(PDF) Addressing Gender Access to the Dissemination of Stress Tolerant Rice Variety Seed

GRiSP Gender Research Network (GGRN) Workshop

Proceedings 2014

Edited by Sonia Akter and Bill Hardy

Social Sciences Division Conference Room, Drilon Hall, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 25−27

June 2014

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The outcomes of ensuring women’s access to stress-tolerant variety (STV) seeds

and seed preservation training: The cases in India and Bangladesh

Amelia Cueno (IRRI, Philippines)

1

The role of risk aversion in determining STV adoption rate among female farmers

in Eastern India

Mamta Mehar (IRRI, India)

5

Stress tolerant rice varieties in Bangladesh

Afroza Chowdhury (BRRI, Bangladesh)

8

Preference heterogeneity of rice traits across gender, location and abiotic stress

environment: Evidence from South Asia

Donald Villanueva (IRRI, Philippines)

10

Rice-based postharvest practices in Bangladesh

Kamala Gurung (IRRI, Bangladesh)

15

Assessment of women empowerment in the rice development hub of Nigeria

Vivian Ojehomon (National Cereal Research Institute, Nigeria)

19

Gender research in the rice development hubs in the central part of Benin

A. Kouboura Alice Djinadou Igue (Valorisation à l'Institut National des

Recherches, Agricoles du Bénin)

22

A qualitative approach of measuring women empowerment in agricultural

research: a case study in the Philippines

Joyce Luis (IRRI, Philippines)

26

Climate change gender and food security: case studies in Eastern Uganda

Thelma Akongo (National Agricultural Research Organization, Uganda)

30

Mainstreaming women in agriculture: A participatory model of research, planning

and delivery

Swati Nayak (IRRI, India)

33

2

Kisan Sakhi: The silent revolution of women empowerment in Bihar

Sugandha Munshi (IRRI, India)

37

Integrating Gender in AfricaRice Research: Overview of Africa-wide Gender

Task Force

Afiavi R Agboh-Noameshie (Africa Rice)

40

An overview of gender related activities within the Consortium for Unfavourable

Rice Environments (CURE)

Digna Manzanilla (IRRI, Philippines)

43

An overview of gender related activities in IRRI-PETRRA, IRRI-FoSHOL and

CSISA-India projects

Ahmad Salahuddin (IRRI, Philippines)

48

1

The outcomes of ensuring women’s access to stress-tolerant variety (STV)

seeds and seed preservation training: cases in India and Bangladesh

Amelia Cueno (IRRI, Philippines, email: a.cueno@irri.org)

“... providing women access to seeds and training enhanced their knowledge and skills on the

use and management of resources, improved their farming practices, empowered women in

making decisions, improved personal and interpersonal relationships, and produced quality

seeds from their own resources that can be used in the subsequent planting season.”

In June 2013, the IRRI Gender Research Team, in collaboration with local partners in India and

Bangladesh, carried out an experiment. The objectives of the experiment were (1) to assess the

outcomes of providing women with access to stress tolerant (submergence, drought and salinity)

seeds and seed preservation training and (2) to identify the constraints to women’s participation

in seed distribution and training programs. The districts of Titabar and Lakhimpur in Assam,

Canning Town and Chinsurah in West Bengal, and Satkhira in Bangladesh were selected to

conduct the study. This study was implemented by national agricultural research and extension

system (NARES) partners in Assam Agricultural University Rice Research Stations (AAU-RRS)

in Titabar and Lakhimpur, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI)-Canning Town, Rice

Research Station (RRS) in Chinsurah, and Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA)

in Mymensingh (Fig. 1). The experiment was extended to two districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh

(EUP) and one district of Bihar under the EC-IFAD funded project implemented by Grameen

Development Services (GDS).

Participants were selected using a simple random sampling technique. The sampled participants

were divided into two groups. In the first group, 30 self-help group (SHG) members were

selected from each village. These members were given seeds and training. In the second group,

another 30 female farmers who were not members of a SHG were chosen. These selected female

farmers were given seeds and training. The non-SHG sample was selected to understand the

benefits of being a member of an organization such as a SHG. Technical knowledge tests were

given to the participants before and after the seed preservation training. The same set of

questions was asked during the pre- and postknowledge tests. Socioeconomic characteristics of

the participants and other relevant information were gathered through focus group discussions

(FGDs) and structured household surveys.

Results of the experiment suggest that the technical knowledge gained by the participants after

the training was substantial. The training conducted was appropriate and helpful for them. It

enhanced their knowledge on rice production, seed preservation, and farm management (Table

2

1). A decrease in knowledge was also observed because of confusion about the use of technical

terms and chemical names as well as in understanding and answering the questions/statements.

Table 1. Women’s current knowledge and knowledge gaps in rice production and postharvest

operations at selected sites of EUP, Bihar, and Assam, India.

Activity Current knowledge Knowledge gap

Seed management • Seed selection

• Removing off-types

• Winnowing

• Flotation method in identification of

filled/unfilled grains

• 90% had no idea on seed treatment

to prevent infestation during storage

Crop

establishment and

transplanting

• 22−26-day-old seedlings give better

yield than older seedlings (45 days old)

• Number of seedlings per hill

• Closer plant spacing = fewer weeds

• 25% had no knowledge that

seedlings transplanted with equal

spacing and proper soil depth have

higher yield

Land preparation

• Ploughing more than once is necessary

to destroy weed seeds

• Letting weeds rot under flooded

conditions controls weeds

• Keeping an interval between

ploughing and harrowing is not

necessary

Fertilizer

application

• Application of urea, DAP, SSP, and zinc

is essential to obtain higher yield

• No idea about brands,

recommended dosage, and right

time to apply fertilizer

Weed, insect, and

pest management

• Right time to weed (first 40 days after

transplanting) and how to manage weeds

• Information on brands,

recommended dosage, and time of

pesticide application and other

chemicals

Water

management

• No idea that water depth after

irrigation should be maintained at at

least 5 to 10 cm

Harvesting and

postharvest

• Varieties should be harvested separately • Threshing the paddy immediately

after harvesting (drying is

necessary)

• Maturity of traditional and modern

varieties

Rice variety • Same variety can be used continuously

as seed stock for more than three

seasons

• Modern varieties are more responsive to

fertilizer than traditional varieties

• Maturity dates and CNRM

requirements

• STR varieties

Fig. 1. Project sites in India and Bangladesh.

Fig. 2. Benefits of giving access to seeds and training to women farmers in Satkhira

District, Bangladesh.

The benefits of having access to seeds and training were identified by women farmers.

Participants from

EUP and Bihar said that they were able to interact with agricultural scientists

and have

direct access to technologies such as seeds and training.

security and i

mproved their social status. Interestingly, nonmembers of the SHG became

interested in participating in the activities provided by NGOs. In Bihar, women w

ha

ve better access to submergence

management practices, and increased confidence in making farm

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Change in

the way

women think

of

themselves

Gained

confidence

in making

decisions

80

40

Percent

3

Fig. 1. Project sites in India and Bangladesh.

Fig. 2. Benefits of giving access to seeds and training to women farmers in Satkhira

The benefits of having access to seeds and training were identified by women farmers.

EUP and Bihar said that they were able to interact with agricultural scientists

direct access to technologies such as seeds and training.

This

also ensured their food

mproved their social status. Interestingly, nonmembers of the SHG became

interested in participating in the activities provided by NGOs. In Bihar, women w

ve better access to submergence

-

tolerant seeds, enhanced knowledge on improved crop

management practices, and increased confidence in making farm

-

related decisions. In

Gained

confidence

in making

decisions

Better

gender

relations

Marketable

surplus

Increased

income

Control over

the use of

income

40

20

60 60

Benefits

Fig. 2. Benefits of giving access to seeds and training to women farmers in Satkhira

The benefits of having access to seeds and training were identified by women farmers.

EUP and Bihar said that they were able to interact with agricultural scientists

also ensured their food

mproved their social status. Interestingly, nonmembers of the SHG became

interested in participating in the activities provided by NGOs. In Bihar, women w

ere identified to

tolerant seeds, enhanced knowledge on improved crop

related decisions. In

Control over

the use of

income

80

4

Bangladesh, the following benefits were reported by the sampled women: (1) a change in the

way women think of themselves (not just a housewife but as farmers); (2) increased confidence

in making decisions; (3) better gender relations; (4) gained a marketable surplus; and (5)

increased income and control over its use (Fig. 2).

The findings of this study suggest that providing women with access to seeds and training

enhanced their knowledge and skills on the use and management of resources, improved their

farming practices, empowered them in making decisions, improved personal and interpersonal

relationships, and helped them in producing quality seeds from their own resources that can be

used in the subsequent planting season (in the case of Bangladesh).

It is recommended that this kind of study be implemented earlier (sometime in April or May) to

provide sufficient time for sample selection, seed distribution, and training. The inclusion of

improved seeds of nonrice crops and associated natural resource management practices is also

suggested to improve the nutritional status of family members. Most importantly, the inclusion

of women in projects such as this should not exclude men in the process, thereby ensuring full

support from men when working with women if necessary.

5

The role of risk aversion in determining STV adoption rate among female

farmers in eastern India

Mamta Mehar (IRRI, India, email: m.mehar@irri.org)

“The most popular varieties among women are Swarna-Sub1 (flood-resistant variety), Arize-

6444 (hybrid), Sambha Mahsori, Sarju-52, Swarna, Pooja, Lalat, and Moti (improved varieties).

They prefer these varieties because they are easy to cook, taste good, and have high yield, easy

accessibility, and availability of seeds. The results of a risk-game suggest that almost 40% of the

farmers (both male and female) are highly risk averse. As expected, female farmers were

significantly more risk averse than male farmers.”

Farmers in developing countries face a wide range of risk and uncertainties, which increases

further because of unpredictable changes in climate. To mitigate the risk from climate change,

many research organizations, both public and private, have taken initiatives. One of the

important climate adaptation strategies for farmers is the use of stress-tolerant varieties (STVs).

But this involves a chain of complex issues. Once seeds are developed with stress-tolerance

features, there is no guarantee that they will be adopted by farmers because of problems such as a

lack of awareness, seed unavailability at the local level, and their own risk-averse nature. Most

Indian farmers are small and marginal, and thereby may have relatively small plots of farm land

and thus be less willing to take risks on the advanced types of varieties introduced.

Research on climate variability and risk behavior in general and their impact on agriculture is not

new, but the gender-differentiated role has not been examined much. Evaluating farmers’

adoption behavior regarding new varieties only on yield-related characteristics (i.e., gender-

neutral) is not considered to be a complete approach. Women are often considered as more risk

averse than men. Hence, a hypothesis was posed and tested that women choose low-risk but low-

return activities more than men in agricultural practices. However, because the proportion of

female-headed households is generally low, only large-scale household surveys can find an

adequate number of female-headed households to perform a reliable analysis. This has limited

the number of rigorous analyses on female-headed households’ risk preference and farm

productivity.

Given this background, the prime objectives of this study were

• To examine whether there is a difference in risk preference of male and female farmers to

adopt different rice varieties;

• To determine the relationship between risk preference and varietal adoption.

6

The analysis is based on the Rice Monitoring Survey (RMS), a primary survey, conducted by

IRRI in 2014. The main objective of the RMS was to understand the diffusion process of new

rice varieties in South Asia. The data used for the analysis presented in this paper include 6,000

households from four states of India (Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh). Survey

areas were identified on the basis of agroecological zone stratification. Then, for each

agroecological zone, sample households were randomly selected by using district, zone, and

village-level stratification. Because of the large sample size, we have a sufficient number of

female-headed households to investigate the nexus between risk preference and varietal

selection.

The number of female respondents is 265. These female respondents were primarily responsible

for farming. About two-thirds (63%) of the females and less than half of the male respondents

were below 50. Three-quarters of the females were landless or marginal (i.e., having less than 1

hectare). The males belonging to this category are less than 55%. Some 47% of the females are

illiterate whereas 48% of the males had at least senior secondary education. This means that

female farmers are, on average, older, less educated, and own a smaller parcel of agricultural

land.

The varieties grown by the sampled farmers in kharif 2013 were categorized in five major

classes: traditional (i.e., indigenous varieties), modern (high-yielding varieties), hybrid (varieties

created with superior agronomic qualities such as higher yield, stronger resistance to diseases,

more efficient use of soil nutrients, and better weed control), stress-tolerant (varieties tolerant of

stresses such as drought and submergence), and unclassified. The distribution pattern of males

versus females across these five major categories is not significantly different. Considering the

behavior of males and females, it is found that males are growing a large number of varieties,

which may be due to the large sample size.

For the purpose of this analysis, we choose varieties that are grown by at least 14 female farmers.

The most popular varieties among women are Swarna-Sub1 (a flood-resistant variety), Arize-

6444 (hybrid), Sambha Mahsori, Sarju-52, Swarna, Pooja, Lalat, and Moti (improved varieties).

Within these varieties, Swarna, Sambha Mahsori, and Sarju-52 are more popular among women.

They prefer these varieties because they are easy to cook, taste good, and have high yield, easy

accessibility, and availability of seeds.

Respondents’ risk preference was measured with a risk-game. The results of the risk-game

suggest that almost 40% of the farmers (both male and female) are highly risk averse. As

expected, female farmers were significantly more risk averse than male farmers. The percentage

of farmers choosing high-risk options is less than 20, for which both males and females are

found to be very close in number. At this stage, we believe the RMS data will help us examine

the following:

• Gender-differentiated perceptions of adverse effect of stress (drought or submergence) in

farmers’ fields.

7

• Gender gaps in adopting more advanced technology (here, seed, i.e., for stress-prone

areas) to mitigate risk from climate.

• Factors influencing farmers’ risk behavior and thereby farmers’ adoption behavior for

more advanced seed varieties.

8

Stress-tolerant rice varieties in Bangladesh

Afroza Chowdhury (BRRI, Bangladesh, email: afroza_muna@yahoo.com)

“The Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) of the sampled households is 2.13, which indicates a

low empowerment among women. This implies that most decisions are made in consultation with

women members of the household but the participation of men in decision-making dominates

that of women.”

Rice, the main food crop, is grown extensively in different ecosystems that include irrigated

areas, rainfed lowland areas, and uplands in Bangladesh and rice can be harvested two to three

times a year. The major abiotic stresses affecting agriculture are submergence, drought, and

salinity. The occurrences of abiotic stresses cause substantial crop damage in the country.

Farmers in fragile or unfavorable areas are the ones who suffer the most because they are mostly

resource-poor. To improve food security and livelihoods of poor farming households, efforts

have been made to develop stress-tolerant rice varieties. Fifteen stress-tolerant rice varieties have

been released by the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and Bangladesh Institute of

Nuclear Agriculture (BINA). Depending upon the severity and duration of stress, the yield

advantage offered by stress-tolerant rice varieties (STRVs) varies from 0.50 to 3.8 tons/ha.

A baseline socioeconomic survey under the Impact Assessment and Targeting component was

implemented in Bangladesh in partnership with BRRI in different key locations representing

submergence-, drought-, and salinity-affected rice areas in the rainfed lowlands. The survey was

composed of 500 households from five districts of Jamalpur, Habiganj, Kurigram, Rajshahi, and

Shatkhira. The households considered are those involved in rainfed lowland rice farming and

those that normally face a problem of submergence, drought, or salinity in rice production. Most

of the respondents are men and only 2% are women. The small number of females representing

the households and low average number of years of schooling among female respondents in the

survey reflect the male dominance within domestic units in Bangladesh. Women make up 45%

of the total household members of the sample. Men and women are involved in different farm

and nonfarm activities. Some 81% of the total labor in rice production is done by men. Women

are mainly involved in homestead activities. In rice production, they take responsibility for

activities such as weeding, threshing, storing, drying, and postharvest. In aman and boro season,

female labor constitutes 18−22% of total labor in submergence-, drought-, and saline-stressed

areas of Bangladesh.

Sampled households were asked about their awareness of the stress-tolerant rice varieties. Some

households are aware of the stress-tolerant rice varieties or Sub1 varieties while most sample

households (in Jamalpur and Rajshahi) have not heard about the STRVs. Although some farmers

are aware of these varieties, more than 95% have not planted them but a majority of the farmers

9

reported that they are willing to grow these varieties. Households exposed to abiotic stresses

make necessary adjustments to cope with stress. Adjustments vary by household depending on

the options available. Poor households with limited assets are seen as the most vulnerable group

in the event of submergence or drought. Most adjustments reported in the survey are ex post

coping mechanisms that include a decrease in food consumption and an increase in borrowing.

More than two-thirds of the households are rice self-sufficient for a year during normal years but

this declines drastically during stress years in all areas in Bangladesh. The decrease in rice

supply among households during stress years has an effect on the frequency of meals eaten by

the households per day.

Women’s roles in decision-making vary depending on the type of decision that has to be made.

Men tend to dominate in decision-making pertaining to farming activities such as what varieties

to grow, adoption of new technology, hiring labor, and selling of harvested crops. Other

decisions with regard to slaughtering of animals, allocation of income, food consumption,

borrowing, children’s education, number of children to raise, and politics is made in consultation

with women. Women’s participation in decision-making is highest in decisions regarding the

type of food to consume during a crisis and allocation of household income. The Women’s

Empowerment Index (WEI) of the sample households is 2.13, which indicates a low

empowerment among women. This implies that most decisions are made in consultation with

women members of the household but the participation of men in decision-making dominates

that of women.

With the increasing roles of women in agriculture, disseminating STRV seed through women’s

groups could be a stepping stone toward women’s empowerment. STRASA is working

wholeheartedly in Bangladesh to fight stress in rice production. Its major achievement includes

working with 350 partners (major partners are BRRI, BINA, BAU, Ministry of Agriculture, Seed

Wing, DAE, and BADC), and Sub1 varieties have been disseminated to more than 1 million

farmers covering all 64 districts. Salt-tolerant varieties have reached more than 400,000 farmers

mainly in southern Bangladesh. STRASA is also dealing with seed policy issues to facilitate

varietal out-scaling through characterizing salt-affected and flood-prone areas in southern

Bangladesh for the targeted dissemination of STRVs. A number of women-led NGOs and around

10,500 female beneficiaries are provided with breeder/foundation seeds and technical support by

the STRASA project. They multiply those seeds and after processing/preserving they market the

seeds.

10

Preference heterogeneity of rice traits across gender, location, and abiotic

stress environment: evidence from South Asia

Donald Villanueva (IRRI, Philippines, email: d.villanueva@irri.org)

“Men and women farmers have varied knowledge, resources, and preferences. Therefore, both

of their opinions should be taken into account for rapid adoption of any new variety. Social

scientists and plant breeders should work hand-in-hand in developing new varieties.”

Lots of varieties are developed by breeders and released around the globe but only a few of these

varieties have been adopted by farmers. In the past, only breeders used to decide the varieties

they wanted to develop and they mainly focused on high-yielding varieties. Varietal selection by

farmers does not depend only on yield and adaptability to varied physical environments and

socioeconomic conditions but also varies according to their needs. It is often assumed that male

and female farmers have the same preferences for rice varieties but, according to Manzanilla and

Paris (2013), women’s criteria for varietal selection were likely to be related to their roles and

responsibilities. In rice production, more than 50% of the labor participation is by women

farmers in Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Assam in India as well as in Nepal. Women farmers

are mostly involved in the preparation and cooking of rice, which is not included in labor in rice

production. Thus, we can say that women farmers have a significant role in the value chain of

rice production and consumption.

The objective of this study is to analyze farmers’ varietal preferences and selection criteria across

gender, location, and abiotic stress conditions. For gender comparison, this paper will look at the

differences in the most important traits given by male and female farmers in selecting a rice

variety. Some of the results will be presented by country (India, Bangladesh, and Nepal) as well

as by states in India (Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal). Since our samples

came from rice areas with abiotic stress conditions, we will examine whether heterogeneity

exists in the selection criteria between flood- and salt-affected areas.

The data of this study came from participatory varietal selection (PVS) activities, which are part

of the Stress-Tolerant Rice for Africa and South Asia (STRASA) project funded by the Bill &

Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). STRASA aims to reduce poverty and hunger and increase

food and income security in the low-income countries of South Asia and Africa. Its vision is that

technologies should go to farmers. Specifically, there should be 30% adoption of stress-tolerant

varieties in rainfed areas over the next 10 years. The PVS activities were conducted in

submergence- and salinity-prone areas of India, Bangladesh, and Nepal through national

agricultural research and extension system (NARES) partners. Specifically, data collection was

done using three methodologies: baseline survey, preference analysis, and sensory evaluation.

11

In the baseline survey, which was conducted in 2008, there was a part in which the principal

male and principal female of each household were asked to choose the five most important

general rice traits among nine traits on the basis of selecting a good-quality rice variety (Table

1). Grain yield was considered to be the top priority of both male and female farmers in India,

Bangladesh, and Nepal. In India, male farmers gave a high rank to agronomic characteristics and

marketability while female farmers’ second and third priorities were cooking and eating quality

and agronomic characteristics, respectively. On the other hand, in Bangladesh, male and female

farmers gave a higher rank to management considerations and agronomic characteristics. Male

farmers in Nepal were more concerned about maturity. To be specific, they preferred short-

duration varieties that fit into their cropping calendar. However, female famers in Nepal gave

more importance to harvest and postharvest activities. They preferred a variety that is easy to

harvest and easy to thresh. Also, both male and female farmers in Nepal ranked cooking and

eating quality highly.

Table 1. Differences in the ranking of rice trait preferences by gender and by stress

condition using Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test (India, 2008).

Trait

Submergence Salinity/sodicity

Mean rank

P value

Mean rank

P value

Males Females Males

Females

Grain characteristics 6.35 6.59 0.23 6.25 6.57 0.008

Agronomic characteristics 8.10 7.62 0.00 6.21 6.00 0.235

Maturity 6.28 6.21 0.78 7.10 6.41 0.005

Management

considerations 6.17 6.06 0.54 6.53 6.63 0.713

Postharvest quality 5.82 6.11 0.01 8.00 8.34 0.058

Raw milled rice

characteristics 6.19 6.06 0.105 6.64 6.95 0.102

Cooking and eating

quality 6.63 7.15 0.000 6.86 7.02 0.256

Grain yield (tons/ha) 8.51 8.35 0.002 8.14 8.27 0.007

Marketability 6.10 5.92 0.006 7.41 6.97 0.003

12

When the results of the baseline survey in India were disaggregated by abiotic stress condition,

they showed that female farmers in salt-affected areas gave a high ranking to harvest and

postharvest quality as well as eating and cooking quality and yield. Male farmers focused on

yield, agronomic characteristics, and marketability for both submergence and salinity areas.

To test the difference in the ranking of rice trait preferences between males and females, a

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was performed. The results showed that female farmers gave more

importance to grain characteristics, harvest and postharvest quality, and cooking and eating

quality than male farmers. However, for agronomic characteristics, maturity, and marketability,

male farmers gave higher ranks than female farmers.

The second method of data collection is preference analysis. This is a method to identify the

most and least preferred varieties by male and female farmers in a researcher-managed trial

through voting. A researcher-managed trial (mother trial) contains 10 to 15 released and pre-

released varieties, including the local check or the common variety in the village, with almost the

same maturity duration. A total of 172 preference analyses were conducted in submergence- and

salinity-prone areas in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Some 5,987 farmers attended these trials

and 34% of the participants were women. Using correlation analysis, there was a strong to very

strong and significant relationship in preference scores between male and female farmers and a

moderate to strong and significant relationship between farmers and scientists in all stress

conditions in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal (Table 2). However, the correlation between farmers’

preference scores and yield was weak but significant. Preference scores were computed by

getting the total positive votes minus total negative votes and dividing this by the total number of

votes.

Table 2. Correlation analysis of preference scores by country and by stress condition

(India, Bangaldesh, and Nepal, 2008-13).

Country Stress condition

Correlation coefficient

Males vs.

Females

Farmers vs.

Scientists

Farmers vs.

Yield

India Submergence 0.73 ** 0.57 ** 0.25 **

Salinity/sodicity

0.75 ** 0.69 ** 0.26 **

Bangladesh Submergence 0.81 ** 0.76 ** 0.29 **

Salinity 0.70 ** 0.69 ** 0.28 **

Nepal Submergence 0.84 ** 0.67 ** 0.37 **

** = significant at 1%.

Male farmers’ reasons for

choosing the most preferred lines were short and medium duration to

fit the cropping system, medium to tall plant height that is suitable for medium and lowland

areas,

and strong stem, more tillers, uniform compact and long panicles, more grains per panic

ability to withstand more than 3

pests and diseases. F

emale farmers were more concerned

long, fine, attractive color,

and slender), tall plant heig

thatching material, and

farmyard manure

To evaluate the cooking and eating qualit

the

preference analysis, sensory

evalu

ation, codes were used for each entry to avoid bias

allowed to

examine the grain quality of uncooked rice.

according to

their common practice. After cooking, each participant evaluated the eating quality

and ranked the entries according to their preferences. From 2009

evaluations were conducted in India, Bangladesh

farmers (46% of the

participants

evaluations have similarity of the most preferred variety between male and female farmers

during evaluation while in Bangladesh it

Fig. 1. Similarity of preferences between male and female farmers during sensory

evaluation (India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, 2009

The common traits preferred by men and women farmers for cooked rice in all locations were

sweet taste, white color, and

soft and non

should be heavy in the stomach and suitable to other preparation

Assam. W

omen farmers preferred cooked rice with fine/slender grains, requir

cooking and

less cooking time, with good keeping quality and suitab

preparations.

0

20

40

60

80

100

India (n=38)

Bangladesh (n=3)

Percent

13

choosing the most preferred lines were short and medium duration to

fit the cropping system, medium to tall plant height that is suitable for medium and lowland

and strong stem, more tillers, uniform compact and long panicles, more grains per panic

weeks of submergence/salinity conditions,

and

emale farmers were more concerned

about

good grain quality (i.e., compact,

and slender), tall plant heig

ht (more straw for livestock fodder,

farmyard manure

; easy to harvest), and competitive with

To evaluate the cooking and eating qualit

y

of the top two varieties selected by the farmers

preference analysis, sensory

evaluation was performed (Fig. 1)

. During the sensory

ation, codes were used for each entry to avoid bias

and

then all the participants

examine the grain quality of uncooked rice.

W

omen farmers were asked to cook rice

their common practice. After cooking, each participant evaluated the eating quality

and ranked the entries according to their preferences. From 2009

to 20

13, a total of 49 sensory

evaluations were conducted in India, Bangladesh

, and Nepal,

which were atten

participants

were women). In India and Nepal, 60−

70% of all sensory

evaluations have similarity of the most preferred variety between male and female farmers

during evaluation while in Bangladesh it

is similar for all three

sensory evaluations.

Fig. 1. Similarity of preferences between male and female farmers during sensory

evaluation (India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, 2009

-13).

The common traits preferred by men and women farmers for cooked rice in all locations were

soft and non

-sticky texture

. Male farmers added that cooked rice

should be heavy in the stomach and suitable to other preparation

s

such as brew making in

omen farmers preferred cooked rice with fine/slender grains, requir

ing

less cooking time, with good keeping quality and suitab

ility

Bangladesh (n=3)

Nepal (n=8)

Year

Yes

choosing the most preferred lines were short and medium duration to

fit the cropping system, medium to tall plant height that is suitable for medium and lowland

and strong stem, more tillers, uniform compact and long panicles, more grains per panic

le,

and

high tolerance of

good grain quality (i.e., compact,

ht (more straw for livestock fodder,

weeds.

of the top two varieties selected by the farmers

during

. During the sensory

then all the participants

were

omen farmers were asked to cook rice

their common practice. After cooking, each participant evaluated the eating quality

13, a total of 49 sensory

which were atten

ded by 1,677

70% of all sensory

evaluations have similarity of the most preferred variety between male and female farmers

sensory evaluations.

Fig. 1. Similarity of preferences between male and female farmers during sensory

The common traits preferred by men and women farmers for cooked rice in all locations were

. Male farmers added that cooked rice

such as brew making in

ing

less water for

for various rice

14

In conclusion, some differences exist in preferences on rice traits across gender, location, and

stress condition. Male farmers give more importance to agronomic and morphological

characteristics as well as the output’s market value. Female farmers are more focused on

agronomic and gastronomic characteristics. Men and women farmers have varied knowledge,

resources, and preferences. Therefore, both of their opinions should be taken into account for the

rapid adoption of any new variety. Social scientists and plant breeders should work hand-in-hand

in developing new varieties.

15

Rice-based postharvest practices in Bangladesh

Kamala Gurung and Md. Abdur Rouf Sarkar (IRRI, Bangladesh email: k.gurung@irri.org)

“The study findings indicate that the rice-based postharvest system is still negligible in many

stages. A higher number of respondent farmers reported that they had never heard of many

postharvest technologies. Thus, demonstration with technologies and video or media clip

showing and field days are considered to be effective ways of providing training to both men and

women farmers.”

Postharvest losses of food grains in Bangladesh account for 15% of the total production (FAO

and APO 2006). The government of Bangladesh has recently taken a large number of initiatives

to improve rice-based postharvest practices. The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia

(CSISA)-Bangladesh project of IRRI has significantly contributed to these initiatives since 2011.

Female farmers play an important role in the postharvest production phase. They perform more

than half of all postharvest activities along with their male counterparts. However, little attention

has been given to the documentation of rice-based postharvest practices from a gender lens,

though these have been well documented in postharvest losses of other cereal grains (rice, wheat,

maize) and vegetables. Thus, the main objective of this study is to assess the conditions of rice-

based postharvest practices so that appropriate interventions can be designed to increase

efficiency and minimize postharvest losses (Table 1).

The data used in this report were collected by interviewing 270 households from nine villages of

four districts (i.e., Nilphamari, Rangpur, Khulna, and Jessore). Three of the six CSISA-BD

project hub offices are located in these districts. Half of the sampled households were CSISA-

BD beneficiaries. They received postharvest training and technologies from the CSISA-BD

project. The remaining half of the sampled households were non-beneficiaries. They did not

directly receive any technology or training from the CSISA-BD project. Some 144 respondents

were males and 126 respondents were females for the household survey.

The sampled farmers reported that harvesting, parboiling, and drying activities were carried out

manually using traditional methods. A majority of the sampled farmers from Rangpur (83%)

reported that threshing was carried out manually using traditional methods. The traditional

practices require more labor and higher labor cost, particularly for harvesting and threshing. In

contrast, various types of machines and equipment were used for threshing in Jessore and

Khulna. Local service providers are the ones who introduced these technologies in those regions.

Similarly, grain storage such as the “macha” (a traditional method) was widely used in Rangpur

and Khulna. A metal drum was common in Jessore. Plastic and poly-coated bags were

commonly used for seed storage in Jessore. These bags are easily available in the local markets

at a reasonable price. Traditionally, rice seeds were stored in clay pots. Hermetic bags (known as

the IRRI Super Bag) were also used for seed storage in Jessore and Rangpur. This technology

was distributed by the CSISA-BD project. Although the farmers agreed that the hermetic bag is a

superior method, they complained about its lack of availability and high price. The CSISA-BD

16

project provided training on proper seed storage practices and distributed moisture meters. Some

32% of the females and 50% of the males received the technology. The result indicates that not

much attention has been given to the improvement of postharvest activities of rice production

systems except in the seed storage system.

Table 1. Postharvest practices

1

at the study sites (%).

Item Jessore

Khulna Rangpur All

Threshing

Hand beating − − 83 28

Machine 54 18 17 30

Paddle 41 49 − 30

Power tiller 3 33 − 12

Grain storage

Macha (traditional method) 34 32 72 46

Metal drum 50 29 1 27

Plastic bag 8 21 − 10

Poly-coated bag 6 11 − 6

Not applicable 2 1 23 9

Seed storage

Clay pot 13 14 4 11

Metal drum 3 1 8 4

Plastic bag 4 29 21 18

Poly-coated bag 44 22 36 34

IRRI Super Bag 19 7 28 18

Not applicable 16 27 3 15

Reasons for not using technology %

Never heard of it 39

Heard of it, but have no information or training 20

Have information and/or training, but it’s not available 13

Too expensive 13

Not interested 14

Source: Household survey, 2013 (N = 270).

Over a third (39%) of the sampled respondents had never heard of the postharvest technologies

such as a combine harvester, flatbed dryer, collapsible dryer, moisture meter, and mechanical

parboiling. Twenty percent of them had heard about the technologies but they could not use or

adopt them because of a lack of information and training. A small proportion (13%) of the

farmers could not adopt these technologies because of a lack of affordability.

Various training methods were used for postharvest technology dissemination. The effectiveness

of these training methods was analyzed by weighted average analysis (Table 2). Male farmers

ranked field day and video/media clip as the most effective methods. Female farmers preferred

1

Harvesting, parboiling, and drying are carried out manually using traditional methods in 100% of the cases

.

17

demonstration with technologies. Both male and female farmers ranked the training with a

course as the least effective method. This indicates that the farmers are less educated and

demonstration with technologies may make them more easily understandable.

Table 2. Farmers’ response on effectiveness of training methods.

Source: Household survey, 2013.

Table 3. Germination rates of seed collected from different storage methods.

Seed germination rate (%)

Seed storage

Farmers’

perception

(270 sample HHs)

E

xperiment

(45 sample HHs)

Clay pot 86 78

Metal drum 83 90

Plastic bag 85 82

IRRI Super Bag 90 96

Poly-coated/gunny bag 89 92

Macha − 71

Grand total 87 87

Storage practice is an important determinant of seed germination rate (Table 3). To measure the

efficiency of different storage practices, seed samples were collected from farmers. These

samples were analyzed in two ways: (1) farmers’ perception and (2) farmers’ experimental

method.

2

The germination rate was found to be higher when seeds were stored in hermetic bags

(IRRI Super Bags). This finding was consistent across farmers’ perceptions and the results of the

experiment. Other storage practices such as a metal drum and poly-coated gunny bags also

performed well, with a germination rate greater than 80%.

3

On the other hand, seeds stored in a

“macha” had the lowest germination rate (below 80%).

A probit regression model was used to analyze the determinants of technology adoption. The

analysis shows that the age of the household heads is a significant determinant of technology

2

Some 100 pieces of rice seeds were soaked in water for 36 hours and the number of germinated seeds was counted.

3

According to the seed certification agency of the Ministry of Agriculture, Bangladesh, germination rates of seeds

above 80% are considered as good germination rates.

Training method

Males Females

No.* Rank No.* Rank

Demonstration with technologies 23.4 2.0 20.9 1.0

Technology without demonstration 6.8 4.0 8.2 4.0

Through showing video/media clip

21.3 3.0 18.6 2.0

Field day 24.7 1.0 16.7 3.0

Training with course 6.8 5.0 3.8 5.0

18

adoption. Similarly, the household head’s education was found to be a significant determinant of

improved technology adoption. Educated farmers seem to have more exposure to mass media

and higher access to extension services. However, no significant difference was observed in

terms of gender and household size. This may be because only

10 (4%) were women-headed

households out of the total of 270 households and the representation of women-headed

households was a small number.

Moreover, income and land size were also significant determinants of improved postharvest

technology adoption. For instance, a household with higher annual income has a higher

purchasing power for the improved technology. Therefore, the price of the technology also has

an effect on technology adoption.

The study findings indicate that the rice-based postharvest system is still negligible in many

stages. A higher number of respondent farmers reported that they had never heard of many

postharvest technologies. Thus, demonstration with technologies and video or media clip

showing and field days are considered to be effective ways of providing training to both men and

women farmers.

Table 4. Probit regression results.

Variable Marginal effects of

coefficient

Household characteristic variables

Age of household head (years) 0.003***

Sex of household head (1 = female) 0.220

Education of household head (years) 0.003*

Family size (numbers) −0.010

Dependency ratio (%) −0.003**

Household wealth variables and farm characteristics

Earning members (persons/household) 0.040

Annual income (Tk) 0.001***

Occupation of household head (1 = agriculture) 0.130*

Operated area (ha) 0.200***

Number of total male labor (person-days) −0.040

Number of total female labor (person-days) 0.020

Cost of mechanical power (Tk) −0.001***

Number of observations 270

LR chi-squared 165.5***

Pseudo R squared 0.530

Log likelihood −72.810

19

Assessment of women’s empowerment in the rice development hub of Nigeria

Vivian Ojehomon (National Cereal Research Institute, Nigeria, email: tojehomon@yahoo.com)

“This study shows that female-headed households have little access to productive resources.

They are not adequately involved in decision making and face more constraints than male-

headed households. Since women contribute much to agriculture, they should be empowered to

participate in decision making processes at the household level.”

Agriculture accounts for more than 70% of the active labor force and more than 30% of

Nigeria’s GDP. Although agricultural production activities are carried out by both male and

female farmers in Nigeria (Rahman 2004), women supply 60−80% of the agricultural labor

(Mgbada 2000) and contribute more than two-thirds of their produce toward household

subsistence (Ayoola 1999). According to the West Africa Rice Development Association

(WARDA 2003), rice generates the largest contribution to household income in Nigeria. Gender

roles in agriculture and decision making related to rice production have not received sufficient

attention to date. Hence, the need to determine the level of participation of women in agricultural

decision making as relates to the rice value chain has not been accorded the required emphasis.

Therefore, the objective of this study is to determine the level of participation of female

household heads in making agriculture-related decisions in the rice hub and to identify gender-

disaggregated constraints in rice production in these zones.

The data used for this study were collected from the baseline survey conducted in 2013 in the

Nasarawa/Benue Rice Hub of Nigeria. A three-stage stratified random sampling procedure was

used for this study. Ten households were randomly selected from 16 villages. In total, 160

households were interviewed. The data used for this study originated from both primary and

secondary sources. Primary data were collected with a fully structured questionnaire. The

questionnaire was designed using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and administration of the

questionnaire using an Mlax application tablet introduced by Africa Rice Centre. The constraints

faced by male- and female-headed households in rice production were analyzed with a Likert

scale and least significant difference (LSD) while the Women’s Empowerment Index was

employed to determine women’s involvement in decision making.

Computation of the Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) followed the International Food

Policy Research Institute (IFPRI 2012):





=  ∑









where

WEI all = Women’s Empowerment Index for all decisions per respondent

x = value of decision maker

j = code for the specific decision maker

20

d = total number of decisions made by the respondent

n = number of decisions

The WEI value ranges from 1.00 to 5.00, where

• A value of 1.00 means that the male head tends to be the sole decision maker.

• Any value below 3.00 but higher than 2.00 means that female heads join in making the

decision but the decision of the male head dominates.

• A value of 3.00 means that both the female and the male head make the decision jointly

with an equal contribution.

• A value near 5.00 and higher than 3.00 means that the female head dominates in decision

making more than the male head.

• A value of 5.00 means that the female head is the sole decision maker.

The distribution of rice farmers according to their primary activities reveals that both male (84%)

and female (94%) farmers were engaged in agriculture as their primary occupation. Some 54%

of the women did not have formal education as compared with 26% of the men. The mean land

owned for rice farming by males and females is 3.05 ha and 2.58 ha, respectively. Some 24% of

the female respondents were household heads and 76% of the males were household heads.

Some 80% of the males have access and solely make decisions regarding the use of productive

resources as compared with 8% of the females. And, 8% of the decisions are jointly made in

equal proportion; 3.68% are jointly made by the male and the female in the household, with the

male dominating such decisions. On decision making on the use of innovation, the result shows

that 79% of the decisions on choice of innovation to be used in rice farming are solely made by

the male, whereas 0.86% of the decisions are made by the female and 7.76% are jointly made

with an equal contribution. Decision making on general agricultural activities revealed that

76.6% of agricultural decisions are made solely by the male head, 7.8% are solely made by the

female head, and 7.1% are made jointly by both the male and female head of the household.

These results show that the female heads of the household are marginalized in their decision-

making role within the household.

Table 1 shows the ordinary ranking (rank) and statistical test ranking (LSD) of the constraints

faced by male and female rice farmers. Access to credit and the high cost of inputs ranked first

among the female-headed households as against the male-headed households. Poor soil fertility

ranked second among the female-headed households. It was ranked third among the male rice

farmers. Generally, the female-headed rice farming households faced these constraints more than

the male-headed households.

21

Table 1. Ranking of constraints faced by male and female rice farming households.

Males Females

Constraint Score

LSD

ranking Score

LSD ranking

Access to credit 180a 1st 53a 1st

High cost of inputs 117b 2nd 42a 1nd

Poor soil fertility 70c 3rd 25b 2nd

Scarcity of labor 64c 3th 19b 2nd

Weeds 29d 4th 10b 2nd

Lack of good roads 27d 4th 8c 3rd

Delay in rain 27d 4th 5c 3rd

Insects, pests, and diseases 26d 4th 6c 3rd

Low output and price of rice 16d 4th 4c 3rd

Flooding 10d

4th

4c 3rd

Communal clash 2d 4th 3c 3rd

Access to training 1d 4th 1c 3rd

Lack of processing equipment 1d 4th 0

Access to land 0d 4th 0

LSD statistics 27.02 15.18

Source: Field survey (2013).

This study shows that female-headed households have little access to productive resources. They

are not adequately involved in decision making and face more constraints than male-headed

households. Since women contribute much to agriculture, they should be empowered to

participate in decision-making processes at the household level.

22

Gender research in the rice development hubs in the central part of Benin

A. Kouboura Alice Djinadou Igue (Valorisation à l'Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du

Bénin, email: djinadoualice@yahoo.fr)

“The implications of this research are that rural women in the central part of Benin are not

empowered across all five domains: production, resources, income, leadership, and time.

Women are disempowered in the production, the resources, and time domains while they are

empowered in the income and leadership domains.”

Several studies have highlighted the possible negative effects of the lack of consideration of

gender roles in the innovation process in agriculture. For example, the female labor force is

about 50% of the agricultural labor force in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2011). Thus, it has been

shown that a reduction in inequality due to gender in Africa could significantly improve

agricultural production and the level of poverty (FAO 2007, World Bank 2008). FAO (2011) in

its report titled “The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011” shows that a reduction in

inequality in access to productive resources and services may increase agricultural production by

2.5% to 4% in the developing countries. The role of gender in agricultural production is essential

for the nutritional status of families as well as income generation. Therefore, a balanced

agricultural growth of gender is important for a successful program of agricultural innovation

and to increase food security, reduce poverty, and achieve the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs).

Gender mainstreaming will better tailor research programs to the specific needs of men and

women, taking into account constraints and differentiated opportunities. The argument is that

roles and responsibilities according to gender, constraints, and opportunities for gender, access to

productive resources, relationships, and gender in relation to the value chain of rice are important

and deserve special attention in adoption studies. It is important to consider gender disparities

and address them in terms of access to resources and their control in order to understand the

differentiation of attitudes vis-à-vis the introduction of agricultural innovations.

The main objective of this study is to evaluate such situations in the production of rice at the rice

center in central Benin, and the constraints and needs of men and women for the development of

appropriate technologies in the rice value chain. The specific objectives are to examine the trend

of rice production in the center over the last decade; examine gender roles throughout the rice

value chain; identify constraints and gender needs in connection with the production of rice in

the center; determine the level of participation of women in decision-making related to issues of

agricultural and domestic order; and appreciate the factors that influence the ability of decision-

making on rice farms.

23

The analytical approach used in this study varied according to the data (qualitative or

quantitative), and also according to the objectives. Content analysis was used as a framework for

analysis of qualitative data. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics

(frequencies, means, and standard deviations) and econometric techniques. The Women's

Empowerment Index (WEI) is calculated for each person surveyed. The econometric approach

has been applied in the context of the analysis of the determinants of women's empowerment.

On rice farms, the general trend that emerges shows greater involvement of men in production

work while women’s participation is predominant in postharvest activities. Indeed, the purchase

of inputs, labor, hiring and payment of labor, and the distribution of tasks in the field are mostly

done by men while processing and marketing remain women's activities. Overall, we note that,

as women, they are heads of households or wives, and men, young and old, have access to

resources for rice production. However, access to improved technologies and production

equipment varies depending on the status of women. Female heads of households have access to

more tools/production equipment and improved technologies. If women seem to have more

access to credit (see next section), men have more access to the newest technologies, labor,

inputs, and tools/production equipment. The accessibility of new heads of households to rice

production technologies such as new varieties of rice and healthy seeds was justified by their

position as a head of the household. The types of constraints faced by farmers and rice producers

do not vary according to gender. Three major constraints identified in rice production in order of

importance are the drudgery of labor, lack of access to inputs, and low or lack of access to loans

and credit.

Decisions on production factors are mostly made jointly, by men. For example, acquiring new

fields/rice plots, selling or consuming the harvest, obtaining credit, and whether or not to

participate in training are often decided jointly by the spouses in households. Cases of

consultation between spouses are also observed for most of the factors of rice production. From

the results obtained, it appears that, in almost all consultations, the decisions of husbands take

precedence over those of women. Decisions on the types of inputs to buy as well as the type of

technology to be adopted are also dominated by men. They are husbands who control the

decision to "sell" their strength in terms of labor to serve others. Apart from these two scenarios

of decision-making, women are masters of their operations in the remaining cases. Although they

use husbands to gather their opinions, they are the only ones making the final decision. Women

also keep their independence in money management from production, such as money from

nonagricultural activities. Women are free to decide on a management course, but they must

consult their husband in advance before execution.

The implications of this research are that rural women in the central part of Benin are not

empowered across all five domains: production, resources, income, leadership, and time (Table

1). Women are disempowered in the production, resources, and time domains while they are

more empowered in the income and leadership domains.

24

Table 1. Access to/control over resources and profits by gender.

Item Men HH (%) Women HH (%) Women

spouse (%)

Production resources

Access Control Access Control

Access Control

Land 87 84 86 71 77 40

Water 74 70 100 100 80 57

Capital 79 73 86 100 70 60

Improved rice

varieties 69 71 86 100 76 62

Healthy seeds 73 64 86 100 75 63

Improved technology 85 76 86 100 65 46

Labor 84 83 71 86 73 62

Inputs 85 82 86 86 60 55

Credit 56 63 100 86 73 54

Extension services 67 67 57 83 63 59

Training 79 61 43 50 70 59

Information 64 58 57 57 69 63

Tools/equipment 82 72 86 100 59 52

Profits

Harvest 76 68 71 86 71 69

Revenues from the

sale of the rice

harvested

67 65 71 86 71 68

Nonagricultural

revenues 68 62 71 83 69 76

Women need to be empowered in decision-making in rice production: choice of variety, inputs,

and technology (Table 2). There is a need to study what women’s desires are regarding rice

varietal characteristics and to conduct participatory varietal selection (PVS) with women.

Women need to be trained on

• The ability to express their needs regarding improved varieties.

• The recognition of useful varieties for them.

• The use of technologies applicable to improved varieties and to any activity pre- and

postharvest; the ability to find time for themselves despite productive and reproductive

tasks.

25

Table 2. Decision-making in the household.

Item

Husband

only (%)

Wife

only (%)

Husband

dominates (%)

Wife

dominates

(%)

Jointly

(%) WEI

Which varieties to

grow 33 29 14 4 20 1.57

Labor for hire 33 26 20 3 18 1.49

Acquire new lands 17 8 27 7 40 2.73

Sell or consume the

harvest 14 8 25 7 47 2.82

Quantity of the

harvest to sell and

consume

27 22 19 8 20 1.27

At what price to sell

the harvest 19 30 13 10 28 4.67

What type of

farming input to

buy

45 25 15 4 12 1.14

What technology to

adopt 41 22 16 8 13 1.03

Allocation of farm

income 28 25 14 6 26 1.37

Allocation of

nonfarm income 29 42 6 5 18 2.86

Request credit 12 29 19 6 34 3.08

Choose the lender 14 32 16 5 33 4.61

Take part or not in

training 50 13 13 8 15 1.29

Average

2.39

26

A qualitative approach to measuring women’s empowerment in agricultural

research: a case study in the Philippines

Joyce Luis (IRRI, Philippines, email: j.luis@irri.org)

“Women farmers have their own income aside from the income of the other members of the

household. They engage in selling rice and pigs, buy and sell milled rice (particularly the

landowners), and sell rice delicacies (for the tenants). Nonfarm sources of income are

variety/convenience store, dressmaking, acupuncture/massage, and remittances. In addition to

managing their own income, of which most of it is spent on household needs, they also manage

the income of their husbands.”

The quantitative method is the most common way of measuring women’s empowerment in the

literature. The quantitative approach is based on indices that are constructed to reflect the

decision-making power of women, men, or both. This exploratory research measures women’s

empowerment using a qualitative approach that goes beyond calculating a number. It captures

women’s words or voices about what they think of their own empowerment. The empowerment

matrix is composed of five gender equity domains and each domain comprises several indicators.

The key objectives of this study were to (1) test a qualitative approach to measuring women’s

empowerment, (2) assess differences across landholding status, and (3) identify domains for

improving women’s empowerment.

Focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to gather information on the different domains of

women’s empowerment (Table 1). We collaborated with ICDAI (Integrated Community

Development Assistance Inc.), a nongovernment grass-roots community-based organization in

Infanta, Quezon. ICDAI selected the villages and women participants who are actively involved

in rice farming. The IRRI gender research team facilitated the FGDs. Two alternative methods

were used to conduct the FGDs: (1) meta cards and (2) traditional questions and answers. The

FGDs were conducted in the following five villages: Abiawin, Balobo, Alitas, Silangan, and

Akitin. The main crop of the sampled villages is rice. Not all the villages have irrigation canals

but there are other sources of water such as ponds and rivers for dry-season rice cultivation. In

total, seven FGDs were conducted. Each FGD was composed of six to eight participants.

Nineteen of the total 47 participants were landowners, 25 were tenants, and 3 were landless.

Women participate in seedbed preparation, clearing and bundling the bunds, transplanting, re-

planting (only the landless), weeding, and hand picking of snails (Table 2). They also look after

irrigation, harvesting, threshing, drying, and winnowing. These activities are done together with

the male household members. All the women were able to manage household chores and farm

work efficiently. However, during the peak season, their priority is farm work and they set aside

27

time for household chores, which they perform when they return home. They enjoy leisure time

after doing all the work in the house and in the field. They suffer from several health problems

(e.g., headache; pain in the wrist, shoulder, back, hip, knee, and ankle; rheumatism; asthma;

hypertension; dizziness; fever; snake bite). They use home remedies to relieve the pain. Overall,

they feel happy with their time management since they still find time to relax and rest. They have

several options to engage in nonfarm work (such as working in a convenience store) but they

choose to remain as farmers and feel happy being farmers.

Table 1. Domains and indicators used for measuring gender equity.

Domain Indicator

1. Production i. Inputs in production decisions when women are directly engaged in

agriculture

ii. Inputs in production decisions when women are not directly

engaged in agriculture

2. Resources i. Ownership of productive assets (e.g., land, agri-durables, livestock)

ii. Ownership of nonproductive and consumption assets (e.g., TV,

furniture)

iii. Purchase, sale, or transfer of productive and nonproductive assets

iv. Access to and decisions on credit

v. Savings

3. Income i. Control over household income

ii. Control over own income

4. Information/

options

i. Access to information, skill, knowledge, and technology

ii. Number of income generation options

5. Leadership/

network

i. Membership in relevant groups

ii. Participation in group activities and initiatives

6. Well-being i. Workload/leisure

ii. Exposure to work-related health risks

iii. Perception about the overall quality of life

vi. Freedom of mobility

28

Table 2 Rice production activities across gender.

Activity Landowner Tenant Landless agricultural

worker

Female

Male Female Male Female Male

Seedbed

Seedbed preparation x x

Land preparation

Bundling/cleaning of dikes/

canals during land preparation

x x x x x

Crop establishment

Transplanting x x x

Re-planting x x

Crop care

Weeding x x X x

Hand picking of snails x x x

Look after irrigation x

Harvesting x x x

Gathering of harvest in one

place

Postharvest

Threshing x

Drying x x

Winnowing x x

Most of the participants grow rice (except for the landless agricultural workers), vegetables, and

fruit trees on the farm, in the backyard, and in the orchard. Landowners have more varieties of

vegetables grown. Chickens and pigs are raised by landowners and tenants. In addition, cows are

raised by landowners. Women are not only doers of farm activities but they also make decisions

regarding the choice of crops, inputs, irrigation and harvesting, and amounts to sell and retain for

home consumption. Decisions are made in consultation with both male and female household

members.

Some women participants own the house where their family lives but the farmland and house lot

are owned by the husband or the male members (Table 3). There is joint ownership for

household durables and animals, and sole (women only) ownership for jewelry by the landless.

Women farmers have their own sources of income aside from the income sources from other

members of the household. They engage in selling rice and pigs, buy and sell milled rice

(particularly the landowners), and sell rice delicacies (for the tenants). Nonfarm sources of

income are variety/convenience store, dressmaking, acupuncture/massage, and remittances.

Aside from managing their own income, of which most of it is spent on household needs, they

also manage the income of their husband.

29

Table 3. Ownership of resources.

Item

Landowner Tenant Landless agricultural

worker

Me My

husband

Both of

us Me My

husband

Both of

us Me My

husband

Both of

us

Farmland

x

House lot

x

House x x x x

Own shop x x

Farm

machinery/tools

x

Animals x x x

Household

durables

x x x x x x

x

Jewelry x

Financial

resources

x x

Women participants received their new knowledge in rice farming by attending a farmer field

school and becoming involved in the ICDAI-initiated cyber village learning method. Women are

more likely to attend seminars/training than their male counterparts, who often rely on their own

or traditional knowledge. In some cases, if the wives cannot attend the seminars, they ask their

husbands to attend. When women attend seminars or training, they feel highly satisfied with

what they learned. They want to share their learning with their husbands. They feel proud if they

receive brochures from the training or certificates of attendance. When asked about what

additional new knowledge they want to learn, landowners and tenant participants said that they

would like to learn how to operate a tractor and use a mechanical transplanter. The women

participants are active members of several agricultural and microfinance organizations. Some

women are leaders or officials of all-women member organizations. There was a case when a

leader was also a woman even if the organization was for men and women. The women said that

in joining the organization they were able to access credit with a low interest rate, socialize with

other members of the community, and learn how to become an entrepreneur.

Women participants in the FGDs were less empowered in the ownership of productive resources.

Ownership of farmland and house lots belongs to the male members of the household but women

are given access to use the land and to some degree make decisions related to agriculture.

However, these women are empowered in the (1) control over household income; (2) access to

information, skills, knowledge, and technology; (3) membership in organizations available in the

village and in some cases they are leaders or officials; and (4) efficient management of time

between the farm and household, and a feeling of happiness and contentment as a farmer.

30

Climate change, gender, and food security: case studies in Eastern Uganda

Thelma Akongo (National Agricultural Research Organization, Uganda, email:

takongo@yahoo.com)

“Petty trade carried out by women by the roadside led to poor health of their children, rape, and

early marriages. Men opted to migrate in search for jobs, leaving most of the household

responsibilities on the women. This increased women’s workload and income burden as well as

the risk of contracting HIV from their spouses upon their return.”

Extreme climate variations (ECV) such as excessive heat, drought, and unprecedented flooding

pose challenges to the livelihoods of many, especially women farmers. These variations signal

more trouble ahead with increasing global population, particularly for low-income countries. The

concern arising is the increase in food demand, which means significant challenges to sustainable

agricultural production. Therefore, to develop intervention strategies that would enable farmers

to cope with ECV and ensure improved food security and household welfare, we need to

understand the effects of adverse climate variations on the roles of women and men.

Given this background, the current study was conducted in the rice-growing areas of the eastern

part of Uganda to understand the adverse effects of ECV on the women and men involved in rice

production and their implications for food security and household welfare. The study

characterized the local climate conditions and risks by identifying the trends in climate

variability over 20 years and compared recorded data with current perceptions of men and

women farmers. In addition, the experiences and perceptions of women and men with regard to

climate shifts were examined, linking these perceptions to gender roles, food security, and

household welfare and lastly the coping and adaptation strategies to ensure food security and

household welfare. Overall, efforts were geared toward identifying the different internal and

external strategic interventions to employ with respect to ensuring food security, household

welfare, and sustainability.

The study was conducted in six districts of Eastern Uganda: Kumi, Bukedea, Soroti,

Kaberamaido, Iganga, and Mayuge. These areas have an integrated farming system consisting of

crops and livestock. These areas have been politically unstable, with a high degree of cattle

rustling and intense rebel activity. The areas receive a total of 1,000–1,100 mm of rainfall per

annum, with a bimodal distribution. Given the current changes in climate, the areas are prone to

flooding and drought.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used for data collection. A structured household

questionnaire was used for quantitative data collection. For quantitative data, a checklist was

used. Respondents’ perceptions were gathered during household interviews (HIs), focus group

31

discussions (FGDs), and key informant (KI) interviews. In total, 60 HIs, 15 FGDs, and 21 KI

interviews were conducted. Field observations to identify outstanding physical concerns and

interventions were also made. PRA activities and gender analysis tools were used to effectively

elicit information. Efforts were made to ensure that both women and men from the same

household participated.

Observations made by women and men regarding the effects of extreme climate change and

variations (mainly drought and floods) were not significantly different. The ECV events not only

affected men’s and women’s livelihoods but also livelihood strategies. Crop yields and livestock

production varied with changes in weather patterns. Drought conditions favored increased pest

and disease incidences, thus reducing crop performance and yields, with decreased water

availability for irrigation and pastures for livestock. As a result, there was a reduction in crop and

animal health status, product quality, and yield.

Fig. 1. Strategies for coping with ECV employed by women and men.

During flooding, there is a general reduction in movement and the health status of household

members. Poor sanitation in the community favored disease outbreaks. Women often become

physically worn out by increased workloads and emotionally drained by thoughts of

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

%

men

women

32

helplessness. Men become stressed, helpless, and physiologically tortured when they fail to

provide for their families. When crops and livestock production decline, women and men venture

into accessing credit so that they are able to invest in other income-generating strategies such as

brewing alcohol for sale. Men who engage in alcohol consumption compromise the peace in

their household when they get drunk and become aggressive and promote violence. Petty trade

carried out by women by the roadside led to poor health of their children, rape, and early

marriages. Men opted to migrate in search of jobs, leaving most of the household responsibilities

to the women. This increases women’s workload and income burden as well as the risk of

contracting HIV from their spouses upon their return.

With regard to coping with extreme climate variations, a number of strategies were mentioned

(Fig. 1). Other coping mechanisms identified by respondents were relying on one another (social

agency) in times of harsh conditions, especially when they run the risk of their crop being

snatched by their male counterparts. They stored their rice products with friends to tap high

prices. Venturing into group savings was also another strategy to ably access income for health,

feeding, and education purposes. Government and support institutions also offered opportunities

for men and women to access high-yielding and drought-tolerant rice varieties, training, credit,

and value chain development capacity-building interventions. Despite these interventions,

women still lacked the time and patience to participate in capacity-building interventions because

of pressing home responsibilities. Other concerns included a lack of skill in using technologies,

low self-esteem, delay in seed delivery, and lack of skill in seed health management, crop

production management, nutrition management, and weather management.

On the basis of the results, therefore, we need to understand the underlying social, cultural, and

economic barriers before any interventions are made. There is also a need to identify and

understand gender-specific barriers that pose constraints to men and women adapting to extreme

climate variations to enable them to better adapt. In addition, there is a need to build the skills of

women to enable them to access crop (rice) technologies that are better adapted to ECV

conditions. This could be done by promoting intervention approaches that engage women and

enable them to access appropriate technologies that help them in regard to labor shortages and

insufficient production quality. There is also a need to engage women and men in other off-farm

interventions that are income generating to give them a fallback position when needed.

33

Mainstreaming women in agriculture: a participatory model of research,

planning, and delivery

Swati Nayak (IRRI, India, email: s.nayak@irri.org)

“The participatory model of intervention involves community-based, women-centric institutions

and local community agents. This model is demand driven. This will in turn ensure the

ownership and sustainability of any interventions introduced with women. This also creates

avenues for the development of their own risk-coping mechanism, faster dissemination, and

social acceptability of any interventions through women in the region.”

IRRI, along with its various partners, has been operating through two key initiatives in the state

of Odisha (India), the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) and Stress-Tolerant Rice

for Africa and South Asia (STRASA). CSISA is about providing technology solutions with a

focus on an improved package of practices and mechanization in addition to varietal

interventions to enhance cereal-based cropping system productivity. STRASA’s priorities are

toward the promotion and dissemination of stress-tolerant varieties of rice to address farming and

productivity challenges within large-scale climatic risks.

CSISA, within its broader objectives, has also been prioritizing making the technology

dissemination and adoption process a socially inclusive model that emphasizes targeted inclusion

and interventions with the vulnerable sections of society, that is, women, tribes, and marginal

and resource-poor farmers. One of its priority intervention areas/districts is Mayurbhanj

(Odisha), where dedicated efforts and resources have been invested targeting women’s

interventions. With the inherent socioeconomic vulnerability and impoverishment, these women

are significantly involved in all the important agricultural operations and livelihood activities.

However, what has been missing for a long time is their recognition as farmers, a vision of

gender-specific needs in farming activities, and engaging them in mainstream agricultural

technological interventions.

CSISA has been working toward gender mainstreaming by engaging women in technology

solutions and knowledge dissemination (Fig. 1). In a sporadic manner, many CSISA

technologies have been disseminated to women farmers at an early stage. These farmers

appeared to be the early adopters and rapid disseminators of technology or knowledge. Many

technologies such as direct-seed rice, which is completely new in Odisha, have been first

introduced in Mayurbhanj through a woman farmer named Kausalya Mahanta from a tribal

village. She successfully established and popularized the technology in her region. Similarly,

many technologies such as zero tillage in postrice crops, mat-type nursery preparation for

mechanical transplanting, and line sowing for other cereals such as maize were successfully

delivered through women’s groups.

Fig. 1. The community-

centric participatory model of technology dissemination for women

in agriculture in Mayurbhanj, Odisha.

Given the successful

interventions with women, CSISA has systematically adopted an integrated

approach and model of participatory research, planning

participatory model of intervention involves community

local community agents who act as

of CBOs (community-

based organizations) and CRPs (community resource persons), CSISA

envisages acting

as a catalyst in building the capacity of the CRPs and CBOs

technologies while strongly involving them in

model of choice, preference,

and ownership over technologies. This means that the approach is

demand driven. This will in turn ensure the ownership

introduced with women. This also creates avenues for development of their own risk

34

centric participatory model of technology dissemination for women

in agriculture in Mayurbhanj, Odisha.

interventions with women, CSISA has systematically adopted an integrated

approach and model of participatory research, planning

,

and delivery for women farmers. The

participatory model of intervention involves community

-based women-

centric institutions and

local community agents who act as

an

interface with these organizations. Through involvement

based organizations) and CRPs (community resource persons), CSISA

as a catalyst in building the capacity of the CRPs and CBOs

technologies while strongly involving them in

the

planning process to have a decentralized

and ownership over technologies. This means that the approach is

demand driven. This will in turn ensure the ownership

and sustainability of any interventions

introduced with women. This also creates avenues for development of their own risk

centric participatory model of technology dissemination for women

interventions with women, CSISA has systematically adopted an integrated

and delivery for women farmers. The

centric institutions and

interface with these organizations. Through involvement

based organizations) and CRPs (community resource persons), CSISA

as a catalyst in building the capacity of the CRPs and CBOs

around different

planning process to have a decentralized

and ownership over technologies. This means that the approach is

and sustainability of any interventions

introduced with women. This also creates avenues for development of their own risk

-coping

35

mechanism, faster dissemination, and social acceptability of any interventions through women in

the region.

Through strong and continuous capacity-building programs and hand-holding support, CSISA is

all set to groom and develop a network and group of CRPs (both male and female) as trained

trainers who are the local representatives and who have access to and association with a large

number of women CBOs for multiple developmental agendas. They are now being built as a

knowledge and service point that is from the community and will remain in the community to

transfer and support development. The federated bodies of these CBOs or the anchoring NGOs

have their own internal systems of selecting CRPs, monitoring them, managing them, and

retaining them. In the due process of knowledge/technology dissemination, many other women

farmers from the CBOs also emerge as potential resource persons and farmer scientists for

further scaling up and a strengthened knowledge base.

In CSISA-Odisha’s approach, the choice of technology lies with the women farmers who are

equally and intensively involved in agricultural operations and use various resources and factors

of production. Irrespective of the ownership of various productive resources, the usage and

involvement are equal to or more than that of their male counterparts in the social context of

Mayurbhanj or any other tribal districts of Odisha. Hence, for CSISA, technology delivery is

demand driven. From the large basket of technologies CSISA has, it was decided to select

particular technologies based on the demand from women and it was also decided to assess the

awareness level around various technologies so that CSISA could accordingly design and

intensify its capacity-building programs.

Hence, it followed a systematic model of participatory knowledge need assessment through RRA

(rapid rural appraisal); sensitization and exposure around CSISA technologies through field

days; and a farmer-to-farmer sharing and technology prioritization exercise through detailed

focus group discussions. Three day-long events and exercises were organized with three different

women’s groups representing almost eight blocks in Mayurbhanj where CSISA targets starting

women-specific interventions. These were carried out in March 2014. Through the above

exercises, the demand for interventions involved five technologies for kharif 2014:

1. Improved direct seeding of rice for areas where broadcasting is the common practice

2. Improved line sowing and related practices for maize cultivation

3. Mat-type nursery preparation and mechanical transplanting of rice for lowland areas

where transplanting is the common practice

4. Introducing new rice varieties (stress tolerant) and establishing a local seed production

system

5. Improved postharvest practices in the area of improved seed/grain storage and threshing

The knowledge dissemination model is that in which CSISA directly trains the CRPs in phases

across all the technologies selected for the area and CRPs further disseminate the knowledge to

36

women farmers (organized in self-help groups) based on their specific need for any suitable

technology adopted by them.

Through this CRP and CBO-led dissemination model, CSISA aims to gradually yet sustainably

empower women in agriculture by enhancing their accessibility to knowledge, technology, and

other resources through trained local agents, and also build their own capacity for improved

technology adoption and leveraging potential entrepreneurial and business opportunities

around these technologies. During the ongoing season, through this model, there is a plan to

mainstream 3,000 to 4,000 women farmers organized in 300 to 400 self-help groups through at

least any one suitable technology entry point spearheaded by nearly 45 CRPs and 5 to 6 local

entrepreneurs.

37

Kisan Sakhi: the silent revolution of women’s empowerment in Bihar

Sugandha Munshi (IRRI, India, email: s.munshi@irri.org)

“It is equally important to consider how to make these interventions sustainable rather than an

initiative taken by the women farmers out of excitement. Here what works is their ownership in

the very beginning about the initiative they want to take.”

Women’s contribution to agriculture generally goes unnoticed. As a result, their needs are

required to be catered to through research, extension, and action for improving their income and

well-being. It is crucial that the technologies that will help them improve their productivity reach

them directly.

The ongoing work of women’s empowerment in Bihar is based on a women-centric approach

with efforts for mainstreaming the women farmers who are being recognized and named as

“Kisan Sakhi.” Kisan Sakhis are the ones who are taking steps ahead as farmers with women-led

federations. The last six months of intensive focused intervention with them have taken us to the

journey of redefining women in agriculture. One of the important milestones is to make them

understand and together understand how to create a status in which women are recognized as a

farmer. “In spite of doing all kinds of work in the field, I never got the respect/name as a farmer

that men farmers would get,” said Sumintra Devi, who is now a member of Kisan Sakhi. “Here, I

have got an identity. Now, we are Kisan Sakhi: the very thought of women ‘being a farmer’ and

making others understand their human face as a farmer who has equal capacity to bring food to

the table.”

The experiences of the past months have thrown light on the following four prospective pillars of

women’s empowerment in agriculture:

• Identity/name/recognition as a farmer

• Knowledge bank/awareness-capacity building on different technology that helps increase

production and reduce drudgery

• Increasing women’s access to and control over income and benefits

• Strengthening women’s leadership

The process of empowerment involves filling the gap between knowledge, action, and practice.

The journey to mainstream women in agriculture involves understanding the various attributes

along with her area of influence. Various steps and factors influence the process. The factors

vary according to her understanding of self as a farmer. This equally involves her ability and

effort to negotiate and discuss within her group, family, and area of influence. There is also a

need for her to take initiative, take risk, and share risk.

38

Lessons learned

• A group approach is required when we start working with women.

• The group comprises heterogeneous members varying from landless, marginalized, and

smallholders to landowners and young and old farmers.

• In order to start any intervention, we need to first do a needs analysis with them and for

them.

• Participatory approaches need to be adopted in women-farmer community development.

• There is an intrinsic need to develop platforms for women’s direct access to technology,

reaching out to them directly.

• Sharing of trust and use of soft power (trust, faith, sharing risk, listening to them first) are

needed.

• This also then needs to be extended in research.

• An increase in production has a direct relation to boosting women’s confidence and

continuing with her effort for gaining new knowledge.

• The platforms for developing networks are very subjective.

• Appropriate, women-friendly technologies are needed.

• It is important to reduce women’s drudgery and bridge the gender gap in agriculture.

• Last but not least, an enabling environment in which we listen to women first and support

them to think and reflect more and more is needed.

Important landmarks

• 120 for green gram and 150 for maize

• 150 chose a maize sheller

• 16 self-help groups (with 12 to 15 women farmers) going for MTUPR use in the very

first season of their interaction with us

• 2 self-help groups are leading and pooling resources for buying the machine themselves

for this season

• A one-of-a-kind silent revolution in Bihar vis-à-vis India in developing women service

providers

Developing women service providers is part of a major shift in the context of participating

women’s groups. There are chances to obtain opportunities to involve women in adopting new

technologies. The planned process has started in the very first season of their involvement with

us. One of the important developments in this is the possibility of making women farmers service

providers. Definitely, this needs to involve risk management practices as well.

39

Farmers to become entrepreneurs

As part of Kisan Sakhi, four women’s self-help groups in the Bandra area are pooling resources

to buy a rice-transplanting machine, which will help them to earn income by offering custom-

hire services.

It is equally important to make these interventions sustainable rather than an initiative taken by

the women farmers out of excitement. Here, what works is their ownership from the very

beginning of the initiative they want to take. In order to make the initiative sustainable, it is

important to travel the distance between use and adoption. If in this season they have made use

of our technologies, next season they should continue with it.

How do we make the interventions sustainable?

• Cover the pathway from use to adoption.

• Do risk mitigation in the beginning vis-à-vis the technology we promote.

• Do action research. Learn lessons from research and revise our actions.

• Do time-bound needs and impact analysis.

• Study the decision-making attributes.

When do we include men?

The right time is definitely not in the beginning since there are chances of women farmers being

dominated/losing their space to practice the new technology/knowledge. Incorporating men in

the success directly or indirectly regarding kharif production of maize in the field proved itself to

us and developed confidence in that we were happily being valued (Guddi Devi, Bandra block).

Definitely, this cannot and should not happen in isolation but we have to be very strategic about

the time we incorporate men. Last but not least in empowering women in agriculture, it is

important how much we can work with them together in order to share the does and don'ts with

our research and action.

40

Integrating gender in AfricaRice research: an overview of the Africa-wide

Gender Task Force

Afiavi R Agboh-Noameshie (Africa Rice, email: A.Agboh-Noameshie@cgiar.org)

“The Gender Task Force has taken off with research activities in 19 countries. The outputs of

these research activities will bring more light to the understanding of gender concerns and allow

an effective integration of gender in rice research in Africa.”

The Gender in Rice Research and Technology Development Task Force (GRRTD) was

established in 2011 with the mission of ensuring effective gender mainstreaming in the rice

research agenda and capacity-building activities in order to deliver gender-friendly technologies

that can improve the quality and competitiveness of locally produced rice.

The task force approach is one of the mechanisms used by AfricaRice to achieve its strategic

goals. Other mechanisms are GRiSP (Global Rice Science Partnership) and the Rice Sector

Development Hubs. The hubs are zones where rice research products are integrated across the

rice value chain to achieve development outcomes and impact. They represent key rice

ecosystems and different market opportunities in the target areas and will be linked to major

regional or national rice development efforts to facilitate out-scaling.

The objective of the Gender Task Force is to support the efforts of AfricaRice and its national

agricultural research and extension system (NARES) partners in addressing gender concerns,

especially gender gaps in access to technologies, technical knowledge, women’s specific

technology needs, and their potential roles as contributors and beneficiaries of technologies in

the rice value chain. The Gender Task Force is made up of 19 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso,

Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo,

Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra

Leone, and Uganda.

Highlights of research activities conducted in 2013

• Assessing the consequences of extreme climate variability on food security and gender

roles in sustaining livelihoods:

This is a cross-cutting theme on gender and climate change that was developed and conducted in

Africa through the Gender Task Force of AfricaRice and in Asia through the International Rice

Research Institute. In Africa, the study was conducted during 2011-12 in four countries, Benin,

Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda. Three other countries were added in 2013-14.

Results indicated that women are as good as men in understanding the pattern of climate change.

Drought, submergence, salinity, and flooding became threatening climate change stressors in

41

2009. Migration is a coping strategy common to men as well as an impact that threatens farming

households because of stressors. The strategies to alleviate the effects of farmers’ perceived

vagaries of climate change in rice production should ensure fair involvement of men and women

in the rice production system. Impact analysis should be carried out to discover the quantitative

impacts of climate change. There is a need for education of farmers on the causes of climate

change and possible precautions to reduce its intensity.

Data collection is ongoing in Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, and Mali. The qualitative data indicated

that female and male farmers are aware of climate change but attributed it to various causes such

as dam construction in the early 1970s as well as other development projects, such as road

construction (in Cameroon for example). Although the communities, based on individual efforts,

have put various adaptation measures in place, they were not targeted at reducing the impact of

climate change. Therefore, a massive awareness campaign is required to encourage attitudinal

changes and awareness creation on climate change.

• Addressing gender concerns in rice research and development for poverty alleviation in

sub-Saharan Africa:

In Nigeria, the study showed that efforts targeted at reducing poverty among rice-farming

households, which include the introduction of high-yielding rice varieties suitable for different

growing environments, are yielding positive results. Female farmers are more open to rice

research and innovation and they are not as poor as male farmers. Also, there is a high level of

adoption of rice innovation and the potential of an increase in this level is promising among rice

farmers. The major constraints to rice farming are a lack of access to credit, the high cost of

inputs, and poor soil fertility. In Benin, gender-related inequalities are found in access to and

control of some productive resources. Decision-making power varies depending on the area. Men

dominate in decisions on production and women have some autonomy in the management of

income they generated though their activities. The decision concerning household nutrition is

exclusively for women. The major determinants of decision-making by women are contact with

research, the age of the head of the household, and the type of household.

Plans for 2014-15

Five research themes identified by the Gender Task Force are being conducted starting in May

2014 (Table 1):

• Doing participatory evaluation of pre- and postharvest rice technologies and effects on

women’s welfare in Africa.

• Reducing gender inequalities in the provision of agricultural extension services.

• Empowering women farmers through adaptation and dissemination of women-friendly

improved technologies.

• Providing seeds of stress-tolerant varieties to vulnerable women farmers with associated

training on improved cultivation practices.

42

• Enhancing the technical and entrepreneurial knowledge of women rice processors.

Table 1. Research themes and implementing countries.

Research theme Participatory countries

Participatory evaluation of rice pre- and

postharvest technologies and effects on

women's welfare

Benin, Cameroon, Guinea, Liberia,

Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda

Reducing gender inequalities in the provision

of agricultural extension services

Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Madagascar,

Tanzania

Empowering women farmers through

adaptation of rice technologies

Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,

Providing seeds of stress-tolerant varieties to

women farmers and associated training on

improved rice production practices

Benin, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra

Leone, and Central African Republic

Enhancing the technical and entrepreneurial

knowledge of women rice processors

Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Senegal, and

Chad

GRiSP funding is complemented by some projects being implemented by AfricaRice in the

various countries. The Gender Task Force has taken off with research activities in 19 countries.

The outputs of these research activities will bring more light to the understanding of gender

concerns and allow an effective integration of gender in rice research in Africa.

43

An overview of gender-related activities within the Consortium for

Unfavorable Rice Environments (CURE)

Digna Manzanilla (IRRI, Philippines, email: d.mazanilla@irri,org)

“Across Asia, women in agriculture play important roles yet there is inequitable and differential

access to and control of resources, particularly in areas that are affected by biophysical stresses.

IFAD and IRRI indicate the importance that CURE should place on the participation of women

in networking arrangements with respect to the activities on germplasm development, testing and

release of varieties, and validation of natural resource management (NRM) practices, and in

adaptive research.”

The Consortium for Unfavorable Rice Environments (CURE) began in 2002 as a regional

platform based on a long-term partnership between IRRI and the national agricultural research

and extension systems (NARES) working on rainfed environments in South and Southeast Asia.

CURE's strategy involves on-site farmer-participatory research and a multidisciplinary approach

linking scientists from NARES and international research centers. Membership comprises 10

countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines,

Thailand, and Vietnam).

Activities are arranged through four working groups aimed at drought-prone, submergence-

prone, and saline-affected areas, and upland systems.

CURE’s specific objectives are

• To serve as a platform and forum for identifying and prioritizing rice research for rainfed

environments that generate international/regional public goods for improving rural

livelihoods;

• To provide logistical support to NARES-IRRI-ARI strategic research collaboration in key

sites for developing and validating technologies that address high-priority issues for

increasing and sustaining productivity; and

• To promote resource sharing and information exchange across national programs.

Across Asia, women in agriculture play important roles yet there is inequitable and differential

access to and control of resources, particularly in areas that are affected by biophysical stresses.

IFAD and IRRI indicate the importance that CURE should place on the participation of women

in networking arrangements with respect to the activities on germplasm development, testing and

release of varieties, and validation of natural resource management (NRM) practices, and in

adaptive research. This further highlighted the need for systematic collection and reporting of

gender-disaggregated information. It is for the following reasons that CURE formulated the

44

Gender Mainstreaming Guide that embodies CURE’s core value of gender-responsiveness.

CURE follows the IFAD GENDER FRAMEWORK: “Reducing gender inequalities promotes

social justice and sustainable development.” For IFAD, gender equality should cut across its

entire development program where it is systematically fostered.

How to incorporate gender concerns in CURE activities: entry points

• Program coordination and management level

Women in program management and project activity implementation with NARES should be

part of the systematized collection of gender-disaggregated data. The following questions can be

addressed before/during the project implementation:

Are women scientists involved in rice research and development activities of CURE?

If limited, why? If yes and to a satisfactory extent, how are they involved and to what extent are

their decisions heard or considered in the overall research framework and operational activities?

What are the factors behind these scenarios?

Are they given equal opportunity for training and participation in scientific forums and related

activities?

What are the challenges that women face in conducting research?

What are the implications for education and knowledge-sharing?

In extension, gender concerns in staffing, gender balance in delivery of services, and how

technologies are disseminated: conventional extension, group approaches, farmer field schools,

and social networks can be assessed.

• Project implementation level

The following are questions about the gender dimensions of each of the CURE components:

Do men and women participate in the program, including decision-making?

Does the program have strategies to involve men and women? Will it increase the participation

of women?

Do women have equitable access to and control over the program resources? Or is the program

steered with a view to increasing men’s and women’s equal benefits?

Is a “gender analysis” methodology used?

• Monitoring and evaluation level

The following are key elements of a gender-responsive M&E:

45

The M&E system includes indicators that measure gender differences in outputs and outcomes.

The project database has sex-disaggregated data and gender-related information.

The project uses the sex-disaggregated and gender data in its reports and programming.

GAD targets are being met, where applicable.

The project is addressing gender issues arising from the way it is being implemented.

The project is employing participatory M&E processes.

Gender concerns in CURE activities

• Component 1: Support to CURE

CURE activities ensure that technological options are available to men and women farmers to

address key development constraints.

• Component 2: Technical innovation services

In pilot activities, it is made sure that there are men and women partners and beneficiaries that

can play key roles and have equitable benefits to attain maximum results from the project.

Example of these activities are

 Testing the varieties

 Information on management practices

 Training on livestock production and vegetable production

 Seed health management and crop management

• Component 3: Out- and up-scaling of innovations, and knowledge management

CURE facilitates the early identification of viable interventions for improving livelihoods in

unfavorable environments. These promising innovations will then effectively be available for

out- and up-scaling.

Example of the activities: “women in community-based seed systems: establishment of women-

led CBSS”; women leaders in farmers’ organizations; and the documentation of women’s

contribution and involvement in activities and assessment of benefits through oral testimony.

• Component 4: Capacity building

IFAD’s target is 30% women’s participation as a minimum and 50% as the main target; for

IFAD, 40% is already an excellent mark!!

Interpretation of the coefficient of the Women’s Empowerment Index for Bangladesh, Lao

PDR, the Philippines, and Nepal

46

Bangladesh

• Husbands dominate the household decisions on crop management activities.

• Women are more empowered in terms of monetary decision-making and livestock and

poultry management.

Philippines

• The wives participated in crop production activities but the husbands are more involved

than their wives.

• The wives were involved but only on joint decision-making activities on postharvest

operations, seed health management, seed sourcing, and livestock and poultry

management.

Lao PDR

• There is joint decision-making for both the husband and the wife in terms of postharvest

operations and seed health management.

• Men dominate in crop management activities.

Nepal

• There is joint decision-making for both the husband and the wife in all farming activities

except for monetary decision-making.

• In Nepal, more women farmers are involved in crop establishment and crop care.

In the Philippines and Bangladesh, women farmers are also involved in crop care activities.

In Thailand and Indonesia, women farmers are involved in crop establishment activities.

PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN COMMUNITY-BASED SEED PRODUCERS’ GROUPS,

NEPAL

The IRRI–Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) collaborative project work started

the community seed bank in three Western Mid-Hill districts in Nepal. The project was launched

in 2005.

After 9 years, 11 seed producer groups (SPGs) have been formed, and two SPGs are exclusive to

women farmers, the Harrabot Ladies’ SPG and Majhuwa Ladies’ SPG. All the other SPGs have

women farmers as members.

The average number of members is 36, ranging from 21 to 60. Excluding the two women’s

groups, women representation ranges from 21% to 45%.

In terms of labor spent on farming activities, more women in Nepal are involved in crop

establishment and crop care activities.

47

In the Philippines and Bangladesh, the activities were mostly done by men but the women

farmers were involved in crop care activities such as fertilizer application, hand-weeding, and

herbicide and insecticide application.

Unlike in Thailand and Indonesia, female farmers were involved in crop establishment activities

such as furrowing, seeding, and thinning and gap filling.

Outcome of community-based seed producers on the adoption of stress-tolerant rice in

Nepal

Results of oral testimonies obtained by CURE with the women’s SPGs:

The women farmers become more empowered with a community seed bank (CSB).

Confidence in raising productivity has developed.

Feeling good about themselves, the women can now contribute more and be of importance to

society.

Stories about women

A news article about women was published in the CURE newsletter (Vol. 4, No. 1). The article

is on the appreciation of one woman farmer of CURE and the CLRRI project and the new variety

(OM 6677) that has high yield and tolerance of salt stress.

48

An overview of gender-related activities in IRRI-PETRRA, IRRI-FoSHoL,

and CSISA-India projects

Ahmad Salahuddin (IRRI, Philippines, email: a.salahuddin@irri.irg)

“For a women’s empowerment program to be effective, a number of issues need to be kept in

mind. Commitment and targets to include women should be clearly outlined at the outset.

Patience is important; development is a gradual process that happens over time through

learning by doing.”

Three different projects were implemented in three different time spans. The Poverty Elimination

through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA) project was implemented in Bangladesh with

DFID support during 2000-04. The FoSHoL project was also implemented in Bangladesh during

2006-09 with EC support to disseminate PETRRA technologies. Although PETRRA had the

primary objective of conducting pro-poor participatory adaptive research, FoSHoL’s main focus

was on technology dissemination. The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) is an

ongoing project being implemented in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. CSISA has both a research

and development agenda in the field of conservation agriculture.

PETRRA adopted a value-based concept in project design, planning, and implementation. The

inclusion of women as the main target group remained at the heart of the concept. Through an

experiential learning process, agricultural research and development (R&D) institutes, NGOs,

private agencies, and community-based organizations rediscovered and improved the

understanding of their strengths in meeting development commitments. The project started with

10% women’s participation as beneficiaries. At the end, women’s participation had increased to

41%. Women were included in the process of demand/need analysis and project management.

They were introduced to training on gender for male researchers in which they conducted regular

gender discussions, audits, and field visits to learn from each other. A number of women-friendly

technologies and extension methods were identified, many of which have been mainstreamed

within the partner agency programs.

FoSHoL, on the other hand, had a systematic approach. From the beginning, the target was to

include 50% women as beneficiaries. Food-deficit households were organized into groups. The

group members analyzed their food security status and came up with suggestions for solutions.

The suggestions for interventions included both farm and nonfarm activities. A gender strategy

was in place at the outset of the project. A significant number of women team members were

recruited. There were periodic gender audits based on gender-disaggregated information. The

most significant feature of FoSHoL was the group approach and converting these groups into

49

CBOs, which facilitated mutual learning, savings, and being able to approach different

government and service delivery agencies collectively.

The outcomes of both of these projects were very positive and significant. The most powerful

impact was on the knowledge front. Men and women were given equal and complete knowledge

of agricultural practices in all aspects of the production system. This initiative was highly

appreciated by the women and it led to high impact.

Based on the lessons learned from PETRRA and FoSHoL, a training module has been developed

on Women’s Leadership for the CSISA project in India. The idea was to train a group of

potential women leaders engaged in the field of agriculture/development/livelihoods from

different public organizations, CSOs, and the private sector. Potential women leaders would

receive an initial orientation on gender issues: concepts and theoretical aspects of women in

development. They then would be taken to villages to talk with their women clients to

understand their development priorities. Women farmers’ needs and priorities would be analyzed

and matched with the priorities of CSISA and, afterward, potential areas of intervention would

be identified. The leaders then would develop project concepts and proposals during the training

sessions. These projects could be considered by CSISA for implementation based on their merits.

From the training of about 20 potential women leaders, we found 20 different concepts of

women-to-women projects on various aspects of women-friendly CSISA technologies and

methods. The final plan was to develop a women leaders’ forum that could be a periodic learning

and sharing platform for these new leaders. This concept is yet to be tested.

For a women’s empowerment program to be effective, several issues need to be kept in mind.

Commitment and targets to include women should be clearly outlined at the outset. The

identification of research and intervention issues with men and women in the beginning is

important. Partnership with the right agencies needs to be ensured. In an agricultural research for

development project/program, it is important that women receive all kinds of knowledge, no

matter whether the women are involved in all aspects. Patience is important; development is a

gradual process that happens over time through learning by doing. The right strategies need to be

in place: women to women, innovative women farmers as role models in extension, a group

approach, and the use of simple innovative tools (photographs, videos). As part of the impact-

oriented project management plan, presenting gender-disaggregated information to understand

gaps, planning gender-balanced capacity building, forming a gender-balanced monitoring team,

adopting periodic gender audits as a tool for capacity building, and finally adopting an overall

management approach help achieve gender goals.

Addressing Gender Access to the Dissemination of Stress Tolerant Rice Variety Seed

Figures

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