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Current status of animal traction in Mexico
Abstract
In Mexico there is a wide contrast of farming activities. Much of farmland (5,574,770 ha) is cultivated by small farmers (2,243,138 holdings with < 5 ha), yet, some regions are already highly mechanised, and in other areas machinery contract services are available to farmers. To meet the demands for increased crop production it is necessary for the small farms to adopt improved technology including some mechanisation of farm operations, and for the larger farms to keep abreast of current developments in agricultural technology. In Mexico, the development of farm machinery utilisation is quite progressive, as previous government policies have greatly favoured tractors and discriminated against animal-powered methods. Still much of the land (5,885,400 ha) is tilled by a great number of working animals (3,765,774). Draught animals are the most important power source in the less fertile regions. Twenty five per cent of total power provided to agriculture comes from bovines and equines. Mexico has undertaken programs to encourage improved management and the use of animal-drawn equipment appropriate to the needs of small farmers, but the results have been disappointing. Local manufacture of promising implements was also encouraged. Although, the marketed equipment has been trailed and used with success and both technical performance and customer acceptability has been good, it did not further impress the farmer. This study shows that constraints for adopting this low-power technology exist, of which the most important are probably small farmers low purchase power and lack of reliable extension services.
... If the live weights of oxen are between 300 and 400 kg a typical communal area ox is 350 kg (Elliot, 1989). In similar work to that done by Howard (1980), Goe (1983) states that using standard figures of sustainable pull of 10 to 14 % of combined weight, four typical oxen can exert a sustained draft force of about 1.4 to 2 kN for a four to six hour working day. Using the typical weight of 367kg, two oxen are expected to till farmers' field in winter and shallow ploughing after the first rains and perform any subsequent mechanical weeding operations without straining them (despite their poor condition during the early part of the rainy season). ...
... This is not strictly true for ploughing animals because oxen working on the furrow side can expend 20-25 percent more energy than their work mates on the unploughed land side (Dijkman, 1991). Health and well-fed oxen can pull 10-12% of their live weight continuously over a working day (Goe, 1983). ...
... According to Goe (1983) the animals should find pulling the OC heavy while it should be comfortable to pull OP+D and OP-D. ...
This thesis reports the results of a survey carried out in Muzarabani, through use of a questionnaire administered to a total of 83 farmers in Gutsa, Muringazuva, Mfudzi and Kapembere villages to determine the condition of animal powered implements. It also assesses the performance of three animal powered mechanical weeding implements using the mother-baby approach through various options for land preparation, crop establishment and weed management. The assessments were done during the 2000/01 and 2001/02 seasons. The thesis concludes by discussing the merits and demerits of using the different weeding options.
Mould board ploughs (OP+Ds) and cultivators (OCs) were generally found to be in a condition average to good as most farmers interviewed had fairly new implements (less than 6 years). More than 50% of the OP+Ds had their hitch assembly removed and cultivators had the two front tines removed. About 40% of OP+Ds had worn out landsides, shares, regulator hakes, wheels and wheel axles while between 30-45% OCs had worn out wheels and axles. More than 80% of farmers rarely replaced their draw bar hitch assembly, frog, regulator hakes, u-piece and screw, u-clamp, plough handles and stays. Only 16-22% of farmers claimed that they replaced the wheel axles, wheels and tines once in three years in cultivators. The rest of the parts for the OCs were rarely replaced. Most farmers (63%) were not aware of the depth of cut adjustment options in cultivators like positioning the wheel arms and adjusting the length of the chain.
The use of winter followed by spring ploughing (wp + sp) resulted in reduced subsequent, draft force requirements, supplementary hand weeding requirements and weed density. At the same time wp + sp increased work rates, field efficiency, soil moisture retention levels throughout the season. When practised, it resulted in a better crop stand and increased cotton yield by 33% compared to spring ploughing only. There was no significant difference between using the open plough furrow planting technique and the ripper tine for crop establishment for the various parameters looked at.
The use of an OC for weed control resulted in significantly (P<0.001) more draft force requirements than the mould board plough with mould board (OP+D) or without (OP-D). The use of OC in some instances resulted in draft capabilities greater than 12% of the body weight of draft animals, which is considered to be higher than what a span of oxen can comfortably pull for a working day. However, it was noted that the OC had significantly (P<0.001) higher field efficiency of more than 90% compared to OP+D and OP-D of less than 70%. The use of OP + D resulted in significantly (P<0.001) higher weeding efficiency and soil moisture retention at 6 and 9 weeks after crop emergence (wace) while the OC gave the least.
The use of the different weeding implements did not result in a significant yield variation, but carrying out winter ploughing in addition to spring ploughing resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher yields than spring ploughing only. The economic studies revealed that the cost of banded pre-emergence herbicide was lower than the supplementary hand weeding cost. In a season with good rainfall pattern (2000/2001) of at least 450mm distributed over 4 months the additional cost incurred in winter ploughing for wp + sp portions was easily offset by the increase in cotton yield. At the same time in a drought/bad season (2001/2002) though with 540mm of rainfall poorly distributed over 2 ½ months the additional cost incurred in winter ploughing for wp + sp portions was lower than the increase in cotton yield. The study also showed that the highest returns to labour are obtained by using OP+D whilst the lowest overall weeding cost and greatest productivity is achieved with OC, in both cases with a band application of pre-emergence herbicide.
... If the live weights of oxen are between 300 and 400 kg a typical communal area ox is 350 kg (Elliot, 1989). In similar work to that done by Howard (1980), Goe (1983) states that using standard figures of sustainable pull of 10 to 14 % of combined weight, four typical oxen can exert a sustained draft force of about 1.4 to 2 kN for a four to six hour working day. Using the typical weight of 367kg, two oxen are expected to till farmers' field in winter and shallow ploughing after the first rains and perform any subsequent mechanical weeding operations without straining them (despite their poor condition during the early part of the rainy season). ...
... This is not strictly true for ploughing animals because oxen working on the furrow side can expend 20-25 percent more energy than their work mates on the unploughed land side (Dijkman, 1991). Health and well-fed oxen can pull 10-12% of their live weight continuously over a working day (Goe, 1983). ...
... According to Goe (1983) the animals should find pulling the OC heavy while it should be comfortable to pull OP+D and OP-D. ...
This thesis reports the results of a survey carried out in Muzarabani, through use of a questionnaire administered to a total of 83 farmers in Gutsa, Muringazuva, Mfudzi and Kapembere villages to determine the condition of animal powered implements. It also assesses the performance of three animal powered mechanical weeding implements using the mother-baby approach through various options for land preparation, crop establishment and weed management. The assessments were done during the 2000/01 and 2001/02 seasons. The thesis concludes by discussing the merits and demerits of using the different weeding options.
Mould board ploughs (OP+Ds) and cultivators (OCs) were generally found to be in a condition average to good as most farmers interviewed had fairly new implements (less than 6 years). More than 50% of the OP+Ds had their hitch assembly removed and cultivators had the two front tines removed. About 40% of OP+Ds had worn out landsides, shares, regulator hakes, wheels and wheel axles while between 30-45% OCs had worn out wheels and axles. More than 80% of farmers rarely replaced their draw bar hitch assembly, frog, regulator hakes, u-piece and screw, u-clamp, plough handles and stays. Only 16-22% of farmers claimed that they replaced the wheel axles, wheels and tines once in three years in cultivators. The rest of the parts for the OCs were rarely replaced. Most farmers (63%) were not aware of the depth of cut adjustment options in cultivators like positioning the wheel arms and adjusting the length of the chain.
The use of winter followed by spring ploughing (wp + sp) resulted in reduced subsequent, draft force requirements, supplementary hand weeding requirements and weed density. At the same time wp + sp increased work rates, field efficiency, soil moisture retention levels throughout the season. When practised, it resulted in a better crop stand and increased cotton yield by 33% compared to spring ploughing only. There was no significant difference between using the open plough furrow planting technique and the ripper tine for crop establishment for the various parameters looked at.
The use of an OC for weed control resulted in significantly (P<0.001) more draft force requirements than the mould board plough with mould board (OP+D) or without (OP-D). The use of OC in some instances resulted in draft capabilities greater than 12% of the body weight of draft animals, which is considered to be higher than what a span of oxen can comfortably pull for a working day. However, it was noted that the OC had significantly (P<0.001) higher field efficiency of more than 90% compared to OP+D and OP-D of less than 70%. The use of OP + D resulted in significantly (P<0.001) higher weeding efficiency and soil moisture retention at 6 and 9 weeks after crop emergence (wace) while the OC gave the least.
The use of the different weeding implements did not result in a significant yield variation, but carrying out winter ploughing in addition to spring ploughing resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher yields than spring ploughing only. The economic studies revealed that the cost of banded pre-emergence herbicide was lower than the supplementary hand weeding cost. In a season with good rainfall pattern (2000/2001) of at least 450mm distributed over 4 months the additional cost incurred in winter ploughing for wp + sp portions was easily offset by the increase in cotton yield. At the same time in a drought/bad season (2001/2002) though with 540mm of rainfall poorly distributed over 2 ½ months the additional cost incurred in winter ploughing for wp + sp portions was lower than the increase in cotton yield. The study also showed that the highest returns to labour are obtained by using OP+D whilst the lowest overall weeding cost and greatest productivity is achieved with OC, in both cases with a band application of pre-emergence herbicide.
... (Smith, 1991). Indeed research, for example in Africa, has largely concentrated on the use of cattle for draught power (Goe, 1983;ILCA, 1992). The ploughing potential of cattle has been studied and is fairly well understood in Zimbabwe (Howard, 1980;Mupeta et al., 1990;Francis, Ndlovu and Nkuuhe, 1994). ...
... These workers reported that donkeys with a live weight of 120 kg and working with drawn implements, are capable of a tractive effort (draught force) of 186 N per donkey at a speed of 2.5 km/h (0.69 m/s), considered to be a low speed. Although the values in the present study are lower than the potential draught force of 250 N per donkey if the reduction in the tractive effort of 22 per cent for 4 animals (Goe, 1983) is accounted for, then the potential tractive effort of the donkeys in the present study would have been about 260 N per animal. The value of 250 N per donkey is probably higher than the forces exerted by donkeys in typical working conditions. ...
... However, the draught capacity per kg LW0'75 of the team of donkeys would have been higher than that of the team of oxen considering the loss of efficiency per animal in a team, 22 per cent for 4 animals (Goe, 1983) (4 animals in the donkey teams compared with 2 animals in the oxen team in the present study). Interestingly, the reduction in the efficiency per animal with an increase in the number of animals in a team would imply that there could be advantages in using smaller teams (provided the total team weight is sufficient to carry out the prescribed draught task) for shorter working periods than larger teams for longer working periods. ...
It was concluded that the shortage of cattle had increased the use of donkeys for DAP in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe. Extension information on good management practices and general welfare of draught animals, particularly donkeys, was clearly lacking. The morphological characteristics of male and female donkeys showed few differences and potentially the draught performances of the two sexes could be similar. Donkeys in Zimbabwe were morphologically similar to their counterparts in other parts of Africa implying that these donkey types are related. Heart girth, the best single predictor should be included in predictive equations for estimating live weight using body measurements. Weighbands and nomograms which are important management tools for smallholder farmers should be produced from these predictive equations. Although there were seasonal fluctuations in live weight and body condition of donkeys, these were less than those reported in cattle. Thus, donkeys are more likely to be in better condition at the start of the ploughing season than cattle. Donkey teams were capable of ploughing for up to four hours per day provided they had a sufficient combined team weight to pull the plough. Training and experience are very important factors affecting the performance of working animals. Donkeys were able to continue eating despite the limited access to water and this is an important mechanism for survival during droughts. Working donkeys could not increase DM intake of hay and this was attributed to the poor quality and physical form of the hay. Supplementation of working donkeys might be necessary.
... For the decrease in TEa value of 7.5% per extra animal is used. This figure originates either from Marks (1951) (according to Goe, 1983) or from Scherrer (1966) (according to FAO, 1972). Although experimental evidence is meagre, it is often cited. ...
... The recommended maximum lengths of working days are 6 h for bulls and oxen, 4 h for non-pregnant or non-lactating cows and 2 h for pregnant or lactating cows. Cows in the last stages of pregnancy or in the first 2 months of lactation are not used for traction (FAO, 1972;Goe, 1983;Phernambucq, 1984). ...
... This relationship can be included in the model by relating the traction potential to power too. A number of authors have already suggested this possibility, but little quantification is available (Maurya & Devadattam, 1982;Goe, 1983;Pearson, 1989;Singh et al., 1989). ...
Animal traction often forms an important part of smallholder farming systems. To model it as an essential link between the cropping and livestock subsystems, concepts from agricultural engineering, soil science, agronomy and animal production must be integrated. The conceptual model described in this paper includes traction requirements, traction supply, nutrient requirements for traction, and influences on other production functions. A sensitivity analysis singled out the most important input variables; working time is influenced most by working width, parcel area, and speed; the energy costs of traction are influenced most by working width and parcel area. Validation of the model with data from Pabna District, Bangladesh, shows that the model properly simulates the actual situation. Actual working times and live weight changes are closely approximated. Energy requirements for traction amount to 0.75–1.01 MJ net energy/h.
... Motorized equipment represented a very significant increase in productivity without the need for the care that animals required, such as their protection, care, and food [36]. In this way, animals slowly lost their importance as an engine of rural development, despite the logistical system of transporting people and goods continuing to depend on animal traction [37]. Currently, the use of animal traction continues to be a reality. ...
Throughout history, the use of animals for agricultural and forestry work has been closely associated with human societies, with multiple references to animal power being utilized for various tasks since the Neolithic period. However, the advent of industrialization has fundamentally transformed the reality of society, leading to a significant shift towards the mechanization of processes. Despite this, animal traction continues to play an important role as a workforce in many developing countries and developed nations, where there is a renewed interest in the use of animal traction, particularly for tasks intended to have a reduced environmental impact and a smaller carbon footprint. The present study conducted a SWOT analysis to examine the potential of animal traction as an alternative for the recovery processes of forest residual woody biomass, particularly when the use of mechanical equipment is not feasible. This can contribute to the creation of value chains for residual products, which can be harnessed for energy recovery. The utilization of modern animal traction can promote the sustainable development of projects at the local and regional level, with efficient utilization of endogenous resources and the creation of value for residual forest woody biomass. This approach can thus facilitate the optimization of supply chains, from biomass to energy.
... 32 km zurücklegen (Collins und Caine 2017). In der Literatur hat sich die Angabe von 10-15 % des Körpergewichts als durchschnittliche Zugkraftleistung über einen Arbeitstag durchgesetzt (Krüger 1958, Goe 1983, Hoffmann 1992, Inns 1996. ...
... De acuerdo a Ayala et al. (2014), se requiere además del uso de variedades mejoradas, pro- gramas de innovación tecnológica. Así mismo, Ortiz (2007), menciona que no se han llevado a cabo en el país, en forma sistemática, pro- yectos de investigación y desarro- llo de tecnología mecánica para la agricultura. Resultando más barato comprar equipos y negociar licen- cias de fabricación de máquinas diseñadas para las condiciones de otros países. ...
The objective of this study was to understand the type of agricultural machinery and equipment that small-scale
producers of amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) use in México’s central region. A survey directed at 118 amaranth producers
was applied in the municipalities of Temoac, Morelos; Cohuecan, Atzizihuacan, Puebla; and, Cuapiaxtla and Nativitas,
Tlaxcala in México. And, according to the results obtained, the level of mechanization is very low in the three states; only
12 % of the producers have the machinery necessary for the different farming tasks, something due in great measure
to the low financial solvency for their acquisition. The structure of the production costs per hectare has as third most
important segment the expenses of mechanized farming (11 %). The decrease in production per surface unit and deficient
mechanization are the main problems that amaranth producers face, impacting greatly the abandonment of this crop.
Another important point is the fact that most of the producers (73 %) do not have knowledge of any program or institution
that finances the purchase of agricultural machinery and implements.
... De acuerdo a Ayala et al. (2014), se requiere además del uso de variedades mejoradas, pro- gramas de innovación tecnológica. Así mismo, Ortiz (2007), menciona que no se han llevado a cabo en el país, en forma sistemática, pro- yectos de investigación y desarro- llo de tecnología mecánica para la agricultura. Resultando más barato comprar equipos y negociar licen- cias de fabricación de máquinas diseñadas para las condiciones de otros países. ...
To improve the success of the forest conservation and restoration efforts, the morphological and physiological quality of plant should be taken into account before taking it to the field. The effects of the production process of plants of Pinus greggii Engelm. Var. australis in greenhouses on field performance were evaluated. Under a completely randomized experimental design with factorial arrangement, the following factors were evaluated: nutrient addition rate, conventional (FC) and exponential (FE); type of container: black with basal drainage (NB), white with basal drainage (BB), black with basal and lateral drainage (NL), and white with basal and lateral drainage (BL). Substrate: peat moss (Pm), peat moss-pine bark (Pm-Cp) and pine bark (Cp). The response variables were height (H), root collar diameter (D), slenderness index (IE), and nutrient concentrations (N, P, K). Variance analyses indicated that all three factors significantly affect the morphological variables evaluated, except the dry weight of 100 needles. The nutritional supply, type of container, and mixture of substrates had significant effects on the foliar concentrations of N, P, and K, one year from plantation establishment. The highest nutrient concentrations were reached with FE (0.18%, 825.5 mg Kg-1, 1608.2 mg Kg-1) Vs. FC (0.17%, 804.3 mg Kg-1, 1590.0 mg Kg-1) for N, P, and K, respectively. Regarding the type of container, NB and NL achieved equally higher concentrations for N (NB=0.18 %), for P (NL=863.3 mg Kg-1), and K (NL=1672.4 mg Kg-1). Likewise, the substrate mixture Pm-Cp and Pm alone, gave rise to higher concentrations of N (Pm-Cp=0.188 %), P (Pm=860.2 mg Kg-1), and K (Pm=1721.7 mg Kg-1). Together, the containers NL and BB, and substrate mixtures Pm and Pm-Cp exerted significant effects on foliar concentrations of N, P, and K. Survival was higher than 90 % in 50 % of the treatments. FE allows better quality plants and higher nutritional load to restore degraded sites. The NL or BB containers and the substrate mixture Pm-Cp promoted higher foliar concentrations of N and P, as a result of concentration effects.
... According to Cortés et al. (2009), although employment is generated in the region, this influences in the increment of the production costs. Ortiz & Rossel (2007), and Ayala et al. (2014), mention that the main obstacle for the amaranth production by the small producers of the center of the country, is the lack of agricultural machinery; which should be in agreement to the user's necessities, depending on the work type that requires the producer to be efficient in the field activities. Agricultural mechanization is a key factor to increase grain yield production as it enhances the cropping areas, improves cropping practices and reduces production costs (Cuauhtemoc, 2011). ...
... Jabbar (1983) in Bangladesh suggested a fall in the milk yield when cows are used for drought. Goe (1983) reported that on work days cows can show a 10-20% decrease in milk yield. In such situations, lactating cows deal with a shortage of nutrients created through exercise by restricting secretion of protein and lactose whilst maintaining fat output. ...
The food available to grazing animals, particularly during the dry season, in the tropics, is often of very low quality and, in addition, is frequently available at low densities per unit area. Grazing ruminants attempt to adapt to these adverse conditions by increasing the time for which they graze each day and also by dispersing more widely. However, the time for which animals can graze may be limited by solar radiation and fly irritation during the day. Depending on management conditions, livestock are required to walk long distances. When walking is restricted (1–3 km/day), animal performance is generally not reduced. However, under certain conditions (scarce or hilly pasture) the distances walked by livestock can be substantially greater. Unusual physical activity is considered a stress factor in all species since it induces neuroendocrine and metabolic changes which in turn alter the physiological responses, endocrine and enzymes’ release status and productivity in animals. In addition, there are both breed and interspecies differences in locomotory efficiency as a result of morphological, physiological and behavioural adaptations in livestock. The significant changes in physiological responses, adrenal and thyroid hormone concentrations after subjecting the livestock species to walking stress shows that they are capable to adapt to long-distance walking and adrenal and thyroid gland hormones play a significant role in such adaptation. Though, while trying to adapt to long-distance walking scenario in search of food, animals compromise their productive performance. This is reflected as significant reduction in growth, milk and reproductive performance of different livestock species. The reason for this low production could be a major proportion of the energy is shifted to combating the walking stress as any counter measures need energy source for its implementation. The repercussions of walking or work on production performances have been studied by various researchers and reported that livestock energy requirement increases significantly during walking exercise. Further, most of the increase in energy expenditure of physical activity results from grazing and locomotion costs. The energy expenditure of locomotion during grazing contributes significantly to the energy requirement of animals in free-living conditions and must be included for accurate evaluation of the energy needs of the grazing animal.
... If cows could be used as draft animais in place of oxen without serious penalty on their performance, then the opportunity would exist for a substantial restructuring of farm livestock holdings. Goe (1983) reported on various previous studies related to the working of cocas. ...
... In Mexico alone, over 3,765,000 animals are used in agriculture (Ortiz-Laurel and Rössel, 2007). The tools and implements for animal traction available in the Brazilian Market, however, are characterized mainly by outdated technological solutions and design (Araújo et al., 1999), as is the case of planters (Figure 1). ...
This paper presents a study conducted as a part of development of an animal traction seeder machine, using principles related to disciplines such as usability, Ergonomics Work Assessment (EWA) and Antropotechnology, in a perspective of Design for Sustainability (DfS) and product development suitable for the Base of the Pyramid (BoP). The study provided information for a series of design changes to be introduced in the equipment, in order to improvement of working conditions in small family farming properties. From this approach analysis on an existing implement, are suggested ways to adaquate the product and presented a proposal for a new animal traction seeder machine.
... In the Daman region, the total donkey population is 43,252 (Anonymous, 2006(Anonymous, , 2007. If the pack is correctly sited on the back of the animal and a suitable loading and unloading techniques are used, a donkey can simply bear between 27 and 40% of its individual weight (Goe, 1983). All farmers in the Daman region have one or more donkeys. ...
This paper reviews donkey utilization in the livelihood of people in the arid zone of Dera Ismail Khan and adjoining areas of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa, commonly known as Daman. The physical atmosphere of Daman region is rather harsh and the annual rainfall is low. The lands are sandy to muddy or mixed, very poor in nutrients and relatively salty. Most of the region is a broad plain approximately 500 to 600 m above the sea level. Donkeys are gradually more popular in the Daman region due to the harsh conditions and the decrease in available fodder. They are particularly used by women and aged people who usually do not work comfortably with other animals like bulls or camels. However, donkeys remain out of favour due to financial, public and scientific constraints. Unlike in other regions of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa where donkeys are only used for transport and pack animals, in Daman region, it is still common to find donkeys ploughing in small fields. Livelihood of many people living in Daman depends upon the functioning of this species domestically and commercially. Keeping in view of the importance of management and welfare needs of donkeys in the Daman region, a survey was carried out to briefly describe management, utilization and well being of donkeys and the health concerns in this deprived region of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa, Pakistan. INTRODUCTION The majority of Pakistan lies in arid and semi arid zones according to Pakistan agriculture climatic classification (Chaudhry et al., 2004). Hence greater part of the populace sustains their livelihood through agriculture and livestock keeping activities. Agriculture and livestock sectors in Pakistan are not only dependent relative on rainfall but also on the irrigation or canal water, which comes from periodic rainfall as well as melting of ice and snow glaciers. Dera Ismail Khan is the southernmost district of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa lying on the elevation of 571 to 600 m above the sea level. It has a total geographical land of 0.896 million hectares, out of which 0.300 million hectares were cultivated (Khan, 2003). Most of the Dera Ismail Khan District is a dry alleviated plain commonly referred to as "Daman" (Marwat and Khan, 2008). The mountains in the district are those of Khisore Range which lies in its northeastern part.
... Jabbar (1983) in Bangladesh suggested a fall in the milk yield when cows are used for drought. Goe (1983) reported that on work days cows can show a 10-20% decrease in milk yield. In such situations, lactating cows deal with a shortage of nutrients created through exercise by restricting secretion of protein and lactose whilst maintaining fat output. ...
... Draught cattle reduce or maintain intakes of roughage diets during working periods compared to non-working periods, despite the increased energy demands due to work (Mupeta et al., 1990;Pearson, 1990;Seller et aL, 1991;Matthewman et al., 1993;Pearson and Smith, 1994). This results in Iiveweight loss during the working period and it has been hypothesised that animals in good body condition can withstand this weight loss better than those in poor condition (Gee, 1983). Consequently, this has led to recommendations that farmers should provide their animals with supplementary feed during the dry season to ensure that the animals are in good body condition at the start of the ploughing season. ...
Sixty-four pairs of oxen owned by smallholders were randomly allocated to one of 3 supplementary treatments offered at one kg per head per day from July to October or to a control where no supplement was offered. The supplements were maize stover plus silverleaf hay (2:1 w/w), urea-treated maize stover (50 g urea/kg stover) and plain maize stover. Animals fed plain maize stover or no supplement lost weight (6 to 7% of initial weight), whilst those fed the other 2 supplements maintained their liveweights. Supplementation reduced time spent on feeding activities by 10 per cent. Animals fed on urea-treated maize stover or maize stover plus silverleaf hay ploughed at speeds that were 29% faster than oxen on the other treatments and covered 45% more area. Blood parameters indicated a general deficiency of nitrogen intake throughout the dry season. It was concluded that supplements of good quality have the potential to improve the working ability of communal area oxen.
The place of draught animal power on farms in tropical agriculture is discussed. In some areas of the world draught animal power is traditional, in others it is a relatively new technology. There are situations which fall between the two, but when thinking about resolving technical and more particularly socio-economic constraints it is often useful to be aware of these two categories. While some of the problems encountered are universal, other problems can be more specific to a particular situation or country.
In this paper some of the issues are discussed. These include the energy requirements for work, the provision of food, particularly in ‘new’ draught animal areas, the consequences of using draught cows in traditional systems, disease treatment and two examples of country specific problems. In some cases strategies to cope with these issues are available, largely as a result of research, in others it is apparent that more information is required.
This paper presents a study conducted as a part of the design of an Animal Traction Sewing Machine using principles related to Usability, Ergonomics, and Antropotechnology focusing on Design for Sustainability (DfS) and product development suitable for the Base of the Pyramid (BoP). The present study provided information for a series of design changes in the equipment in order to improve working conditions in small family farming properties. From this approach to the analysis of an existing implement, ways of adjusting the product are suggested, and a proposal for a novel Animal Traction Sowing Machine is presented.
L'etude relatee a ete conduite de 1993 a 1995 dans le bassin cotonnier du Nord Cameroun. Les capacites de travail du zebu, de l'âne et du cheval ont ete caracterisees a l'aide d'une chaine de mesures informatisee. Les poids vifs (PV) des ânes, des chevaux et des bovins sont respectivement compris entre 100 et 150 kg, 225 et 300 kg, 325 et 450 kg. Les resultats indiquent que les plages des forces de traction optimales sont comprises entre : 10 et 16 % PV pour les ânes et les chevaux 9 et 15 % PV pour les bovins. Entre les bornes de ces plages et selon le poids vif de l'animal les vitesses moyennes des ânes, des chevaux et des zebus sont respectivement comprises entre 3,2 et 2,7 km/h, 3,4 et 3,3 km/h, 2,8 et 2.5 km/h ; les durees de travail entre 5,5 et 3,5 h chez les ânes, 6.0 et 4,5 h chez les chevaux, 6,5 et 4,5 h chez les zebus ; les depenses energetiques liees au travail entre 5 et 8 MJ chez les ânes, 16 et 24 MJ chez les chevaux et 24 et 40 MJ chez les bovins. L'ensemble des resultats est represente dans une table des performances a l'effort commune pour les trois especes qui permet de mettre en relation la depense energetique liee au travail, avec la duree et la vitesse de travail, en fonction de la force de traction et du poids vif de l'animal. (Resume d'auteur)
In Mexico in 1980 the National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA) initiated a program of research into agricultural engineering technologies designed to meet the needs of small farmers. The main body of this paper describes that INIA program and analyses related activities to encourage local manufacture of promising implements. -from Authors