaking HIIT (high intensity interval training) improve their fitness as effectively as those undertaking conventional walking programs but can do so within a shorter time spent exercising. We undertook a randomized controlled feasibility (pilot) study aimed at extending HIIT into a real world setting by recruiting overweight/obese, inactive adults into a group based activity program, held in a community park.
Participants were allocated into one of three groups. The two interventions, aerobic interval training and maximal volitional interval training, were compared with an active control group undertaking walking based exercise. Supervised group sessions (36 per intervention) were held outdoors. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using VO2max (maximal oxygen uptake, results expressed in ml/min/kg), before and after the 12 week interventions.
On ITT (intention to treat) analyses, baseline (N = 49) and exit (N = 39) [Formula: see text]O2 was 25.3±4.5 and 25.3±3.9, respectively. Participant allocation and baseline/exit VO2max by group was as follows: Aerobic interval training N = 16, 24.2±4.8/25.6±4.8; maximal volitional interval training N = 16, 25.0±2.8/25.2±3.4; walking N = 17, 26.5±5.3/25.2±3.6. The post intervention change in VO2max was +1.01 in the aerobic interval training, -0.06 in the maximal volitional interval training and -1.03 in the walking subgroups. The aerobic interval training subgroup increased VO2max compared to walking (p = 0.03). The actual (observed, rather than prescribed) time spent exercising (minutes per week, ITT analysis) was 74 for aerobic interval training, 45 for maximal volitional interval training and 116 for walking (p = 0.001). On descriptive analysis, the walking subgroup had the fewest adverse events.
In contrast to earlier studies, the improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness in a cohort of overweight/obese participants undertaking aerobic interval training in a real world setting was modest. The most likely reason for this finding relates to reduced adherence to the exercise program, when moving beyond the research clinic setting.
ACTR.org.au ACTRN12610000295044.
Traditional self-report measures suffer from weaknesses in either the quantitative or qualitative assessment of subjective experience. Researchers interested in the subjective intensity of oral sensation have attempted to reduce these scale limitations by developing rating scales with empirically determined placement of verbal descriptors along a continuous visual analogue scale continuum. In the present research, a similar empirical approach to scale construction was adopted to develop a rating scale of emotional valence. The potential benefits of using an empirically derived valence scale and techniques for validating the scale are discussed.
Factor-analytic evidence has led most psychologists to describe affect as a set of dimensions, such as displeasure, distress, depression, excitement, and so on, with each dimension varying independently of the others. However, there is other evidence that rather than being independent, these affective dimensions are interrelated in a highly systematic fashion. The evidence suggests that these interrelationships can be represented by a spatial model in which affective concepts fall in a circle in the following order: pleasure (0), excitement (45), arousal (90), distress (135), displeasure (180), depression (225), sleepiness (270), and relaxation (315). This model was offered both as a way psychologists can represent the structure of affective experience, as assessed through self-report, and as a representation of the cognitive structure that laymen utilize in conceptualizing affect. Supportive evidence was obtained by scaling 28 emotion-denoting adjectives in 4 different ways: R. T. Ross's (1938) technique for a circular ordering of variables, a multidimensional scaling procedure based on perceived similarity among the terms, a unidimensional scaling on hypothesized pleasure–displeasure and degree-of-arousal dimensions, and a principal-components analysis of 343 Ss' self-reports of their current affective states. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Organizes evidence around adherence models of exercise behavior that consider the exerciser, the exercise setting, and the person–setting interaction in order to determine factors that cause recidivism in exercise programs. The psychology, biology, and history/background of the exerciser are reviewed. Addiction/dependence and stage theory are discussed with regard to the person–setting interaction. Also illustrated are the predictive limitations of studies that have focused solely on screening and diagnosis or on intervention and control rather than on a strategy combining both approaches. The timeliness of controlled research on exercise adherence is reinforced by the growing use of various interventions for the enhancement of exercise behavior in clinical settings and by similarities between adherence to health-related exercise and compliance with other types of medical prescriptions. (108 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies examined the reliability and validity of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). In Study 1, each of 37 undergraduates rode an exercise bicycle under control and external focus conditions. As predicted, Ss reported enjoying the exercise more, as measured by the PACES, in the external focus condition. Moreover, there was a significant negative correlation in the control condition between Ss PACES scores and their scores on a measure of boredom proneness. In Study 2, each of 37 undergraduates rode an exercise bicycle and jogged on a minitrampoline in separate sessions; each then chose one of these activities for their 3rd session. As predicted, there was a significant relationship between Ss PACES ratings (completed after each activity) and their choices of activity. Test–retest reliability was high for jogging and moderate for bicycling. The PACES had high internal consistency in both studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Objectives: Based on Self-Determination Theory [SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985. Intrinsic motivation and self determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press], this study examined differences in perceived autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction, self-determined motivation, exercise behaviour, exercise-related cognitions and general well-being, between overweight/obese individuals who demonstrated greater adherence to an exercise on prescription programme and those who adhered less. In addition, this study explored the motivational sequence embedded in SDT by testing autonomy support as a predictor of psychological need satisfaction, autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction as predictors of the motivational regulations, and autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction and the motivational regulations as predictors of behavioural, cognitive and well-being outcomes. Method: Before commencing, at 1-month, and upon terminating a 3-month exercise on prescription programme, overweight/obese individuals (N=49; M Body Mass Index=38.75) completed a multi-section questionnaire tapping all aforementioned variables. Participants' adherence to the scheme was assessed using attendance records. Results: Multilevel regression analyses revealed that, at the end of the exercise prescription, those individuals who adhered more reported more self-efficacy to overcome barriers to exercise versus those who adhered less. In addition, those individuals who showed greater adherence demonstrated an increase in relatedness need satisfaction over time. For the whole sample, need satisfaction predicted self-determined regulation, and collectively, these constructs corresponded to adaptive exercise related outcomes and general well-being throughout the programme. Conclusions: Based on the results it appears that exercise on prescription schemes would benefit from creating services that foster self-determination via the facilitation of psychological need satisfaction.
In this paper we take stock of recent research on how people summarize and evaluate extended experiences. Summary assessments do not simply integrate all the components of the evaluated events, but tend to focus on only a few features (gestalt characteristics). Examples of these de®ning features include the rate at which the transient state components of the experience become more or less pleasant over its duration, and the intensity of the state at key instances, in particular the most intense (peak) and the ®nal (end) moments. It is not yet suciently clear which speci®c gestalt characteristics dominate summary assess-ments of experiences, nor how this diers across types of experiences or measure-ment approaches. To address some of these issues, we describe new research in this area, discuss potential methodological diculties, and suggest directions for future research.
The public health problem of physical inactivity has proven resistant to research efforts aimed at elucidating its causes and interventions designed to alter its course. Thus, in most industrialized countries, the majority of the population is physically inactive or inadequately active. Most theoretical models of exercise behaviour assume that the decision to engage in exercise is based on cognitive factors (e.g. weighing pros and cons, appraising personal capabilities, evaluating sources of support). Another, still-under-appreciated, possibility is that these decisions are influenced by affective variables, such as whether previous exercise experiences were associated with pleasure or displeasure. This review examines 33 articles published from 1999 to 2009 on the relationship between exercise intensity and affective responses. Unlike 31 studies that were published until 1998 and were examined in a 1999 review, these more recent studies have provided evidence of a relation between the intensity of exercise and affective responses. Pleasure is reduced mainly above the ventilatory or lactate threshold or the onset of blood lactate accumulation. There are pleasant changes at sub-threshold intensities for most individuals, large inter-individual variability close to the ventilatory or lactate threshold and homogeneously negative changes at supra-threshold intensities. When the intensity is self-selected, rather than imposed, it appears to foster greater tolerance to higher intensity levels. The evidence of a dose-response relation between exercise intensity and affect sets the stage for a reconsideration of the rationale behind current guidelines for exercise intensity prescription. Besides effectiveness and safety, it is becoming increasingly clear that the guidelines should take into account whether a certain level of exercise intensity would be likely to cause increases or decreases in pleasure.
The purpose of this Position Stand is to provide guidance to professionals who counsel and prescribe individualized exercise to apparently healthy adults of all ages. These recommendations also may apply to adults with certain chronic diseases or disabilities, when appropriately evaluated and advised by a health professional. This document supersedes the 1998 American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Position Stand, "The Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness, and Flexibility in Healthy Adults." The scientific evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of exercise is indisputable, and the benefits of exercise far outweigh the risks in most adults. A program of regular exercise that includes cardiorespiratory, resistance, flexibility, and neuromotor exercise training beyond activities of daily living to improve and maintain physical fitness and health is essential for most adults. The ACSM recommends that most adults engage in moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise training for ≥30 min·d on ≥5 d·wk for a total of ≥150 min·wk, vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise training for ≥20 min·d on ≥3 d·wk (≥75 min·wk), or a combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity exercise to achieve a total energy expenditure of ≥500-1000 MET·min·wk. On 2-3 d·wk, adults should also perform resistance exercises for each of the major muscle groups, and neuromotor exercise involving balance, agility, and coordination. Crucial to maintaining joint range of movement, completing a series of flexibility exercises for each the major muscle-tendon groups (a total of 60 s per exercise) on ≥2 d·wk is recommended. The exercise program should be modified according to an individual's habitual physical activity, physical function, health status, exercise responses, and stated goals. Adults who are unable or unwilling to meet the exercise targets outlined here still can benefit from engaging in amounts of exercise less than recommended. In addition to exercising regularly, there are health benefits in concurrently reducing total time engaged in sedentary pursuits and also by interspersing frequent, short bouts of standing and physical activity between periods of sedentary activity, even in physically active adults. Behaviorally based exercise interventions, the use of behavior change strategies, supervision by an experienced fitness instructor, and exercise that is pleasant and enjoyable can improve adoption and adherence to prescribed exercise programs. Educating adults about and screening for signs and symptoms of CHD and gradual progression of exercise intensity and volume may reduce the risks of exercise. Consultations with a medical professional and diagnostic exercise testing for CHD are useful when clinically indicated but are not recommended for universal screening to enhance the safety of exercise.
The 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) is used to describe an accelerometer-derived physical activity/inactivity profile in normal weight (BMI < 25 kg/m2), overweight (25 </= BMI < 30 kg/m2), and obese (BMI >/= 30 kg/m2) U.S. adults.
We computed physical activity volume indicators (activity counts/day, uncensored and censored steps/day), rate indicators (e.g., steps/minute), time indicators (employing NHANES activity counts/minute cut points to infer time in non-wear, sedentary, low, light, moderate, and vigorous intensities), the number of breaks in sedentary time (occasions when activity counts rose from < 100 activity/counts in one minute to >/= 100 activity counts in the subsequent minute), achievement of public health guidelines, and classification by step-defined physical activity levels. Data were examined for evidence of consistent and significant gradients across BMI-defined categories.
In 2005-2006, U.S adults averaged 6,564 +/- SE 107 censored steps/day, and after considering non-wear time, they spent approximately 56.8% of the rest of the waking day in sedentary time, 23.7% in low intensity, 16.7% in light intensity, 2.6% in moderate intensity, and 0.2% in vigorous intensity. Overall, approximately 3.2% of U.S. adults achieved public health guidelines. The normal weight category took 7,190 +/- SE 157 steps/day, and spent 25.7 +/- 0.9 minutes/day in moderate intensity and 7.3 +/- 0.4 minutes/day in vigorous intensity physical activity. The corresponding numbers for the overweight category were 6,879 +/- 140 steps/day, 25.3 +/- 0.9 minutes/day, and 5.3 +/- 0.5 minutes/day and for the obese category 5,784 +/- 124 steps/day, 17.3 +/- 0.7 minutes/day and 3.2 +/- 0.4 minutes/day. Across BMI categories, increasing gradients and significant trends were apparent in males for sedentary time and decreasing gradients and significant trends were evident in time spent in light intensity, moderate intensity, and vigorous intensity. For females, there were only consistent gradients and significant trends apparent for decreasing amounts of time spent in moderate and vigorous intensity.
Simple indicators of physical activity volume (i.e., steps/day) and time in light, moderate or vigorous intensity physical activity differ across BMI categories for both sexes, suggesting that these should continue to be targets for surveillance.
Popular theories of health behavior have often been criticized for neglecting an affective component to behavioral engagement.
This study reviewed affective judgment (AJ) constructs employed in physical activity research to assess the relationship with behavior. Studies were eligible if they included: (a) a measure of physical activity; (b) a distinct measure of AJ (e.g., affective attitude, enjoyment, intrinsic motivation); and (c) involved participants with a mean age of 18 years or older.
Literature searches were concluded in September, 2009 among five key search engines. This search yielded a total of 10,631 potentially relevant records; of these, 102 passed the eligibility criteria. Random effects meta-analysis procedures with correction for sampling and measurement bias were employed in the analysis.
Articles were published between 1989 and 2009, with sample sizes ranging from 15 to 6,739. Of the studies included, 82 were correlational and 20 were experimental, yielding 114 independent samples. The majority of the correlational samples reported a significant positive correlation between AJ and physical activity (83 out of 85), with a summary r of 0.42 (95% CI 0.37 to 0.46) that was invariant across the measures employed, study quality, population sampled and cultural variables. Experimental studies demonstrated that persuasive, information-based, and self-regulatory interventions failed to change AJ; by contrast, environmental and experiential interventions showed promise in their capability to influence AJ.
The results point to a medium-effect size relationship between AJ and physical activity. Interventions that change AJ are scarce despite their potential for changing physical activity. Future experimental work designed to evaluate the causal impact ofAJ on physical activity is required.
The expected emotional consequences of future actions are thought to play an important role in health behavior change. This research examined whether anticipated affective consequences of success and failure vary across stages of physical activity change and differentially predict physical activity adoption as compared to maintenance.
Using a prospective design over a 3-month period, a community sample of 329 healthy, middle-aged adults were assessed at 2 time points.
Anticipated positive and negative emotions, stage of behavior change (precontemplation [PC], contemplation [C], preparation [P], action [A], maintenance [M]), and level of physical activity.
At baseline, anticipated positive emotions were greater in C versus PC, whereas anticipated negative emotions were greater in M versus A and in M versus P. Higher anticipated positive but not negative emotions predicted physical activity adoption and maintenance after 3 months.
Although the expected affective consequences of future success and failure differentiated among individuals in the early and later stages of physical activity change, respectively; only the anticipated affective consequences of success predicted future behavior.
Much research in the last two decades has demonstrated that human responses deviate from the performance deemed normative according to various models of decision making and rational judgment (e.g., the basic axioms of utility theory). This gap between the normative and the descriptive can be interpreted as indicating systematic irrationalities in human cognition. However, four alternative interpretations preserve the assumption that human behavior and cognition is largely rational. These posit that the gap is due to (1) performance errors, (2) computational limitations, (3) the wrong norm being applied by the experimenter, and (4) a different construal of the task by the subject. In the debates about the viability of these alternative explanations, attention has been focused too narrowly on the model response. In a series of experiments involving most of the classic tasks in the heuristics and biases literature, we have examined the implications of individual differences in performance for each of the four explanations of the normative/descriptive gap. Performance errors are a minor factor in the gap; computational limitations underlie non-normative responding on several tasks, particularly those that involve some type of cognitive decontextualization. Unexpected patterns of covariance can suggest when the wrong norm is being applied to a task or when an alternative construal of the task should be considered appropriate.
This research was undertaken to validate a combination of methodologies to determine ventilatory threshold (VT).
Three methods were used individually and then combined to determine VT as follows: 1) ventilatory equivalencies, 2) excess CO2 production, and 3) a modified V-slope method. Three groups of participants-endurance athletes (N = 132), healthy, aerobically active adults (N = 31), and healthy, sedentary/low-active adults (N = 22)-were independently evaluated for VT and compared with the criterion standard lactate threshold (LT) defined as the first rise in blood lactate with increasing intensity of exercise.
VT and LT were significantly correlated using the combined VT method within each study group (r = 0.98, 0.97, and 0.95, respectively; P < 0.001). Mean VO2 values at VT and LT were not significantly different between the three groups (P > 0.20). The combined method improved the determination rate of VT and reduced the standard deviation of the LT - VT difference by 80-170% over the individual methods. During test-retest procedures VO2lt and VO2vt determined by the combined method met criteria demonstrating further reliability.
The combined method to determine VT is valid and reliable across a wide fitness range in healthy individuals and improves the determination rate and accuracy of VT determination over the use of single methods.
The literature related to Borg's ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale has revealed inconsistencies about the strength of the relationship between ratings of perceived exertion and various physiological criterion measures, such as heart rate, blood lactate concentration, percent maximal oxygen uptake (%VO2max), oxygen uptake (VO2), ventilation and respiration rate. Using sex of participants, fitness, type of RPE scale used, type of exercise, exercise protocol, RPE mode and study quality, we undertook a meta-analysis to determine the strength of the relationship between RPE scores and the six aforementioned physiological measures. The weighted mean validity coefficients were 0.62 for heart rate, 0.57 for blood lactate, 0.64 for %VO2max 0.63 for VO2, 0.61 for ventilation and 0.72 for respiration rate. Analysis of moderator variables revealed that the following study features could account for the variation of results across studies: heart rate--fitness, type of exercise, protocol and RPE mode; blood lactate concentration--sex, RPE scale; VO2--sex, exercise type, RPE mode; ventilation--sex, RPE mode; respiration rate--exercise protocol, RPE mode. The highest correlations between ratings of perceived exertion and the various physiological criterion measures were found in the following conditions: when male participants (whose VO2 or ventilation was measured) were required to maximally exert themselves (measuring %VO2max or ventilation); when the exercise task was unusual [e.g. when participants were swimming, which is less common than walking or running (when heart rate, %VO2max and VO2 are measured)]; or when the 15-point RPE scale (measuring blood lactate concentration) was used. These findings suggest that although Borg's RPE scale has been shown to be a valid measure of exercise intensity, its validity may not be as high as previously thought (r = 0.80-0.90), except under certain conditions.
Early studies of intuitive judgment and decision making conducted with the late Amos Tversky are reviewed in the context of two related concepts: an analysis of accessibility, the ease with which thoughts come to mind; a distinction between effortless intuition and deliberate reasoning. Intuitive thoughts, like percepts, are highly accessible. Determinants and consequences of accessibility help explain the central results of prospect theory, framing effects, the heuristic process of attribute substitution, and the characteristic biases that result from the substitution of nonextensional for extensional attributes. Variations in the accessibility of rules explain the occasional corrections of intuitive judgments. The study of biases is compatible with a view of intuitive thinking and decision making as generally skilled and successful.
A significant proportion of older adults in The Netherlands do not participate regularly in leisure-time physical activity. The Groningen Active Living Model (GALM) was developed to change this situation for the better. Longitudinal results of the validation of the GALM behavioral change model are presented.
We obtained data on potentially mediating variables of physical activity behavior change (self-efficacy, social support, perceived fitness, and enjoyment) from 96 participants in a prospective study during the 18 months the GALM strategy lasted.
Prospective analyses revealed significant differences in several potentially mediating variables, although some of these differences were contrary to our hypothesis. Discriminant analysis resulted in canonical correlations of 0.50 after 6 months and 0.66 after 18 months of program participation between adherers and nonadherers, respectively; 73.8 and 80.0% of the subjects were classified correctly.
Based on the results, it can be concluded that we partially succeeded in manipulating the potentially mediating variables by means of our GALM strategy. Several mediating variables were identified that reliably discriminated long-term adherers from nonadherers, expanding the generalizability of social cognitive theory-driven variables to a Dutch population.
Consistent with hedonic theories of behavior, the affective response to physical activity has been posited as an important determinant of future physical activity; yet, we are unaware of an overview of evidence regarding this relationship.
The purpose of this study was to review the published literature regarding whether the affective response to physical activity relates to future physical activity behavior and key motivational constructs.
A systematic review following PRISMA guidelines was undertaken.
Twenty-four studies met the inclusion criteria. A positive change in the basic affective response during moderate intensity exercise was linked to future physical activity, but postexercise affect had a null relationship. Affective responses during and after exercise had a relatively negligible relationship with intention, mixed results for self-efficacy, and a reliable correlation with affective judgments about future physical activity.
The findings support the basic premise of hedonic theory. Practical application studies with a focus on sustained behavioral interventions are warranted.
Background:
Prior research has found affect to predict exercise. Little research has examined the causal influence of exercise-related affect on exercise intentions.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to test whether expectations about post-exercise affect can be successfully manipulated to produce changes in post-exercise affect and exercise intentions. We also tested whether cognitively elaborating on the expectation would increase the duration of the expectation effect.
Methods:
Participants (59 men, 89 women) were exposed to an affective expectation manipulation as well as an elaboration manipulation and then completed 10 min of light-intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle in the laboratory. Participants also completed a 2-week follow-up.
Results:
Affective expectation participants displayed more positive post-exercise affect and exercise intentions than no-expectation participants (ps < .05). Affective expectation participants who also elaborated on that expectation reported more positive post-exercise affect during the follow-up than the no-elaboration participants (p < .05).
Conclusion:
Expectations about positive post-exercise affect can be experimentally manipulated to increase exercise-related feelings and intentions. The duration of this effect increases when individuals cognitively elaborate on the expectation.
Two studies tested the hypothesis that exertional trend influences perceived aversiveness of an exercise bout. In Study 1, participants (64 women and 26 men) read descriptions of 8 fictitious people's ratings of perceived exertion during exercise sessions on a stationary bicycle, including a 15-min session with a pattern of increasing exertion and a 20-min session with a pattern of exertion identical to the 15-min session with the addition of a 5-min period of reduced exertion at the end. Despite a greater overall workload, the 20-min session was perceived as significantly less aversive than the 15-min session. In Study 2, participants (11 women and 9 men) completed 15-and 20-min sessions on a cycle ergometer with the same basic exertional patterns as in Study 1. Ratings of the aversiveness of the 2 sessions did not differ significantly, despite the difference in duration. Results demonstrate that adding a period of reduced exertion attenuates the perceived aversiveness of a bout of exercise.
This paper re-examines the commonly observed inverse relationship between per- ceived risk and perceived benefit. We propose that this relationship occurs because people rely on aÄect when judging the risk and benefit of specific hazards. Evidence supporting this proposal is obtained in two experimental studies. Study 1 investigated the inverse relationship between risk and benefit judgments under a time-pressure condition designed to limit the use of analytic thought and enhance the reliance on aÄect. As expected, the inverse relationship was strengthened when time pressure was introduced. Study 2 tested and confirmed the hypothesis that providing information designed to alter the favorability of one's overall aÄective evaluation of an item (say nuclear power) would systematically change the risk and benefit judgments for that item. Both studies suggest that people seem prone to using an 'aÄect heuristic' which improves judgmental eÅciency by deriving both risk and benefit evaluations from a common source — aÄective reactions to the stimulus item. Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The purpose of this study was to identify comlates of physical activity for sedentary. ethnic minority women and determine if these comlatcs were modified by an intervention. One hundred twenty-five women panicipated in a randomized. controlled trial of a walking program. The intervention was designed to alter social learning-based correlates through telephone counseling and mailings. Walking and correlates were assessed at baseline, 8-week post-test. and 5-month follow-up. Both intervention and control groups increased walking and decreased in respons of perceived barriers, self-efficacy. and enjoyment from baseline to post-test. and baseline to follow-up. Social support increased over time, with intervention participants reporting greater increases. Change in self-efficacy from baseline to follow-up was associated with increases in walking. The results provide some evidence that self-efficacy correlated with walking for participants. but 3 of 4 correlates were not positively influenced by the intervention.
Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of various factors on retrospective pain evaluation. The factors examined in Experiment 1 were the rate and pattern of change, the intensity (particularly the final intensity), and the duration of the painful experience. Experiment 2 manipulated these factors and, in addition, examined the effect of continuous (on-line) ratings on the overall retrospective evaluation. The two experiments utilized different pain modalities, heat in the first and mechanical pressure in the second. In addition, all subjects in Experiment 1 experienced stimuli with the same physical magnitude, while in Experiment 2 stimuli were individually tailored to make them subjectively equivalent. In both experiments, subjects were presented with a series of painful stimuli and evaluated the intensity of each stimulus immediately upon its termination. The stimuli themselves were composed of multiple intensity levels that differentially changed over time (Intensity-Patterns). Subjects' on-line ratings in Experiment 2 closely mirrored the physical patterns of the intensities. The main conclusion from both experiments is that the retrospective evaluations of painful experiences are influenced primarily by a combination of the final pain intensity and the intensity trend during the latter half of the experience. In addition, results indicated that duration has little impact on retrospective evaluations for stimuli of relatively constant intensity. However, when the stimulus intensity changes over time, duration does play a role. Finally, the task of continuously reporting the stimulus intensity had a moderating impact on the retrospective evaluations.
232 undergraduates participated in 3 experiments that evaluated the feeling scale (FS) by W. J. Rejeski et al (1987) as a measure of affect during exercise. In Exp 1, Ss were instructed to check adjectives on the Multiple Affective Adjective Checklist—Revised that they would associate with either a "good" or a "bad" feeling during exercise. As predicted, discriminant function analysis indicated that the good/bad dimension of the FS appears to represent a core of emotional expression. In Exp 2, Ss rated how they felt during exercise at 3 rates of perceived exertion (RPE). Exp 3 involved 3 4-min bouts of exercise at 30, 60, and 90% of maximum oxygen consumption. RPE and the FS were moderately related, but only at easy and hard workloads. FS ratings evidenced greater variability as metabolic demands increased, and RPEs consistently had stronger ties to physiologic cues than responses to the FS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between psychological need satisfaction (competence, autonomy, and relatedness), exercise regulations, and motivational consequences proposed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The secondary purpose was to explore changes in these constructs over the course of a 12-week prescribed exercise program. Results indicated competence and autonomy were positively correlated with more self-determined exercise regulations, which in turn were more positively related to exercise behavior, attitudes, and physical fitness. Multiple regression analyses revealed that exercise behavior mediated the relationship between self-determined motives and physical fitness, and both identified and intrinsic exercise regulations contributed significantly to the prediction of attitudes. Paired-sample t tests supported modest to large changes in need satisfaction constructs, as well as identified and intrinsic regulations over the 12-week exercise program. These results suggest that SDT is a useful framework for studying motivational issues in the exercise domain.
This work examines how people form evaluations of extended experiences that vary in valence and intensity. It is documented that when people retrospectively evaluate such experiences, not all information is weighted equally. Some prior research demonstrates that earlier parts are weighted more than later parts, while other research shows the opposite. In this paper we suggest that differences in evaluation tasks shift the focus to different aspects of the experience, causing individuals to be differentially influenced by earlier or later parts of the experience. We show that ratings of feelings (hedonic evaluation tasks) lead to stronger preferences for improving experiences than do evaluative judgments (informational evaluation tasks), suggesting that later aspects of the experience are weighted more heavily in affective tasks. In addition, we investigate other evaluation tasks, demonstrating that whether the task is descriptive or predictive and whether the target of the evaluation is the source of the experience or the experience itself also alter the weight given to different parts of the experience. Our studies demonstrate systematic shifts driven by these different evaluation task, revealing changes in overall evaluations as well as changes in the underlying weighting of key characteristics of the experience (i.e., start, end, and trend). Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The link between exercise intensity and affect has been a popular topic of investigation for many years but has drawn few universally accepted conclusions. Recently, Ekkekakis [(2003). Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 213–239] proposed a ‘dual-mode model’ to explain the nature of this relationship by employing individual metabolic markers (such as the ventilatory threshold) as demarcators of exercise intensity. The overall purpose of the study was to test this model with an inactive female sample as current evidence is based largely on research with healthy, active participants.
At least 60 min of daily physical activity (PA) are recommended for weight control, a target achieved by only 3% of obese (OB) women. The purposes of this study were to examine (i) the affective responses of normal-weight (NW), overweight (OW), and OB middle-aged sedentary women to exercise of increasing intensity and (ii) the relationship of affective responses to self-efficacy and social physique anxiety. The women participated in a graded treadmill protocol to volitional exhaustion while providing ratings of pleasure-displeasure and perceived activation each minute. The Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL) was also completed before and after exercise. The affective responses of NW and OW women did not differ. However OB women gave lower pleasure ratings during the incremental protocol and reported lower Energy scores immediately after the protocol. Social physique anxiety, but not self-efficacy, was inversely related to pleasure and energy. The lower levels of pleasure and energy experienced by OB than nonobese women could account in part for their dramatically low levels of PA participation. Modifying the cognitive antecedents of social physique anxiety might be a useful intervention strategy.
There is a need for a measure of physical activity that assesses low, basic and high-intensity activities suitable for use in ageing research including falls prevention trials. This study performed a formal validation of the incidental and planned activity questionnaire (IPAQ) by investigating its overall structure and measurement properties.
Cross-sectional survey.
Community sample.
500 older people (mean age 77.4 years, SD 6.08).
The IPAQ was administered as part of a longer assessment in two different postal self-completion formats; one for estimating physical activity during the past week (IPAQ-W) and one for estimating average weekly physical activity over the past 3 months (IPAQ-WA). Test-retest reliability was assessed by the re-administration of the instruments one week later in a subsample of 80 respondents.
Both IPAQ versions had good measurement properties, but overall the IPAQ-WA performed better than the IPAQ-W. Rasch analyses indicated the IPAQ-WA had an excellent overall fit. Analysis of the internal structure supported the unidimensionality of the scale with an acceptable internal consistency. The content representation of the items revealed three categories (low, moderate and high levels of physical activity), with a good contribution of items by threshold. The IPAQ-WA had excellent test-retest reliability, intraclass correlation coefficient 0.87) and was able to discriminate differences in physical activity levels between groups differentiated by sex, age and fall risk factors.
The IPAQ has excellent psychometric properties and assesses the level of physical activity relating to both basic and more demanding activities. Further research is required to confirm sensitivity to change.
Two core meanings of “utility” are distinguished. “Decision utility” is the weight of an outcome in a decision. “Experienced
utility” is hedonic quality, as in Bentham's usage. Experienced utility can be reported in real time (instant utility), or
in retrospective evaluations of past episodes (remembered utility). Psychological research has documented systematic errors
in retrospective evaluations, which can induce a preference for dominated options. We propose a formal normative theory of
the total experienced utility of temporally extended outcomes. Measuring the experienced utility of outcomes permits tests
of utility maximization and opens other Unes of empirical research.
When a UCS, reinforcer, or innate releaser is repeatedly presented to human or animal Ss, 3 major affective phenomena are often observed: (1) affective or hedonic contrast; (2) frequent repetition giving rise to affective or hedonic habituation (tolerance); and (3) after frequent repetition of these stimuli, a withdrawal or abstinence syndrome emerging directly from stimulus termination. These affective dynamics generate new motives, new opportunities for reinforcing and energizing operant behaviors, based on the hedonic attributes of withdrawal or abstinence syndromes. The present article describes the opponent-process theory that attempts to account for such diverse acquired motives as drug addiction, love, affection and social attachment, cravings for sensory and aesthetic experiences, and a variety of self-administered, aversive stimuli. The empirical laws governing the establishment of these new motives are described. Crucial variables include the quality, intensity, and duration of each stimulus presentation and the time intervals between presentations (interreinforcement intervals). The theory also gives a plausible account of the development of addictive behaviors, whether initiated by pleasurable or by aversive events. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between perceived importance of physical activity and demographic variables and current physical activity level with specific reference to the CDC/ACSM guidelines for sufficient physical activity for a health benefit.
Physical activity levels were assessed by a telephone survey of 2002 households throughout the continental United States and the District of Columbia to determine whether the individuals met the CDC/ACSM physical activity guidelines.
Results indicate that 68% of the respondents are physically active below the CDC/ACSM criterion. Chi-square analysis revealed significant relationships between meeting the CDC/ACSM physical activity guidelines and 1) perceived importance of physical inactivity as a health risk (P < 0.0001), and 2) gender (P < 0.0001). Logistic regression analysis revealed that having a greater awareness of the health risks of physical inactivity improved the odds ratio (OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.21-1.62) of being sufficiently physically active for a health benefit by 40% (P < 0.0001) and being a male improved the odds ratio (OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.17-1.79) of being sufficiently physically active for a health benefit by 45% (P < 0.0006).
Implications for health and physical fitness researchers and practitioners are that they need to improve awareness of life span fitness benefits and develop intervention programs based on individuals' current physical activity levels.
The intensity of physical activity has been found to be inversely related to adherence, thus contributing to the problem of physical inactivity. Although most physical activity is unsupervised and participants, therefore, self-select the intensity, very little is known about the level of intensity that they select. We hypothesized that participants would select, on average, an intensity proximal to the level of transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism.
Twenty-three middle-aged, formerly sedentary women participated in (a) an incremental treadmill test to determine their maximal aerobic capacity and gas exchange ventilatory threshold, an index of the aerobic-anaerobic transition, and (b) a 20-min bout of treadmill exercise during which they were allowed to select the speed.
On average, but with considerable interindividual variability, the women selected an intensity that, in terms of treadmill speed, heart rate, oxygen uptake, and perceived exertion was no different from the intensity corresponding to their gas exchange ventilatory threshold. Moreover, affective valence remained positive and stable.
On average, middle-aged, formerly sedentary women selected an intensity that is considered physiologically effective and reported that it did not feel hard or unpleasant. Future research should examine the sources of interindividual variability and the consequences of exercising at an intensity that exceeds one's preferred level.
Aerobic fitness, not merely physical activity, is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Vigorous intensity exercise has been shown to increase aerobic fitness more effectively than moderate intensity exercise, suggesting that the former may confer greater cardioprotective benefits. An electronic search of published studies using PubMed was conducted for 2 types of investigations, epidemiologic studies that evaluated the benefits of physical activity of varying intensity levels and clinical trials that trained individuals at different intensities of exercise while controlling for the total energy expenditure. A secondary search was conducted using the references from these studies. The epidemiologic studies consistently found a greater reduction in risk of cardiovascular disease with vigorous (typically > or =6 METs) than with moderate intensity physical activity and reported more favorable risk profiles for individuals engaged in vigorous, as opposed to moderate, intensity physical activity. Clinical trials generally reported greater improvements after vigorous (typically > or =60% aerobic capacity) compared with moderate intensity exercise for diastolic blood pressure, glucose control, and aerobic capacity, but reported no intensity effect on improvements in systolic blood pressure, lipid profile, or body fat loss. In conclusion, if the total energy expenditure of exercise is held constant, exercise performed at a vigorous intensity appears to convey greater cardioprotective benefits than exercise of a moderate intensity.