No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Guidelines for Designing Effective Games as Clinical Interventions: Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics, and Outcomes (MDAO) Framework
Abstract
Games are a successful pedagogical tool to change attitudes and behaviors. This chapter will examine how games facilitate change, discuss common pitfalls, and outline best practices for making serious games for clinical practice. Sustained engagement and motivation are key to lasting clinical interventions. When developing a game for clinical practice, the designer should avoid "punishing by rewards" (Kohn, 1993), damaging motivation towards the desired goal. Understanding game design principles is crucial to creating intrinsically engaging experiences that lead to lasting motivation. The Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics (MDA) framework is widely accepted by game designers as a framework to make compelling games. Using MDA as a base for understanding how to create engaging experiences, this chapter proposes a new framework for serious games called Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics, and Outcomes. MDAO describes how to design a game that is intrinsically motivating and effective by focusing on the interplay between outcomes and other vectors of design.
... Several studies have analyzed the various elements of game mechanics. For example, Hunicke et al. (2004) indicated that game mechanics usually include achievements, collections, badges etc. Browning (2015) suggested that mechanics are the controls, tools, obstacles, and rules that limit the ways in which users play. Hamzah et al. (2015) proposed that features such as points, levels, leader-boards, virtual goods, badges, gifts, and charity can be considered to be game mechanics. ...
... Aesthetics represent the emotional responses of players to game dynamics. While dynamics help players to achieve the desired outcomes, aesthetics determine the players' engagement with the game (Browning, 2015). Aesthetics are the results of the players' interactions with the game system. ...
... Playfulness illustrates an individual's intrinsic feelings when they are actively engaged in an exercise (Huang and Hsu, 2014). Playfulness is related to the concept of aesthetics that describes players' emotional responses (Browning, 2015). Second, playfulness motivates game system utilization (Chung and Tan, 2004). ...
By adapting Brunswik's lens model and the mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics (MDA) framework, this study empirically investigated how perceptions of the game features (mechanics), influence game-challenge reactions (dynamics) and playfulness (aesthetics); these influences affected service experience evaluation. The findings revealed that locatability, navigability, and controllability exert positive effects on game-challenge reactions, whereas navigability and nostalgia had positive effects on feelings of playfulness. Furthermore, the relationship between game-challenge reactions and playfulness was determined to be nonrecursive, and both of these factors positively influenced service experience evaluation.
... The design of Save the World of Naturalia! was guided by the mechanics, dynamics, aesthetics, and outcomes (MDAO) methodology, as conceptualised by Browning [36]. Built upon the work of Hunicke et al. [37], the methodology is articulated in the following steps. ...
... This statement is supported by evidence, as our study found that, except during the summer season, compliance remained largely stable during the first 9 months of treatment, while the mean wear time was 8.6 h. This aligns with the existing literature, which consistently shows that compliance realistically ranges from 7 to 9 h [30], even when 8 to 15 h of daily wear is recommended [31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50] In addition, different studies have reported that patients tend to overestimate perceived wear time [30,31]. Our study reveals a consistent correspondence between selfreported wear time and sensor-derived data. ...
Class III malocclusions, a dentofacial deformity requiring early intervention, pose significant challenges due to the need for prolonged use of facemasks by young patients. The SuperPowerMe project aims to improve compliance with the orthodontic treatment by integrating personalised, sensor-equipped facemasks with gamification. Through a design thinking process, the facemasks were custom-fitted using 3D facial scanning and 3D-printed with biocompatible materials to ensure comfort and ergonomic fit. Sensors embedded in the mask monitored wear time, and data collected were used to engage children in a video game allowing children to progress through game challenges as they complied with the treatment. Observational studies were conducted, evaluating patients’ adherence and comfort levels. The results indicated a substantial increase in daily wear time and patient satisfaction, with self-reported compliance closely matching sensor data. The personalised design and gamified elements fostered higher patient autonomy over the treatment period, although minor technical issues with the facemasks were noted. In conclusion, the results suggest that gamification paired with custom devices holds promise as a strategy for improving adherence to long-term orthodontic treatments in children. Further refinement of the system and broader trials are promoted to fully validate the efficacy of therapy gamification.
... It approaches a game from the perspective of the player and discerns mechanics (ie, the actions, goals, and rules of the game), dynamics (ie, the behavior followed by the player's interaction with the mechanics), and the aesthetics (ie, the desired emotional responses of the player when playing the game). The Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics, and Outcomes (MDAO) framework is an extension of the Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics framework for the conceptualization of serious games [64], and it introduces the concept of outcomes, that is, the behavioral or intellectual responses of the player after playing the game. The MDAO framework approaches a game from the player's perspective by first defining the outcomes and aesthetics, followed by dynamics and mechanics. ...
... At run time, the features are then periodically sent to the Feature Abstraction module, where they are abstracted to a generic format that can be interpreted by the game-independent modules. Existing player-type frameworks, such as the Hexad Framework, can be used to identify the parameters for personalization [64]. ...
Background:
The use of serious games in health care is on the rise, as these games motivate treatment adherence, reduce treatment costs, and educate patients and families. However, current serious games fail to offer personalized interventions, ignoring the need to abandon the one-size-fits-all approach. Moreover, these games, with a primary objective other than pure entertainment, are costly and complex to develop and require the constant involvement of a multidisciplinary team. No standardized approach exists on how serious games can be personalized, as existing literature focuses on specific use cases and scenarios. The serious game development domain fails to consider any transfer of domain knowledge, which means this labor-intensive process must be repeated for each serious game.
Objective:
We proposed a software engineering framework that aims to streamline the multidisciplinary design process of personalized serious games in health care and facilitates the reuse of domain knowledge and personalization algorithms. By focusing on the transfer of knowledge to new serious games by reusing components and personalization algorithms, the comparison and evaluation of different personalization strategies can be simplified and expedited. In doing so, the first steps are taken in advancing the state of the art of knowledge regarding personalized serious games in health care.
Methods:
The proposed framework aimed to answer 3 questions that need to be asked when designing personalized serious games: Why is the game personalized? What parameters can be used for personalization? and How is the personalization achieved? The 3 involved stakeholders, namely, the domain expert, the (game) developer, and the software engineer, were each assigned a question and then assigned responsibilities regarding the design of the personalized serious game. The (game) developer was responsible for all the game-related components; the domain expert was in charge of the modeling of the domain knowledge using simple or complex concepts (eg, ontologies); and the software engineer managed the personalization algorithms or models integrated into the system. The framework acted as an intermediate step between game conceptualization and implementation; it was illustrated by developing and evaluating a proof of concept.
Results:
The proof of concept, a serious game for shoulder rehabilitation, was evaluated using simulations of heart rate and game scores to assess how personalization was achieved and whether the framework responded as expected. The simulations indicated the value of both real-time and offline personalization. The proof of concept illustrated how the interaction between different components worked and how the framework was used to simplify the design process.
Conclusions:
The proposed framework for personalized serious games in health care identifies the responsibilities of the involved stakeholders in the design process, using 3 key questions for personalization. The framework focuses on the transferability of knowledge and reusability of personalization algorithms to simplify the design process of personalized serious games.
... It approaches a game from the perspective of the player and discerns mechanics (ie, the actions, goals, and rules of the game), dynamics (ie, the behavior followed by the player's interaction with the mechanics), and the aesthetics (ie, the desired emotional responses of the player when playing the game). The Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics, and Outcomes (MDAO) framework is an extension of the Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics framework for the conceptualization of serious games [64], and it introduces the concept of outcomes, that is, the behavioral or intellectual responses of the player after playing the game. The MDAO framework approaches a game from the player's perspective by first defining the outcomes and aesthetics, followed by dynamics and mechanics. ...
... At run time, the features are then periodically sent to the Feature Abstraction module, where they are abstracted to a generic format that can be interpreted by the game-independent modules. Existing player-type frameworks, such as the Hexad Framework, can be used to identify the parameters for personalization [64]. ...
BACKGROUND
The use of serious games in healthcare is on the rise, as they motivate treatment adherence, reduce treatment costs and educate patients and families. However, current serious games fail to offer personalized interventions, ignoring the need to abandon the “one-size-fits-all” approach. Moreover, these games, with a primary objective other than pure entertainment, are costly and complex to develop and require the constant involvement of a multidisciplinary team. Furthermore, no standardized approach exists on how serious games can be personalized as existing literature focuses on specific use cases and scenarios. Finally, the domain of serious game development fails to consider any transfer of domain knowledge, which means this labor-intensive process has to be repeated for each serious game.
OBJECTIVE
This paper proposes a framework that aims to streamline the multidisciplinary design process of personalized serious games in healthcare and facilitates the reuse of domain knowledge and personalization algorithms. By focusing on the transfer of knowledge to new serious games by reusing components and personalization algorithms, the comparison and evaluation of different personalization strategies can be simplified and expedited. In doing so, the first steps are taken in advancing the state-of-the-art of knowledge regarding personalized serious games in healthcare.
METHODS
The proposed aims to answer three questions that need to be asked when designing serious games: (1) Why is the game personalized? (2) What parameters can be used for personalization? And (3) How is the personalization achieved? Respectively, the three involved stakeholders, namely, the domain expert, the (game) developer and the software engineer are each assigned a question and, following from this, their responsibilities regarding the design of the serious game. The (game) developer is responsible for all the game-related components; the domain expert is in charge of the modelling of the domain knowledge using simple or complex concepts, such as ontologies. Finally, the software engineer manages the personalization algorithms or models, integrated into the system. The framework is illustrated by developing and evaluating a proof of concept.
RESULTS
The proof of concept, a serious game for shoulder rehabilitation has been evaluated using simulations of heart rate and game scores, to assess how personalization is achieved. The simulations indicate the value of both online personalization, i.e. real-time personalization and offline personalization. The proof of concept illustrates how the interaction between the different components works and how the framework is used to simplify the design process.
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed framework for personalized serious games in healthcare identifies the responsibilities of the involved stakeholders in the design process, using three key questions for personalization. The framework focuses on the transferability of knowledge and reusability of personalization algorithms to simplify the design process of personalized serious games.
... It is therefore important, as Bohyun (2015) and Robson et al (Robson et al, 2016) put it, that, the perspectives of both the designer and the player be taken into consideration as one develops a game for learning purposes. Browning (2016) takes this argument further by stating that, in designing games for learning purposes, one should consider both the intrinsic motivation and effective engagement of the player or student, by focusing on the interplay between the outcomes and other vectors of the design. ...
... Aesthetical appearance of any activity is likely to spark more interest in engaging with the content. To ensure that students have fun whilst learning, it is imperative the game has elements of excitement, wonder and engagement (Hunicke, et al., 2004;Bohyun, 2015;and Browning, 2016). In this pilot study the game board made use of different coloured spinal vertebrae as blocks with scattered radiographic images throughout the board, see figure 1. ...
Gamification is used encourage the learner to participate in a competitive activity, to encourage engagement and desire to learn. In the Radiographic Practice module, students learn three core radiography performance standards; professionalism, technique and clinical performance. To address these standards, a pilot radiography board game was developed to determine its effectiveness at improving engagement and interest with learning material and its use as a teaching and learning tool. A qualitative, explorative descriptive research design was used, involving focus group interviews with the radiography students. The students recommended some changes and adjustments on the game design and dynamics. They further described the board game as a fun activity and demonstrated that it was possible to learn whilst engaging with the subject material and group discussions. The board game enabled the students to apply critical thinking skills and be introduced the concept of professionalism in the clinical setting.
... Nevertheless, there have been many critics for the absence of other game dimensions, like narratives. These criticisms lead to several improvement proposals to update the MDA framework, keeping its systemic approach to game design [11]- [13]. The MDA simplicity makes it very useful for game design and game analysis. ...
Background:
Games and elements of gamification can be utilized in mental healthcare to provide customized interventions for the service users. However, very little evidence exists as to what kind of experiences service users and professionals have towards games and gaming, and what their perceptions of the phenomenon are. This sort of information is needed to help professionals put game-based interventions actively into practice in mental health services.
Research objectives:
The objective is to describe the experiences and perceptions of digital games and gaming from the perspectives of mental health service users and mental health professionals.
Methods:
In this qualitative study, data consisted of interviews of 23 mental health service users and professionals working in the mental health field. We conducted altogether 39 interviews. Sixteen of the participants were interviewed twice. Main categories and subcategories were identified using qualitative content analysis.
Results:
The analysis revealed four distinct orientations towards games and gaming: (a) compulsive gaming; (b) closet gaming; (c) gaming as a hobby; and (d) late bloomers. Each group was characterized by different personal histories, experiences, conceptions and attitudes regarding gaming and digital games.
Conclusion:
When attempting to implement a game-based intervention in mental health services, it is essential to recognize the different attitudes that both service users and staff exhibit concerning games and gaming. The attitudes of service users and professionals described in this study can be utilized in the implementation of game-based methods as part of care and rehabilitation in mental health services.
The purpose of this descriptive qualitative study is to explore the perceptions and experiences that mental health service users (n = 10) and healthcare professionals (n = 32) have regarding the use of gamification in mental health care. Data was gathered by interviews. The mental health service users described promoting and retarding factors in the use of gamification, while professionals described the requirements for using gamification and changes occurring in the work culture. Additional research is needed on how game-playing elements could be integrated as a systematic part of mental health practice and how the digital skills of professionals could be effectively developed.
Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985,
1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is
found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different
kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of
behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these
relations is still uncertain. Expectancy value formulations are found to be only partly
successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value
measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of
past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s
sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning
this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the
ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
There appears to be general agreement among social psychologists that most human behavior is goal-directed (e. g., Heider, 1958 ; Lewin, 1951). Being neither capricious nor frivolous, human social behavior can best be described as following along lines of more or less well-formulated plans. Before attending a concert, for example, a person may extend an invitation to a date, purchase tickets, change into proper attire, call a cab, collect the date, and proceed to the concert hall. Most, if not all, of these activities will have been designed in advance; their execution occurs as the plan unfolds. To be sure, a certain sequence of actions can become so habitual or routine that it is performed almost automatically, as in the case of driving from home to work or playing the piano. Highly developed skills of this kind typically no longer require conscious formulation of a behavioral plan. Nevertheless, at least in general outline, we are normally well aware of the actions required to attain a certain goal. Consider such a relatively routine behavior as typing a letter. When setting this activity as a goal, we anticipate the need to locate a typewriter, insert a sheet of paper, adjust the margins, formulate words and sentences, strike the appropriate keys, and so forth. Some parts of the plan are more routine, and require less conscious thought than others, but without an explicit or implicit plan to guide the required sequence of acts, no letter would get typed.
provides a critical analysis of theories of health behavior and attempts to reconceptualize the process by which people adopt precaution strategies, change detrimental health habits, and maintain desired health behaviors as well as abstain from risky habits
provides a critical analysis of four theories: Self-Efficacy Theory, Health Belief Model, Theory of Planned Behavior, and Protection Motivation Theory
from a social-cognitive perspective, a causal model is proposed, the so-called Health Action Process Approach, which focuses on the role of expectancies and covers self-regulatory processes in the maintenance phase (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A great deal is known about how to teach effectively. We describe several of the "best practices" of learning and instruction, and show how violent video games use those practices. Three hypotheses are advanced and tested. First, curricula that teach the same underlying concepts across contexts and domains have the best likelihood of transfer. Second, learning is more likely to be long-term if practice is distributed across time, in contrast to massed practice. Third, systematic physiological and emotional responsiveness can improve learning, and may lead to what some call video game "addiction." Data with elementary school children, middle school children, and college students support each of these hypotheses. Finally, we describe what educators can learn from the successful instructional practices of video games.
Theories of management and work motivation distinguish between two kinds of rewards—extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are ones such as money and verbal reinforcement which are mediated outside of the person, whereas intrinsic rewards are mediated within the person. We say a person is intrinsically motivated to perform an activity if there is no apparent reward except the activity itself or the feelings which result from the activity. All of the theories of work motivation which consider both kinds of rewards assume that the effects of the two are additive. This paper examines that assumption by reviewing a program of research which investigated the effects of external rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation. It was reported that a person's intrinsic motivation to perform an activity decreased when he received contingent monetary payments, threats of punishment for poor performance, or negative feedback about his performance. Noncontingent monetary payments left intrinsic motivation unchanged, and verbal reinforcements appeared to enhance intrinsic motivation. A cognitive evaluation theory was presented to explain these results, and the theory and results were discussed in relation to management.
Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.
Seven experiments assessed the hypothesis derived from terror management theory that reminding people of their mortality would increase accessibility of constructs central to their worldview. Experiment 1 found that mortality primes, relative to control primes, increased accessibility of nationalistic constructs for men but not for women. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and also found that mortality salience increased romantic accessibility for women but not for men. Four subsequent experiments supported the role of unconscious death-related ideation in producing these effects. A final experiment demonstrated that situational primes can increase the accessibility of nationalistic constructs for women after mortality salience. The roles of situational cues and individual differences in the effects of exposure to death-related stimuli on worldview-relevant construct accessibility are discussed.
Four studies explored the effects of providing mortality-related health-risk information from a terror management theory perspective. Study 1 (N = 48) revealed that exposure to information about the mortality-related risks of driving made mortality salient for young male drivers. Studies 2 (N = 60) and 3 (N = 139) demonstrated that young male drivers who perceived driving (fast) to be beneficial for self-esteem reported higher intentions to take driving risks (Study 2) and drive fast (Study 3) after exposure to such information compared to controls. Study 3 further demonstrated that the inclusion of a prime to behave responsibly eliminated this effect. Study 4 (N = 92) revealed that exposure to this prime alongside the mortality-related information generated increased accessibility of responsibility-related constructs and reduced accessibility of mortality-related constructs among young male drivers. The implications of these findings for terror management theory are discussed.
This book offers a practical yet powerful way to understand the psychological appeal and strong motivation to play video games.
With video game sales in the billions and anxious concerns about their long-term effects growing louder, Glued to Games: How Video Games Draw Us In and Hold Us Spellbound brings something new to the discussion. It is the first truly balanced research-based analysis on the games and gamers, addressing both the positive and negative aspects of habitual playing by drawing on significant recent studies and established motivational theory.
Filled with examples from popular games and the real experiences of gamers themselves, Glued to Games gets to the heart of gaming's powerful psychological and emotional allure—the benefits as well as the dangers. It gives everyone from researchers to parents to gamers themselves a clearer understanding the psychology of gaming, while offering prescriptions for healthier, more enjoyable games and gaming experiences.
The advergames represent a new advertising concept that uses Internet technology to implement viral marketing campaigns. Despite the potential of this interactive advertising method, very few academic studies have been initiated to investigate the characteristics of advergames, and their influence on consumers' perceptions and behaviour. This paper attempts to develop a theoretical framework which explains the effect of advergames on players' perceptions and behaviour, and to verify its applicability, using an experimental approach. The research methodology applied combines experiment and surveys; the collected data being analysed and discussed from a quantitative point of view. The results indicate a clear relationship between the exposure to advergames and an increased consumption of the represented brands. The participants experiencing the state of flow are more inclined to increase the frequency of brand purchases, and to communicate with other people about advergames.
Anyone can master the fundamentals of game design - no technological expertise is necessary. The Art of Game Design: A Book of Lenses shows that the same basic principles of psychology that work for board games, card games and athletic games also are the keys to making top-quality videogames. Good game design happens when you view your game from many different perspectives, or lenses. While touring through the unusual territory that is game design, this book gives the reader one hundred of these lenses - one hundred sets of insightful questions to ask yourself that will help make your game better. These lenses are gathered from fields as diverse as psychology, architecture, music, visual design, film, software engineering, theme park design, mathematics, writing, puzzle design, and anthropology. Anyone who reads this book will be inspired to become a better game designer - and will understand how to do it.
The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversial since it first appeared (Deci, 1971). A meta-analysis published in this journal (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) concluded that the undermining effect was minimal and largely inconsequential for educational policy. However, a more recent meta-analysis (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999) showed that the Cameron and Pierce meta-analysis was seriously flawed and that its conclusions were incorrect. This article briefly reviews the results of the more recent meta-analysis, which showed that tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect. The meta-analysis provided strong support for cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1980), which Cameron and Pierce had advocated abandoning. The results are briefly discussed in terms of their relevance for educational practice.
In this experiment 32 subjects learned 16 lists of 12 nonsense syllables by massed and by distributed practice with and without a two-minute rest period between learning and relearning. Learning was by the serial anticipation method. During the rest pause between learning and testing and between successive trials during distributed practice, the subjects named colors. Reminiscence of the type obtained by Ward in his study of retention over short intervals of time (see XII: 3441) was verified and was found to be much more pronounced when the learning had been by massed practice than when it had been by distributed practice. Recall showed the effect less than did the number of trials required to go from seven syllables correct to mastery. Theories based upon (1) rehearsal, (2) fatigue, (3) motivation, (4) perseveration, and (5) removal of inhibition are discussed and criticized. To the author the last-named theory most adequately explains the results obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Extrinsic consequences have been criticized on the grounds that they decrease intrinsic motivation or internally initiated behavior. Two popular rationales for this criticism, Lepper's overjustification hypothesis (1981) and Deci's motivational theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), are reviewed and the criticism is then redefined behaviorally. "Intrinsically controlled" behavior is defined as behavior maintained by response-produced reinforcers, and the question concerning extrinsic consequences is thus restated as follows: When behavior is maintained by response-produced stimuli, does extrinsic reinforcement decrease the reinforcing value of those stimuli? The empirical support for this detrimental effect is summarized briefly, and several possible explanations for the phenomenon are offered. Research results that reflect on the effect's generality and social significance are discussed next, with the conclusion that the effect is transient and not likely to occur at all if extrinsic rewards are reinforcing, noncompetitive, based on reasonable performance standards, and delivered repetitively.
One of the principal vehicles for informing tobacco consumers about the risks of smoking is the warning message on each cigarette package. Based on terror management theory, the present study investigates the impact of mortality-salient warnings on cigarette packages compared to warnings with no mortality threat. Results suggest that to the degree that smoking is a source of self-esteem, later attitudes towards smoking become more positive if the warning message is mortality-salient. On the contrary, if the warning is terrifying but not mortality-salient and relates to the source of self-esteem, smoking attitudes become more negative with higher smoking-based self-esteem. Thus, mortality-salient warnings may increase the tendency to favor smoking under certain circumstances. This fatal ironic effect highlights the importance of a risk communication that matches the self-esteem contingencies of the recipients, and it has urgent implications for health care policy.
We examine how making mortality salient affects consumer choices. We develop a new theoretical framework predicting when consumer behaviors will be more (less) indulgent when mortality is salient, arguing that individuals focus more of their limited self-regulatory resources on domains that are important sources of self-esteem and less on domains that are not important sources. In two domains, food choice and charitable donations/socially conscious consumer behaviors, high mortality salience led to less indulgent choices among participants for whom that domain was an important source of esteem and more indulgent choices for participants for whom the domain was not an important esteem source. (c) 2005 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Two studies investigated factors that promote the desire for food when people are not energy depleted. In Study 1, 20 male and female subjects, tested under conditions of either hunger or satiety, were exposed to one of two palatable foods (pizza or ice cream) and then given more of that food to eat. Operationally-satiated subjects still ate pizza or ice cream, and the sight of these foods enhanced reported desire for them. The amount of these foods consumed was predicted by the subjects' self-reported desire for the food. In Study 2, 28 male subjects were fed to satiety, then primed with either pizza or ice cream (or not primed at all) and then given both pizza and ice cream to eat. Results showed that a brief taste of a desirable food enhanced its intake relative to the other, equally-preferred food. The data are discussed in the context of the effects of priming as a form of appetite whetting. Also, it is suggested that our operations for eliciting stimulus-induced eating in sated subjects may be useful for future examinations of the psychological properties of craving.
This study investigated the effect of pre-exposure to two types of food cues (olfactory and cognitive) on food intake by restrained and unrestrained eaters. Subjects were exposed to either no cue, an olfactory cue, a cognitive cue or a combination of the two types of food cues for ten minutes prior to eating. Restrained eaters ate significantly more than did unrestrained eaters after exposure to the food cues. There was no difference in food intake when there was no pre-exposure to the cues. Although baseline subjective ratings were equivalent for both groups of subjects, after cue pre-exposure, restrained subjects, in keeping with their increased consumption, indicated a significantly greater craving, liking, and desire to eat the cued food (pizza) than did the unrestrained subjects. These findings suggest that restrained eaters are more sensitive and reactive to food cues than are unrestrained eaters. The food cues appeared to generate an appetitive urge to eat in restrained eaters.
Pawned: Gamification and Its Discontents. Paper presented at Playful 2010: A Day of Cross-Disciplinary Frolicking, London-Based Game Designer Conference
- S Deterding
- J.Bruner
Understanding Video Gaming’s Engagement: Flow and Its Application to Interactive Media.
- E.Gregory
MDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game Research
- R Hunicke
- M Leblanc
- R Zubeck