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ISSN: 0033-6297 (Print) 1543-2750 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uqst20
Physical Activity for Every Body: A Model for
Managing Weight Stigma and Creating Body-
Inclusive Spaces
Andrew C. Pickett & George B. Cunningham
To cite this article: Andrew C. Pickett & George B. Cunningham (2016): Physical Activity for
Every Body: A Model for Managing Weight Stigma and Creating Body-Inclusive Spaces, Quest,
DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2016.1145129
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2016.1145129
Published online: 11 Mar 2016.
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Physical Activity for Every Body: A Model for Managing Weight
Stigma and Creating Body-Inclusive Spaces
Andrew C. Pickett and George B. Cunningham
Laboratory for Diversity in Sport, Department of Health & Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas
ABSTRACT
Modern cultural idealizations of thin bodies have created a cli-
mate in which fat individuals are stigmatized in physical activity
spaces. Given the unwelcoming climate of these spaces, many
individuals are unlikely to engage in and benefitfromregular
physical activity. As such, a new model for physical activity
spaces is needed to engage and retain a largely marginalized
population. In the current article, the authors give a brief review
of the complex relationships among body weight, stigma, health,
and physical activity, arguing that the current model underserves
larger individuals. Using a Health at Every Size paradigm, the
authors then argue for the creation of body-inclusive spaces as
a means of encouraging greater participation and outline a
model that encourages greater access to the benefits of physical
activity to all bodies. Implications for research and practice are
discussed.
KEYWORDS
Body weight; health; health
behavior; motivation;
physical activity; sport
management; sport
sociology; stigma
Introduction
Modern Western culture is obsessed with body weight; more specifically, obsessed with
weight loss. From an early age, individuals are bombarded with messages equating
thinness with health and body fat, with any number of negative traits (Gard & Wright,
2005). As such, the weight loss industry remains a multibillion dollar enterprise (Bacon &
Aphramor, 2011) that endorses a thinness at all costs model that often sacrifices an
individual’s general health and well-being in pursuit of the perfect body. Those in larger
bodies continue to report bias in the workplace (Roehling, 1999; Rudolph, Wells, Weller,
& Baltes, 2009), stigmatization while in public (Puhl & Latner, 2007), and unfair (and
dangerous) judgments surrounding their weight from their healthcare providers (Foster
et al., 2003). Individuals with higher levels of body fat are also more likely to experience a
number of social psychological troubles, including increased risk of depression and
anxiety (Friedman et al., 2005; Myers & Rosen, 1999).
Perhaps the most disturbing element of the cultural obsession with body weight is the
fallacious nature of assumptions that thinness is an appropriate proxy for health and that
fat is necessarily unhealthy (Gard & Wright, 2005; Gibbs, 2005). There is a growing body
of epidemiological research suggesting that body weight is not an accurate or adequate
measure of overall health or mortality risk (Arndt, Rothenbacher, Zschenderlein,
CONTACT Mr. Andrew C. Pickett pickett@hlkn.tamu.edu Health & Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, 4243 TAMU,
Blocker 344, College Station, TX 77843.
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Schuberth, & Brenner, 2007; Gu et al., 2006; Waaler, 1984). While each of these studies
indicates increased mortality associated with extreme levels of adiposity, many found that
those that fall in general overweight and lower level obese categories often outlive their
underweight or normal weight counterparts. In fact, a meta-analysis of 26 body fat studies
found that there is a small protective effect in being overweight; that is, overweight
individuals (across all studies) lived slightly longer than normal weight individuals
(McGee & Diverse Populations Collaboration, 2005). This research suggests that body
weight is far more complex than the oversimplified model of “calories in versus calories
out”implies, and that using body fat as a primary health diagnostic mechanism only
obscures other larger health concerns.
This obsession with weight, per se, has developed societal norms and values that continue to
prize thinness and allow (and even encourage) fat shaming, where fat
1
individuals are
scrutinized constantly and judged for their health-related choices, face discrimination from
both strangers and loved ones, and are made to feel guilty for their bodies (Puhl & Brownell,
2006). Understandably, fat individuals therefore report high levels of self-regulatory beha-
viors, engage in various coping mechanisms, and experience a number of negative psycholo-
gical effects of this stigma (Puhl & Brownell, 2003).
Perhaps unsurprisingly, weight stigma leads many individuals to avoid physical activity
(PA) altogether (Ball, Crawford, & Owen, 2000; Storch et al., 2007; Vartanian & Shaprow,
2008). PA spaces are often seen as places designed for, and accepting of, only thin or
muscular bodies, which serves as a psychological barrier to participation for those with (or
perceiving themselves to have) larger bodies (Schmalz, 2010). Those who do not fit these
cultural body idealizations often face even greater stigma in PA spaces than elsewhere,
which largely stems from assumptions that fat individuals are not physically capable in
activity settings. When these assumptions are adopted both internally and externally,
individuals may subsequently avoid PA and exercise spaces (Schmalz, 2010). This disen-
gagement of fat individuals, coupled with the increased incidence of overweight and
obesity, it is argued, necessitates a new paradigm in PA that seeks to include and extend
the benefits of movement to all.
In response to this cultural obsession with weight loss, a movement called Health at
Every Size (HAES) has developed, encouraging healthy behaviors while remaining expli-
citly neutral with regards to body fat. That is, the HAES model acknowledges the multi-
faceted nature of body weight, with its many cultural and physiological intersections, and
therefore encourages practitioners to focus on different measures of life quality and
maintain a healthful lifestyle, letting body weight fall where it may (Bacon, 2010). Parts
of this plan include acceptance and appreciation for one’s body, however it looks, and
engaging in healthy practices to maintain that relationship (Burgard, 2009; Robison, 2005).
HAES practitioners are encouraged to engage in PA that is enjoyable, healthy, and, most
importantly, sustainable. Often referred to as active embodiment (e.g., Bacon &
1
Use of the term “fat”in this manuscript is designed to emphasize its inherent descriptive
neutrality. This term is not meant to be (nor is it) offensive. Earlier literature suggests a return
to the neutral use of the term, similar to dichotomous descriptors such as “tall”and “short”
used to describe relative height. Positive euphemisms (“hefty,”“plump,”etc.) imply a forced
positivity on an individual’s body type and are, therefore, not suggested. For a more complete
explanation of fat terminology, see Wann (2009, p. xii).
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Aphramor, 2011), this type of activity is central to the holistic and healthful set of practices
encouraged by the HAES paradigm and explicitly does not focus on achieving a particular
body type of reducing body fat for its own sake.
Thus, this article serves to first explain the problematic and complex relationships
between fat and PA. We argue that explicitly body-inclusive environments reduce feelings
of stigma and shame that often pervade PA outlets. Further, the inclusive and non-weight-
loss/ pro-health focus of these spaces can be instrumental in developing a sense of
community and attachment to the activity for participants. Together, the absence of
many of the traditional barriers to activity combined with a positive social and physical
experience, are likely to encourage new membership, continued PA adherence, and better
overall physical and psychological health for participants. Therefore, a model is presented,
outlining several key components of body-inclusive spaces, designed to connect those
currently marginalized in the PA context with the long-term, health-related outcomes of
participation. Finally, the managerial and research implications of the model is discussed.
The problem: Weight stigma and PA
Stigma, which is generally defined by the negative affective associations felt and acted
upon an individual based on one or more of their personal characteristic(s), is prevalent
against fat individuals (Brewis, Wutich, Falletta-Cowden, & Rodriguez-Soto, 2011). This is
problematic, as stigma separates individuals into distinct categories, each receiving differ-
ing levels of socio-political and cultural power based on group affiliation (Link & Phelan,
2001). Thus, fat individuals are relegated to a lower social status by virtue of their body
size alone. Further, body weight stigma is enacted at both societal and individual levels.
That is, prejudice and discrimination against fat people remains socially acceptable, largely
due to perceptions that body weight is entirely controllable and that fatness is self-inflicted
and inherently negative (Friedman et al., 2005). At the societal level, fat persons face a
constant barrage of messages telling them that their bodies are unacceptable, unattractive,
and unhealthy (Boero, 2007). Those in larger bodies often report having experienced
staring, negative comments from both adults and children, being excluded or avoided, and
physical barriers to their participation in common activities (Puhl & Brownell, 2006). At
an individual level, Puhl and Brownell (2006) found that weight stigma often begins with
trusted individuals or close relations, such as doctors, family, and friends. In many ways,
the perception that fatness is optional often allows prejudicial ideas and discriminatory
actions to be couched as helping, encouraging, or tough love.
Body weight stigma is particularly prevalent in the PA context, given the current body
idealization climate. Unfortunately, gyms, PA classes, and fitness centers are spaces where
fat people can experience the highest levels of judgment, shaming, and avoidance
(Cardinal, Whitney, Narimatsu, Hubert, & Souza, 2014; Curtis, 2008). As examples,
personal trainers exhibit an unconscious preference for working with thin clients rather
than overweight clients (Dimmock, Hallett, & Grove, 2009) and physical education
teachers often exhibit anti-fat attitudes (Greenleaf & Weiller, 2005). Real or perceived,
such judgments can lead to negative self-evaluation for fatter people in a fitness context,
which have a number of negative behavioral and affective outcomes.
This tenuous relationship between fat and PA has led many individuals to avoid PA
altogether. Vartanian and Shaprow (2008) found that participants in their study that had
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experienced weight stigma were more likely to avoid exercise, regardless of actual Body
Mass Index (BMI). This suggests that the stigma of fatness actually has a stronger effect on
activity participation than weight itself. Further, Vartanian and Novak (2011) argued that
internalization of societal messages about weight was strongly related to exercise avoid-
ance. That is, individuals who personally endorsed anti-fat sentiments reflected in society
were more likely to avoid exercise. Similarly, Crawford and Eklund (1994) found those
with concerns related to physical presentation of body weight, are less likely to exercise in
public spaces, which was not surprising, given the levels of stigma often found in public
exercise facilities.
Given the stigma surrounding body weight in PA, many individuals seek to begin
exercise regimens at home, in private, before engaging a more public exercise space
(Lantz, Hardy, & Ainsworth, 1997; Spink, 1992). This is important for two reasons.
First, it demonstrates that those in larger bodies, despite experiencing stigma and its
resultant anxiety, still do desire to engage in PA at some level, whether for health, weight
loss, or the simple joy of moving. Secondly, it illustrates that many of these individuals
choose to undertake life changing fitness regimens alone, in the privacy of their own
homes. Unfortunately, those who engage in fitness programs at home are more likely to
quit and expend less energy per training session than those that participate at a fitness
center (Cox, Burke, Gorely, Beilin, & Puddey, 2003; Cyarto, Brown, Marshall, & Trost
2008). Essentially, the notion that one should be thin before going to the gym sets fat
individuals up for failure. Therefore, it is argued that a new model of inclusive spaces is
needed that celebrates body diversity and welcomes those in larger bodies openly, thus
helping to (re)engage these individuals into PA.
The need for inclusive spaces and activity for all
PA, regardless of body size, has a number of important health benefits, such as reduced risk
of certain diseases and conditions and improvements in mood and psychological state (see,
for example, Blair, Shaten, Brownell, Collins, & Lissner, 1993). These benefits occur for
everyone and, therefore, medical and public health officials recommend that everyone engage
in as much PA as is safely and logistically possible. It follows, then, that within the HAES
paradigm, PA outlets should be welcoming and inclusive of everyone, rather than a select set
of thinner clientele. Mansfield and Rich (2013) argued for what they term physical activity at
every size (PAES), calling for: “an alternative to weight loss and anti-fat models that create
inclusive movement environments, defined and enjoyed by participants and based on
intuitive engagement with bodily activity irrespective of body size and shape”(p. 366).
Unfortunately, many fat individuals remain hesitant to engage in traditional PA settings
perhaps due to the experiences of stigma and discrimination they face.
Kasser and Lytle (2013) noted that creating inclusive spaces in PA is not simply about
access; rather, it is about developing a philosophy and culture of inclusion and respect.
Ostensibly, the current PA landscape is already accessible to those in larger bodies. To
simply place fat individuals in a gym or enroll them in an exercise program, however,
would not guarantee their acceptance, adherence, performance, or enjoyment. This is
consistent with Ferdman’s(2014) notion of inclusive organizations, as he argues that
inclusive practices must be studied in terms of their felt value, rather than an objective
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measure of accessibility. That is, individuals must feel included for a program to be truly
inclusive, not to simply have access to it.
It is also worth noting that body inclusivity also offers a unique organizational
opportunity in the current fitness landscape. That is, organizations most willing to
adopt more body diverse policies and messages are more likely to access a largely
untapped market segment (Cunningham & Woods, 2011). This is an important consid-
eration, given that organizations are unlikely to change based solely on pro-social values,
especially those that oppose a pervasive cultural ideal, such as thinness. Fink and Pastore
(1999) noted:
While it would be wonderful for all those in positions of power to recognize the moral and
social advantages of diversity, it may not be a realistic goal. Thus, for diversity initiatives to be
truly embedded within the organization, those in power must be convinced of diversity’s
relationship to organizational effectiveness. (p. 315)
Thus, it is important to highlight more positive traditional management outcomes to
the creation of fat inclusive fitness spaces.
Fat individuals are not uncommon or even a numerical minority in many Western
cultures. However, the miserably low adherence rates of PA interventions and diet
programs indicate that the current fitness landscape is ineffective at reaching and main-
taining service relationships with these individuals. Organizations that actively pursue and
encourage the participation of the majority of the population stand to gain a considerable
advantage in the PA marketplace. Simply put, fitness facilities, as businesses, rely on
continued membership of clients as their primary revenue stream. Thus, organizations
that are able to engage this untapped market will benefit from the long-term competitive
advantage associated with being first-movers (Kerin, Varadarajan, & Peterson, 1992).
These organizations should also be interested in maintaining longer relationships with
their clients than the traditional failure rates of less than 2 years. Facilities that are able to
develop long-term adherence relationships (and resulting membership payments) from
this large number of currently underserved individuals are also likely to benefitfinancially
from body-inclusive policies (Shani & Chalasani, 1992).
Therefore, it is important to examine the hallmarks of truly body-inclusive spaces and
encourage further testing and development of such outlets. While there are a number of
calls for the creation of body weight and fat inclusive spaces in the PA literature, any
articles that outline best practices specifically for creating these spaces are not known.
Therefore, related literature will be drawn in various disciplines (e.g., sport management,
disability studies, social psychology, and education) about the development of inclusive
sport and PA organizations across other diversity dimensions in developing a model of
body weight and fat inclusive spaces.
A model for confronting weight stigma through body-inclusive communities
The current article will outline a number of strategies to enhance inclusion for those in
larger bodies in the PA context. It is instructive to present a unified model connecting
constructive elements specifically for combatting body weight stigma in PA prior to the
discussion of each element. Thus, a model is now presented (Figure 1) for creating
inclusive spaces.
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The model presented includes six elements that will be outlined later as important in
creating truly inclusive spaces for those in larger bodies. Then, it shows that the extent to
which a space is inclusive will affect participants’level of engagement within the
Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) (Funk & James, 2001), and therefore, the amount
of physical and psychological benefit achieved through participation. While this model
outlines a general relationship between each individual’s experiences with inclusive spaces
(or lack thereof) and commitment to continued PA adherence, it is important to remem-
ber that fatness does not exist in isolation. That is, various other identities that one may
hold (e.g., gender, race, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, physical ability, etc.) may
influence the ways that she or he experiences the relationship between inclusion and PA
commitment. Therefore, a moderating variable, multiple marginalized identity to the
relationship between inclusive spaces and commitment is included. The overarching
argument of the current model is that body weight inclusive PA spaces, particularly
those that engage in the six factors outlined below and with respect to one’s various
other social identities, will lead to increased levels of engagement and, thus, increased
overall health benefits for participants.
Creating body-inclusive spaces
Drawing on previous diversity literature in sport, several important factors for the creation
of inclusive spaces, with specific consideration to body size is outlined below. While there
are several existing frameworks related to the creation and management of diverse
sporting spaces (e.g. Chelladurai, 2009; Cunningham, 2009; DeSensi, 1995; Doherty &
Chelladurai, 1999; Fink & Pastore, 1999), these models do not specifically address the
concerns related to fat stigma in PA. Therefore, the current model is designed to draw
from the previous body of literature related to general diversity management in sport,
while also integrating several additional factors important to creating specifically body-size
inclusive spaces.
Body Weight
Inclusive PA
Spaces
Commitment to
PA
Psychological
Wellbeing
Leadership
Commitment Cultural
Commitment
Physical
Spaces
Inclusive
Language
Sense of
Community
Participant
Autonomy
Physical
Wellbeing
Multiple
Marginalized
Identities
Figure 1. Conceptual model of body weight inclusive PA spaces.
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Cunningham (2015) outlined several factors that were important to creating change
and building a diverse sport organization. In particular, he argued that organizations must
value diversity, undergo an organizational analysis, educate employees and stakeholders,
have support from top management and leaders, be proactive in hiring diverse individuals
to key positions, and integrate a diversity management system throughout the organiza-
tion. For the current model, several of these as key components of creating specifically
body-size inclusive spaces is adopted; in particular, it is stressed that the importance of
creating a cultural commitment to diversity and the role of leaders in implementing
inclusive policies. Other scholarship in developing an additional four factors to the
model of inclusive spaces is then drawn from.
Cultural commitment to inclusion
Kasser and Lytle (2013)noted the importance of moving beyond simple access for a
diverse range of individuals and to creating a culture of inclusion, by which each
individual is recognized as both unique and valuable. That is, in the PA context, it is
important for organizations to ensure that participants are valued and provided for in the
space, regardless of body size. Cunningham (2008)defined a cultural commitment to
diversity as, “a force or mindset that binds an individual to support diversity”(p. 178). He
later operationalized this notion, noting:
The mindset can be reflected in one of three ways: (1) affective commitment, a desire to
support diversity because of the value of diversity; (2) continuance commitment, the
support of diversity because of the costs of not doing so; or (3) normative commitment,
the felt obligation to provide support for diversity. (Cunningham, 2015, p. 281)
Cunningham and Singer (2009) argued that an organizational culture that valued
diversity was critical to creating sustainable inclusion. Conceptually related to diversity,
inclusion “involves how well organizations and their members fully connect with, engage,
and utilize people across all types of differences”(Ferdman, 2014, p.4). Thus, by creating
an ethos of inclusion within the organization, individuals are more likely to engage in
interpersonal interactions that increase feelings of belonging for participants, such as
engaging them in meaningful conversation or providing special accommodations for an
individual’s needs without request. Again, drawing from disability research, staffin
recreation and activity spaces are crucial to creating a culture of inclusion. Staffmembers
do so by ensuring that spaces are welcoming and step in to ensure that discrimination and
prejudicial behaviors are not tolerated (Bedini, 2000).
While the previous literature does not specifically reference body or fat inclusivity, it is
argued that the logic of the argument extends to this dimension of diversity in PA as well.
That is, just as other demographic dimensions of diversity, such as disability, race or
gender, benefit from a cultural commitment to inclusion, so too do those in larger bodies.
Leadership commitment to inclusion
Managers and organizational leaders often set the tone within PA spaces and are crucial in
developing an affective commitment to inclusion (Cunningham, 2008; Doherty &
Chelladurai, 1999). Leaders transmit a number of messages about the importance of
inclusion and serve as role models for others in an organization (Boekhorst, 2015). This
is particularly important in the case of body diversity in the PA context, due to the strong
cultural biases that disassociate those in larger bodies and exercise activities. That is, the
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entrenched nature of documented anti-fat biases in the current PA and fitness landscape
will likely make the creation and maintenance of truly inclusive spaces a difficult under-
taking. However, leaders, by mandating and modeling inclusive behavior, serve as a highly
visible cue to both staffand participants about the value of each individual in the
organization. Leaders that champion diversity and inclusion are important in creating
change in organizational culture and instilling these values at all levels (Herscovitch &
Meyer, 2002).
Physical spaces
Disability researchers have noted the need for inclusive leisure and PA spaces that
welcome and include all bodies (Devine, 2004; Jeanes & Magee, 2012). Creating inclusive
PA for those with disabilities includes a component of physical space, in which a facility
creates the opportunity for participation by removing many of the physical barriers that
commonly preclude individuals from joining in (Dunn & Moore, 2005). It is noted, for
example, that PA spaces that are inclusive to those with disabilities generally include
adapted equipment and accessible restroom facilities (Shelley, 2002).
Similar logic applies to facilities seeking to create more body weight inclusivity, as well.
Inclusive PA spaces may have additional or adapted equipment for those in larger bodies,
such as support blocks in yoga classes or treadmills with higher weight capacities in fitness
centers, which would reduce barriers to participating. Further, the presence of mirrors in a
PA space has been demonstrated to increase body assessment and self-monitoring, as well
decrease body image perceptions (Radell, Adame, & Cole, 2002) Therefore, inclusive PA
spaces would reduce the number of mirrors, large windows, and explicit body weight/
weight-loss materials visible in the exercise area. As previously noted, weight loss and
appearance-related messages in advertising also increase anxiety related to the body and
increase activity avoidance (Berry & Howe, 2004). Finally, hiring those in larger bodies to
visible positions in a PA organization can also create a visible, physical representation of
body acceptance and inclusion in a space. Sartore and Cunningham (2007) noted that, “by
promoting realism rather than idealism in both their hiring practices and their message to
customers, the fitness industry can benefit individuals of all shapes and sizes”(p. 189).
While changes to the physical space are important to breaking down barriers to participa-
tion, especially in terms of signaling who is welcome (and, conversely, who is not) in PA,
they are only a starting point in creating inclusivity.
Inclusive language
Language, particularly in terms of the words and phrases used in a given context, has been
noted as an important component to diversity and inclusion (Arnesen, Mietola, &
Lahelma, 2007). Whether conscious or not, many of the phrases and terms used in
conversation create or highlight differences among individuals, thereby creating a linguis-
tic category of “us”and “them”which marginalizes the other. Over time, words can gain
cultural significance and connotations outside of a neutral understanding of their dic-
tionary definition.
Across a number of diversity dimensions, language is an important component of
creating a divisive or inclusive environment. There are, for example, a number of ways
that language has been used to classify individuals that relegated them to inferior,
differentiated status. As one example, those with intellectual disabilities have historically
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been classified by a number of terms that have fallen out of favor based on changes to
prevailing cultural norms and associations with older terms; these include “handicapped,”
“retarded,”or “mental deficiency”(Foreman, 2005). Similarly, gendered terminology and
sentence structure have changed over time, such that it is, for example, no longer
appropriate to use generic masculine pronouns to describe mixed-gender groups as it
necessarily relegates women from positions of power and reinforces male dominance
(Parks & Roberton, 2002; Sniezek & Jazwinski, 1986). Language has also served to
marginalize sexual and gender minority individuals (e.g. the phrase “That’s so gay,”as a
pejorative implies inferiority of sexual minorities) and reinforce stereotypes (Weinberg,
2009).
The language of body size has been particularly problematic, as well, as commonly
accepted terms reflect and reinforce cultural biases against fat (Wann, 2009). The terms
overweight, which implies a proper weight to which all individuals must conform, and
obese, which ignores the multifaceted nature of body weight, are both commonly used in
the current culture. In the PA landscape, these can be code words for unfit or incapable.
For example, absent other fitness information, a personal trainer that encourages a new,
fat client to engage in “gentler,”activities or those “for beginners,”is making an implicit
linguistic assumption that the individual is incapable of participating in more vigorous
classes or does not already engage in fitness activity. Given the many factors that
contribute to body fat levels, and the wide range of relative fitness levels across body
types, this type of marginalizing language is problematic in creating an inclusive space.
Therefore, inclusive language that avoids these pitfalls and power dichotomies is necessary
to the creation of inclusive PA spaces.
Sense of community
In combatting stigma, Crocker and Major (1989)argued that marginalized individuals
often find support, develop pride, and have improved self-concept when among similar
others. McMillan and Chavis (1986) explained that, “sense of community is a feeling that
members have belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group,
and a shared faith that members’needs will be met through their commitment to be
together”(p. 9). This feeling of belonging has been linked to a number of positive
outcomes, including improved overall psychological well-being and increased civic
engagement (Davidson & Cotter, 1991; Francis, Giles-Corti, Wood, & Knuiman, 2012).
Warner and Dixon (2011) argued that community building was a primary task of sport
and PA, especially from an athlete or participant’s perspective. This work was further
developed into a multidimensional scale measuring sense of community in sport and PA
organizations, which included seven primary tenets: administrative consideration (extent
to which leaders care about participants), common interest (shared values and trust
among members), competition (between members and externally), equity in administra-
tive decisions (fair and universally beneficial decision making), leadership opportunities
(members can influence the community), social spaces (ability to meaningfully interact
with others), and voluntary action (members are present due to a personal/intrinsic desire
to be part of the community) (Warner, Kerwin, & Walker, 2013).
Unfortunately, Schmalz (2010) noted that cultural beliefs about the temporal and
controllable nature of fatness largely preclude the organized formation of such support
networks and communities for those in larger bodies. Therefore, it remains important for
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organizations to intentionally foster greater ties to and between participants, developing a
more powerful sense of community that encourages long-term commitment and adher-
ence for those in larger bodies.
Participant autonomy
Each of the previous components of inclusive spaces followed a largely top-down
approach, in which organizational changes and policies attempt to foster inclusive spaces.
However, it is similarly important to consider the role of participants in creating such
outlets for PA, not only for themselves, but also for others experiencing marginalization as
well. Using the lens of Deci and Ryan’s(1985) Self-Determination Theory, it is argued that
motivation for an activity or learning outcome is maximized when individuals have an
active interest in participating, perceive value in the activity, and have confidence in their
ability to participate without problem.
In the field of education, students with these attributes show higher levels of motivation
and intentionality in learning (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). Further, within the
sport context, perceived autonomy of young athletes can increase intrinsic motivations to
train and improve (Almagro, Sáenz-López, & Moreno, 2010). It follows, then, that PA spaces
should look to empower all members and encourage their autonomy in participating. This is
particularly true for those whose voices are underrepresented in the current PA landscape.
That is, fat individuals should be encouraged to engage in conversations about the ways that
PA spaces are developed and run, allowing them to affect positive and inclusive change in the
organization. Previous research suggests that this level of commitment and buy-in would
result in increased motivation to participate and adherence over time.
Outcomes of inclusive physical spaces
To this point, components that make up inclusive PA spaces are outlined. We now turn to
discuss the practical purpose of the model: the outcomes of creating such inclusive spaces.
Using Funk and James’s(2001) Psychological Continuum Model (PCM), it is argued that
inclusive PA spaces will lead to greater physical and psychological well-being of partici-
pants, through increased levels of commitment and adherence.
PCM and commitment
As originally proposed by Funk and James (2001), the PCM outlines four stages of
commitment by which sport spectatorship and consumption evolves: awareness, attrac-
tion, attachment, and allegiance. The model was expanded to sport and PA participation
by Beaton, Funk, and Alexandris (2009), who found that participants in an Australian
rugby league and recreational skiing in Greece reached stages parallel to those outlined in
the context of sport spectatorship and fandom. That is, participants became aware of the
league or recreation opportunity and sought information about it, but were not yet
participating themselves. The second stage, attraction, occurred when an individual
began to occasionally participate in the activity, thus meeting needs and achieving limited
benefits of engagement. At this stage, however, barriers (e.g., time, monetary cost, feeling
unwelcome) to participation still affect an individual and her or his decision-making in
committing to regular participation. In the third stage, attachment, these barriers become
less important and participation becomes more regular and consistent. Finally, in the
10 A. C. PICKETT AND G. B. CUNNINGHAM
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fourth stage, allegiance, individuals begin to associate themselves with the activity and it
becomes part of her or his daily life. At this stage, the individual discounts barriers and
dismisses any negative information about the activity, as it is incongruent with the self-
activity association.
In the context of PA, it is important to move individuals up the ladder of engagement,
particularly for those who are not currently engaged at all. It is important to note that
individuals can move in both directions from stage to stage, up and down the continuum,
based on a number of factors (Beaton & Funk, 2008). Thus, it is important to not only
develop, but also maintain, engagement relationships with individuals over time.
Unfortunately, individuals in larger bodies may remain in the first two stages of awareness
and attraction, due to the hostile nature of the current PA landscape; however, the
documented health and organizational benefits of participation occur largely at the higher
levels, where participation is more consistent over time.
Funk and James (2001) noted that the latter stages of the model, attachment and
allegiance, are more predictive of actual behavior than the lower stages. Therefore, it is
argued that inclusive environments that increase participants’level of engagement will
also increase their commitment and behavioral loyalty to PA. That is, those that are made
to feel welcome in PA spaces are more likely to more regularly engage in those activities
and, therefore, also more likely to experience the benefits thereof.
Multiple marginalized identities
To this point, the model suggests a simple relationship between body weight inclusion and
adherence to PA. While this notion is appealing in its simplicity, there is reason to suggest
that this relationship is more complex than has been described until now. Given that
individuals, in addition to their body weight, also carry a number of other personal
identities, it follows that individual and societal body expectations would also vary by
individual. Intersectionality, a psychological concept developed out of the multicultural
feminist movement, accounts for the ways that individuals’multiple, overlapping iden-
tities, and the power relationships associated with those identities, interact with each other
to create a unique social experience (hooks, 1981). At its most general, intersectionality
can encompass a large number of identities, including, but not limited to, gender, race,
socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, physical or mental ability, religion, age, and body
size. Central to this argument is that no single identity is experienced alone. That is, a fat
woman of color, for example, does not experience only being fat or a woman or a person
of color; rather, she would simultaneously feel the effects of societal power relations
related to her body type, gender, and race. Having more than one marginalized identity,
often referred to as multiple jeopardy, has been noted as an impetus to inclusion in
various sport and PA outlets (Bruening, 2005; Melton & Cunningham, 2012).
With regard to body image and PA participation, a number of these identities could be
particularly salient. For example, women more often report extrinsic, body-related motiva-
tions to exercise than men do, indicating more salient societal body standards (Egli, Bland,
Melton, & Czech, 2011). Women of color, particularly those with lower socioeconomic
status, have lower participation rates in PA than White women or men of color, individually
(Whitt-Glover, Goldmon, Karanja, Heil, & Gizlice, 2012). Gay men face competing body
idealizations, in which both thin and larger bodies are alternatively prized based on the
QUEST 11
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context (Atkins, 2012). Thus, strategies for engaging and including individuals may be more,
less, or differently effective for individuals with multiple marginalized identities.
The work on multiple marginalized identities is important to this conversation because
one’s identity could moderate the relationship between inclusive PA spaces and commitment
to PA. There is some evidence, for example, that PA interventions are most likely to improve
the health of those whose health is poorest—that is, those who need it the most (Lox, Martin
Ginis, & Petruzzello, 2014). This pattern has also been observed in organizational settings,
where women and racial minorities are most receptive to diversity and inclusion efforts and
are more attracted to inclusive organizations than are their majority member counterparts
(Cunningham, 2008; Lee & Cunningham, 2015; Martins & Parsons, 2007). In drawing from
this research, it is proposed that the relationship between inclusive PA spaces and commit-
ment to PA is likely to be stronger for people with multiple marginalized identities.
Physical benefits of PA participation
PA, regardless of body size, has a number of important health benefits, primarily in reducing
an individual’s risk for certain diseases and conditions (Blair et al., 1993; Warburton, Nicol, &
Bredin, 2006). Physical inactivity has been related, for example, to cardiovascular disease,
certain cancers, diabetes, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis (Warburton et al., 2006). Perhaps
more troubling, inactivity is also strongly related to morbidity and mortality (Blair &
Brodney, 1999). Conversely, increases in PA have a drug-like effect, reducing the incidence
and severity of each of these conditions (Vina, Sanchis-Gomar, Martinez-Bello, & Gomez-
Cabrera, 2012). These benefits occur for everyone and, therefore, it is recommended that
everyone engage in as much PA as is safely and logistically possible. However, the largest
reduction in incidence rates of activity-related conditions occurs for those who are sedentary
that become moderately active (Fletcher et al., 1996).
We argue that a more explicitly inclusive environment is likely to improve the beha-
vioral commitment of individuals in continuing to engage in PA. As individuals engage in
more regular and vigorous activity, they are also likely to experience the well-documented
benefits of doing so. It follows, then, that PA outlets should be welcoming and inclusive of
all body types and activity levels, rather than a select set of thinner clientele.
Psychological benefits of PA participation
Aside from the physical benefits, PA participation also has a number of positive psycho-
logical outcomes as well (Buckworth, Dishman, O’Connor, & Tomporowski, 2013). In
their systematic review of PA and mental health literature, Penedo and Dahn (2005) found
that those who engage in regular exercise experience improved mental well-being across a
number of studies. Similarly, high levels of PA reduce levels of anxiety and depression,
while increasing overall mood, regardless of participant sex, socioeconomic status, or age
(Stephens, 1988). Further, exercise participation has a positive effect on overall cognitive
function (Tseng, Gau, & Lou, 2011).
Just as with the physical benefits of engagement, individuals who are increasingly
engaged in PA are likely to receive the psychological benefits of doing so as well. The
current article argues that more inclusive PA environments would be useful in increasing
the behavioral commitment of larger individuals. PA is an important component for the
overall psychological health of individuals, therefore demonstrating the need for more
inclusive spaces that encourage regular participation for all.
12 A. C. PICKETT AND G. B. CUNNINGHAM
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Conclusions and directions for empirical research
The framework provided here seeks to create a model for new and inclusive spaces that
encourage the participation of a group largely marginalized in the current PA climate.
Unfortunately, fat individuals experience high levels of judgment for their weight, especially
in the sport and exercise context. This is particularly troubling, given emerging evidence
about the relative health risks of weight, per se, versus those of a sedentary and inactive
lifestyle. Rather than focusing on weight loss as a primary goal, it is argued that PA outlets
should begin to model themselves to focus instead on healthy activity for participants.
To this end, a HAES-based model to PA in which participants are able to exercise simply
as a means to holistic health, rather than the achievement of a particular societally endorsed
aesthetic, is encouraged. These spaces should be explicit in stating that weight loss is not their
primary focus, but rather that regular active embodiment of individuals and overall health
are, regardless to where weight may fall. We argued that leaders in these spaces will remain
crucial in developing and modeling inclusive ideas and behaviors, serving as champions for
those who are marginalized in the current PA landscape. Further, inclusive spaces spring
from a culturally embedded commitment to inclusion for all individuals, including fat
persons. PA spaces that are inclusive to all body sizes would remove many of the anxiety
inducing and negative elements of physical space, instead replacing them with signals and
messages of inclusion. This is particularly important in terms of the language used and
accepted within a space, which often unconsciously creates division and exclusion. The
development and maintenance of an active and inclusive sense of community is vital in
ensuring the individuals feel as though they belong and are valued in the space. Finally,
participants should be encouraged to make the space their own and enjoy autonomy in their
PA experience. It is suggested that these strategies are likely to develop a more positive
participant experience that encourages long-term health and adherence to the program.
As with all models, it is important to empirically test the ways that these ideas function
outside of the theoretical realm of academia. Therefore, these dynamics should be examined
in the few emerging body positive fitness contexts. Understanding participants’feelings
toward PA, prior history in the fitness and exercise contexts, and experiences in these
more inclusive spaces are all important in understanding the relationships and appropriate
strategies for engagement between fat and PA. Further, sport managers should be interested
in the efficacy of these strategies as both improving health markers for participants (outside
of their body weight) and improving their organizational buy-in and adherence, as these are
crucial aspects of the sustainability of such programming over time.
Regular PA is an important component to individuals’overall health that should be
encouraged and available for all persons, regardless of their personal characteristics. It is
hoped that the creation of more body-inclusive PA spaces and policies will encourage fat
individuals who feel marginalized by the current model to engage in PA in a manner that
encourages overall health, regardless of body type.
ORCID
Andrew C. Pickett http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0454-0517
QUEST 13
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