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Chapter 11
Paleoenvironments, Sea Levels, and Land Use in Namaqualand,
South Africa, During MIS 6-2
Genevieve Dewar and Brian A. Stewart
Abstract In order to expand on the potential range of early
human experiences and adaptive strategies, it is first necessary
to determine the paleoenvironmental signatures for a given
region of study. In this paper we report on proxy terrestrial,
marine, and sea level data in order to reconstruct past
environments of Namaqualand, South Africa, during MIS
6-2. Although this semiarid southern extension of the Namib
Desert is a prime area to investigate early modern human
adaptive innovations, environmental and human history of
Namaqualand has been largely neglected. We present envi-
ronmental, chronological, and subsistence data from recent
excavations at Spitzkloof Rockshelter A, and review equiv-
alent data from other sites in the Succulent Karoo Biome. The
presence of handaxes on the landscape point to a pre-MIS 6
presence in the region, but current evidence suggests that a
more dedicated human occupation of the region likely began
during MIS 5. Subsequent human dispersals into Namaqua-
land are recurrent but heavily pulsed and typically linked to
humid stadial phases when sea levels were lower. We propose
that the westward movement of the coastline potentially
increased the carrying capacity of the region by promoting the
colonization of grasses onto the coastal plain, attracting larger
game. The mechanism driving this change can be attributed to
either an increase in inland precipitation as the
Benguela-cooled coastline moved west or reduced evapotran-
spiration due to lowered temperatures. The strongest evidence
for this pattern is during MIS 2 when faunal and floral data
indicate a cold but humid environment. Faunal species from
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) layers at Spitzkloof A and
Apollo 11 include large ungulates such as Equus capensis,a
moisture-loving species that disappears toward the end of MIS
2(*14 ka) when conditions become more xeric.
Keywords Namaqualand Late Pleistocene Middle
Stone Age Paleoenvironments Deserts
Hunter-gatherers Climate change Southern Africa
Introduction
Over the past two decades fossils of early Homo sapiens and
genetics studies of modern populations have identified an
African origin for our species at *200 ka (cf. Cann et al.
1987; McDougall et al. 2008). Yet the sparse distribution of
well-excavated sites across this vast continent means that we
are still fleshing out the evolutionary processes within Africa
that led ultimately to the complex, highly plastic forms of
behavior typical of recent and living humans. Evidence from
a handful of African Late Pleistocene sites provide glimpses
of sociocultural, technological, and subsistence innovations
that include geometric art forms (Henshilwood et al. 2002;
Mackay and Welz 2008; Texier et al. 2010), personal
ornamentation (Henshilwood et al. 2004;d’Errico et al.
2005; Bouzouggar et al. 2007), compound adhesive manu-
facture (Wadley et al. 2009), living and work space prepa-
ration (Wadley 2010; Wadley et al. 2011), fishing (Yellen
et al. 1995; Henshilwood et al. 2001; Robbins et al. 2016),
and shellfish exploitation (Klein et al. 2004; Avery et al.
2008; Marean 2010). These finds, although tantalizing, are
material symptoms of underlying causes and processes that
remain obscure. In order to begin understanding the deeper
evolutionary currents responsible for behavioral complexity,
however defined, the unevenness of datasets across the
African continent must be corrected. This is especially true
G. Dewar (&)
Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto,
Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4,
Canada
e-mail: gdewar@utsc.utoronto.ca
B.A. Stewart
Museum of Anthropological Archaeology,
University of Michigan, Ruthven Museums Building,
1109 Geddes Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
©Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Sacha C. Jones and Brian A. Stewart (eds.), Africa from MIS 6-2: Population Dynamics and Paleoenvironments,
Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology, DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_11
195
in Africa’s more marginal biomes, which would have chal-
lenged humans to expand their behavioral repertoire (Dewar
and Stewart 2012; Stewart et al. 2012,2016).
When assessing the evolution of behavior it is imperative to
first understand the ecological conditions of a particular region
for a given time period in order to establish a baseline. This is
important for interpreting the causes of specific behaviors or
innovations as rooted in either social or environmental adap-
tations, or both. Environments change through time and so too
will their attractiveness as a niche for subsistence resources,
raw materials, or some unknown sociocultural relevance. In
order to contribute to the accumulation of data from
under-researched African regions we present data from the
periods MIS 6-2 with focus on Namaqualand, South Africa.
Namaqualand is a semiarid desert that is currently unpre-
dictable and patchy in floral resources, and while rainfall
arrives during the austral winter months, it is quite low at 50–
250 mm per year (Desmet 2007).
In this paper we synthesize what we currently know
about past environments of Namaqualand from MIS 6-2.
Because this region has received very little research, it is
necessary to include data from geographically disparate sites
in order to develop a tentative yet meaningful picture (see
Appendix A). We present paleoenvironmental, chronologi-
cal and subsistence data from recent excavations at Spitzk-
loof Rockshelter A (hereafter Spitzkloof A). Spitzkloof A
(28°51.790 S, 17°04.65270 E) is located in southern
Africa’s Succulent Karoo Biome, and more specifically in
the hinterland or “Richtersveld”of northern Namaqualand.
The site is situated 30 km south of the Orange River and
30 km east of the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 11.1). Results from
Spitzkloof A are offered alongside previously published data
Fig. 11.1 Map of the study region identifying the biomes, archaological sites and marine cores referred to in the text. The winter rainfall zone
(WRZ) and summer rainfall zone (SRZ) boundaries are indicated with the region between them receiving rainfall all year
196 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
from several other sites in the Succulent Karoo Biome with
equivalent-aged deposits: Varsch River 003 (VR003) in
southern Namaqualand, and the Namibian sites Apollo 11
Rockshelter and Erb Tanks.
In a study of the Holocene occupation of Namaqualand,
Dewar (2008) notes that the region was inhabited during
relatively cold humid phases including the Neoglacial
(*4.2–1.4 ka) and the Little Ice Age (0.65–0.15 ka). Con-
versely, the region was occupied at a much lower density
during warm and arid phases such as the Mid-Holocene
Altithermal (7–4.2 ka) and Medieval Warm Epoch (*1.4–
0.65 ka). Dewar concludes that water availability was the
most likely factor driving settlement of the region. Here we
test this hypothesis for the Pleistocene with the expectation
that occupation will be linked to glacial and stadial phases,
which were cold but more humid than current conditions (cf.
Chase and Meadows 2007). The lowered sea levels that
accompanied such phases may have played a particularly
important role: with westward shifts of the arid coastline from
its present position, precipitation could have reached larger
areas of inland Namaqualand while the lowered temperatures
could have increased the effectiveness of evapotranspiration.
Current Landscape
The Namaqualand coastal semidesert is the southern exten-
sion of the Namib Desert within the Succulent Karoo Biome.
This region is demarcated by the Olifants River in the south
(the boundary of the Fynbos Biome) while to the north it is
defined by the Orange (Gariep) River (Fig. 11.1). The
western edge is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, while the
eastern threshold borders the Bushmanland grasslands
(Nama Karoo Biome) and is demarcated by the north–
south-oriented Kamiesberg Mountains. These mountains
range from 30 to 100 km inland and consist of granite gneiss
that peak at 1,706 m above mean sea level (amsl). To the
north, the Stinkfontein Mountain ranges consist of the Port
Nolloth Group that unconformably overlies the Namaqua
Metamorphic Group (Frimmel 2003) peaking at 1,377 m
amsl. Numerous dry riverbeds crosscut the coastal plateau
and flow very infrequently. The coastal plain or Sandveld
consists of red Pleistocene sands that are overlain in areas
with dynamic white aeolian sand of marine origin (Mucina
et al. 2006). The Richtersveld includes the foothills and the
Stinkfontein Mountains, with red Pleistocene fine-grained
sand deposits and quartz gravel plains.
Namaqualand is within the Winter Rainfall Zone (WRZ),
receiving >66% of its annual precipitation during the austral
winter months. In the north, current mean annual rainfall is
less than 50 mm with an increasing gradient to the south (up
to 250 mm per annum) and east toward the mountains. The
peaks of the Kamiesberg receive up to 400 mm per annum
(Desmet 2007). The aridification of Namaqualand and the
Namib Desert is caused by the interaction between cold sea
surface temperatures and the westerly winds. Upwelling
along the west coast in conjunction with the Benguela
Current produces sea surface temperatures of between 11
and 17 °C (Eitel 2005). When humid southerly winds pass
over the frigid sea, the air is cooled and cannot release
precipitation until the winds have moved over the warm
continent creating this west to east rain shadow gradient.
Although rain is infrequent, when humidity ranges between
70 and 100% coastal fogs (known locally as “Malmokkies”)
form and can extend up to 90 km inland, providing an
important source of hydration for flora and fauna. Although
the official mean temperature for the entire Succulent Karoo
Biome is 16.8 °C (Mucina et al. 2006), Namaqualand can
exceed temperatures of 40 °C during the summer while
winter minimums can fall to 7 °C and below. Very hot
Foehn or “berg”winds can drive the daytime temperatures
above 44 °C even in winter months.
The Succulent Karoo is one of eight terrestrial biomes in
southern Africa, yet it has received relatively little archae-
ological attention compared to the productive Fynbos Biome
of the Cape coastlands. Succulent Karoo vegetation is
dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs of which the Aizoa-
ceae or “Vygies”are prominent as are Euphorbiaceae,
Crassulaceae, and succulent members of Asteraceae, Iri-
daceae, and Hyacinthaceae (Mucina et al. 2006). Extrava-
gant mass flowering of Asteraceae daisies occurs in spring.
Grasses are rare and of C
3
type, while trees such as Acacia
karroo are typically present along dry riverbanks. By
necessity, flora and fauna are dry adapted species and occur
in unpredictable and patchy distributions (Desmet 2007).
The diversity of mammals and birds is very low compared to
the rest of South Africa, but the region is a biodiversity
hotspot for small reptiles and invertebrates.
Paleoenvironments, Sea Levels,
and Settlement
According to Eitel (2005), the aridification of the Namib
Desert and, by extension, Namaqualand, has its origin in the
Miocene with the establishment of the Benguela Current. In
2007 Chase and Meadows synthesized the available pale-
oenvironmental proxy data to evaluate potential expansions
of the WRZ using data from marine cores off the coast of
Namibia, as well as terrestrial and other marine proxy data
from South Africa’s west coast. Their interpretation com-
bined results from a wide range of datasets including pollen,
aeolian, fluvial and lacustrine deposits, size and presence of
mammals, and stable isotopes. They tested and seem to
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 197
confirm an inverse relationship between temperature and
humidity for the WRZ whereby glacial periods were humid
and interglacials were dry. Scott et al. (2012) later revisited
the well-dated terrestrial fossil pollen record and confirmed
the inverse relationship between temperature and humidity.
Not only do glacial/interglacial periods reflect global
temperatures they also affect the location of coastlines. The
current South African shoreline was established *9.0
14
C
kBP with small deviations during the Holocene. Through-
out MIS 6-2, however, it fluctuated widely, ranging from +4
to −130 m amsl (Ramsey and Cooper 2002). Due to the
gradual slope of the Southwest African Margin (continental
shelf), even small changes in sea level will shift the location
of the coastline. Cold glacial periods would have depressed
sea levels exposing landmass that could be colonized by
vegetation, while warm periods and concomitant sea level
transgressions will have submerged land (cf. Compton 2011
for the southern coast). For example, a drop of 120 m would
have extended the Namaqualand coastline westward by
*20 km. This could have impacted water availability in this
semidesert by either: (a) exposing warm landmass shifting
the rainfall shadow to the west and thereby increasing pre-
cipitation in regions that are today quite arid; or (b) evapo-
transpiration would have been less efficient in lowered
temperatures. In either scenario increased water availability
would have potentially supported a higher carrying capacity
of flora and fauna.
Ramsey and Cooper (2002) evaluated the available sea
level indicators for southern Africa in order to produce a
well-constrained sea level curve from MIS 7-1. They rely
largely on the dating of beachrock (aeolianite) using U-series
and previously published dates from shoreline indicators
primarily from the eastern Cape coast. In 2010, Fisher et al.
developed a paleoscape model of changing sea level for the
southern Cape coast at 1.5 ka intervals stretching back
*420 ka. They use integrated bathymetric datasets, GIS and
a relative sea level curve (RSL) with ages extrapolated from
oxygen isotope ratios from benthic foraminifera (the com-
posite RSL constructed by Waelbroeck et al. 2002 correlates
well with the localized geological data) to estimate the
position of the coastline, and compared this predicted model
with strontium isotope ratios from speleothems as an inde-
pendent test of sea level. There are some incongruences
between the two methods before 250 ka (MIS 7), but after
this time they are more consistent. While this dataset was
developed for the southern Cape, gross shifts in sea level will
also affect the west coast and Namaqualand coastline. The
Agulhas Bank of the southern Cape extends 300 km offshore,
whereas the Southwest African Margin off Namaqualand
reaches *200 km offshore (Fig. 11.1). By contrast, the
Eastern Cape continental shelf is very steep at only 3 km
offshore (Fisher et al. 2010: Fig. 2). The Southwest African
Margin is thus overall more similar in morphology to the
Agulhas Bank than to the Eastern Cape, and we accordingly
expect that offshore coastline movement in Namaqualand
were more likely to be similar to Southern Cape values.
Pre-MIS 6 (>191 ka)
The Archaeology Contracts Office, a cultural resource
management team based in Cape Town, has surveyed
Namaqualand for over two decades (Dewar 2008; Dewar
and Orton 2013; Halkett 2002,2003,2006a,b; Halkett and
Dewar 2007; Halkett and Hart 1997,1998; Halkett and
Orton 2004,2005a,b,2007; Orton 2007,2009; Orton and
Halkett 2005,2006; Webley 1992,2002,2009). Their
extensive archaeological database (>1500 sites) makes clear
that past populations used the landscape prior to MIS 6. For
example, there are over 50 recorded Early Stone Age
(ESA) open air sites identified by the presence of handaxes.
The majority of these ESA sites reflect the quarrying of
silcrete outcrops where thousands of artifacts were dropped.
There is a ribbon of coarse silcrete outcrops along old marine
terraces in northern Namaqualand (Roberts 2003) that
extends across the Orange River into the Gemsbok region of
Namibia (Corvinus 1983). The presence of large quartzite
and quartz clasts at these silcrete quarry sites indicates that
people must have transported these clasts to the marine
terraces. There is no evidence for actual habitation sites
although fossil bone has been found at one inland site near
the town of Kleinsee (Orton personal communication), but
few of these localities have been systematically sampled. All
are situated within 5 km of the current coastline or along
river valleys, the latter suggesting that early Homo followed
corridors associated with fresh water or artifact deposits are
covered with recent sands. Without proper chronological
control, however, we cannot say whether artifacts that are
currently near-coastal were deposited in a similar environ-
mental setting, since sea levels have changed. No doubt
many archaeological sites are currently submerged.
MIS 6 (191–130 ka)
Palaeoenvironmental datasets for the west coast of southern
Africa that date to MIS 6 come from two marine cores
(Fig. 11.1) off the southern and central coasts of Namibia:
GeoB1711-4 and MD962094 (Shi et al. 2001; Stuut et al.
2002). The pollen from marine core GeoB177-4 identified
high levels of Restionaceae, the evergreen family within
the Fynbos Cape Floral Kingdom, in addition to a transi-
tional desert/semidesert group Asteroideae, currently
located near the Orange River (Shi et al. 2001). The term
198 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
“desert/semidesert”is a poor descriptive though as it does
not reflect the true water dependence of these families. The
authors argue that the presence of these families is evidence
for a northward expansion of the Cape floral elements during
this stage and therefore reflects a humid signal. Stuut et al.’s
(2002) study of grain size variations of terrigenous sedi-
ments from marine core MD962094 also suggests relatively
humid conditions during MIS 6 based on a strong increase in
the proportion of fluvial sediment deposits.
Sea levels during MIS 6 along the coast of Namaqualand
are not yet well understood and thus for the time being we
must rely on data from further afield. A U-series date from a
sample of aeolianite located on the east coast of South Africa
(182 ±18
230
Th/
234
U ka: Pta-U430) was traced to a sub-
merged beach rock facies at −3 m amsl (Ramsey and Cooper
2002). Strontium isotope ratios from Pinnacle Point on the
southern Cape coast suggest two minor regression events at
189.7 and 173 ka. These events lead the paleoscape model
that predicts low sea stands at 184.5 ka and 151 ka respec-
tively (Fisher et al. 2010). While not yet resolved, both
methods agree that there was a transgression at 167 ka to
near modern coastal levels. Finally, a major drop in sea level
is recorded until the end of MIS 6 with strontium isotope
ratio data indicating a minimum sea level sometime between
155 and 150.5 ka, while the paleoscape model records two
regressive peaks at 150.5 and 137 ka (Fisher et al. 2010).
There is currently no direct evidence for the occupation of
Namaqualand during the penultimate glacial period. Surveys
have identified over 90 Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites with
large, heavily patinated blades, points and flakes as well as
radial cores and Levallois reduction, but only a handful are
diagnostic pieces and all relatively date to MIS 4 (see
below). Site types include open air lithic scatters, quarries
and food processing/habitation sites. There are two known
rock shelters with MSA material on the surface with
potentially very deep deposits: Spitzkloof (Dewar and Ste-
wart 2012) and VR003 (Steele et al. 2012). There is also
evidence for the reuse of the same silcrete outcrops that were
exploited during the ESA, suggesting repeated use of the
landscape (Dewar 2008; Dewar and Orton 2013).
MIS 5 (130–71 ka)
The transition to the Last Interglacial reflects a period of
general aridification. Shi et al. (2001) record a sharp decline
in Restionaceae and desert/semidesert pollen. These taxa
were replaced by Kalahari dry forest, indicating an increased
influence of the easterly trade winds and a reduced influence
of the rain bearing westerlies. Only at the end of MIS 5 is
there a slow return of the pollen spectra that signal humidity.
Correspondingly, Stuut et al. (2002) note a drop in fluvial
input during MIS 5e, with a return to moderate levels at MIS
5d followed by sharp increases in fluvial input during MIS
5c and 5a.
The paleoscape model and strontium isotope ratios from
Pinnacle Point suggest that by 130 ka (MIS 5e) the coast had
returned to near modern levels, with neither showing evi-
dence for a major regression during MIS 5 (Fisher et al.
2010). Sea level data for the Last Interglacial in eastern South
Africa is characterized by two sea level highstands at +4 m
amsl separated by a −44 m lowstand. Based on two ionium
dates of 110 ka and 98 ka at Klasies River Mouth, Hedley and
Volman (1986) relate one of the +4 m amsl highstands to
MIS 5c. At Sodwana Bay, U-series dated beachrock from a
submerged shoreline at −44 m amsl yielded a date of 117 ±7
230
Th/
234
U ka (Pta-U487). While Maud (1968), Hobday
(1976), Cooper and Flores (1991) have identified two +4 m
shoreline deposits in KwaZulu-Natal that are separated by the
−44 m amsl unconformity, and suggest the other highstand
was most likely deposited during MIS 5e (Ramsay and
Cooper 2002). MIS 5c and 5a have been interpreted by
Chappel and Shackleton (1986) to be close to the present sea
level, which is supported by the paleoscape model with
values ranging from +1.65 to +0.5 m amsl (Fisher et al. 2010:
Table 1). The near modern sea level values remain until 72 ka
where the strontium isotope data and paleoscape model agree
that at there was a drop in sea level (Fisher et al. 2010).
The Last Interglacial has been proposed as the likely date
for the small MSA assemblage from the near coastal rock
shelter Boegoeberg 2 in Namaqualand. The corrected
14
C date
on ostrich eggshell is 46,709–44,242 cal BP (44,200 ±1200
14
C BP, Pta-6956), but Klein et al. (1999) interpret the date as a
minimum age and suggest that the occupation could be much
older since the fauna implies true interglacial conditions; they
propose substages 5e, 5b, or 5a. It is also possible that MSA
processing sites located on the modern coastline date to this
period, when sea level would have been similar. Processing
sites are identified on the basis of the presence of large
quantities of fossilized intertidal shellfish, tortoise and pati-
nated lithics. This idea is perhaps reinforced by ethnographic
research, which suggests that a typical daily foraging radius to
the intertidal zones is likely to be no more than 8 and 10 km
(Meehan 1982). Current evidence suggests that the sea level
was further away *45 ka (see below).
The oldest date in the greater Namib region associated
with an archaeological deposit comes from Erb Tanks in
central Namibia (McCall et al. 2011). An amino acid
racemization date of 130 ka was recently obtained on ostrich
eggshell from the very base of the shelter (McCall et al.
2011). Although this may be an indication that people were
moving into the Namib Desert landscape when the sea levels
were returning to near modern values, this date is a con-
spicuous outlier as noted by the authors. More dates are
required to verify a human presence in early MIS 5. A more
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 199
congruous date is 85 ka (also based on amino acid racem-
ization) when paleoenvironmental indicators suggest that the
region was returning to a more humid environment, although
it is important to note that there is clearly evidence for
vertical movement of ostrich eggshell at Erb Tanks (McCall
et al. 2011). Unfortunately, there is no bone preserved from
the MSA layers at Erb Tanks.
MIS 4 (71–57 ka)
Paleoenvironmental data for MIS 4 is restricted to marine
proxies, a charcoal study, and faunal remains but neverthe-
less this period marks a distinct threshold reflecting a shift to
a cooler and more humid environment. At 70 ka maximum
sea surface temperatures (SST) dropped from interglacial
temperatures of *22 to *20–19 °C, and maintained those
lower values throughout both MIS 4 and 3 (Krist et al.
1999). There is an increase through time in Restionaceae and
transitional desert/semidesert pollen taxa (cf. Asteroideae) at
marine core GeoB1711-4 (Shi et al. 2001) while the coarse
aeolian dust input increases dramatically (Stuut et al. 2002)
suggesting increasing trade wind strength at the site of
marine core MD962094. Charcoal analysis for the MIS 4
layers at Apollo 11 located 30 km north of the Orange River
identify “a diverse array of woody vegetation reflecting an
environment either very similar to or more favorable than
today”(Vogelsang et al. 2010: 212). South of the study
region, botanical remains from Diepkloof Rockshelter dating
to *65–50 ka reflect afromontane taxa (Chase and
Meadows 2007) indicating a humid late MIS 4/early MIS 3,
although this is within the Fynbos biome that currently
receives more rainfall than Namaqualand.
After the regression at 72 ka, the sea level remained low
along the south coast until 60 ka at which point the strontium
isotopes and paleoscape model identify a transgression event
(Fisher et al. 2010). The curve developed by Ramsey and
Cooper (2002) lacks data for this period.
The presence of Still Bay (SB) points 6 km inland from
the town of Koignass (Dewar and Orton 2013) and the
discovery of a Howiesons Poort (HP) segment near the
Tweepad farm suggest that MSA people inhabited the
northern coast of Namaqualand sometime between 74 and
60 ka (cf. Jacobs et al. 2008). In southern Namaqualand, two
sites near the Varsche River indicate occupation during MIS
4: the open site STF001 has bifacial points while VR003 has
both bifacial points and HP segments (Mackay et al. 2010;
Steele et al. 2012). The faunal data from VR003 is presented
in Steele et al. (2012), but it has not yet been directly dated.
The authors identify one confidently in situ layer repre-
senting the HP layer from test pit II-04. The sample of
identified remains consists of 58 elements, with the arid
adapted browsers Chersina angulata (Angulate tortoise)
dominating at 76% (Steele et al. 2012). The small species list
makes identifying the environment tentative but the two
herbivores identified to species, Chersina angulata and
Cryptomys hottentotus, at least suggest that browse was
available within a potentially arid region.
A more robust sample that includes both SB and HP is
found at Apollo 11 with Optically Stimulated Luminescence
(OSL) dating these techno-complexes at 71 ±3 ka (AP6) and
Table 11.1 Number of specimens identified to species and their inferred diet (cf. Skinner and Chimimba 2005) for the Still Bay (SB), Howiesons
Poort (HP) late MSA and Early LSA layers Apollo 11 (Vogelsang et al. 2010)
Species Apollo 11
SB *70 ka
Apollo 11
HP *60 ka
Sptz A late
MSA *52–
51 ka
Apollo 11 late
MSA
III *43 ka
Apollo 11
Late MSA
I*30 ka
Apollo 11
early LSA
*25–14 ka
Diet
Bathyergus janetta 0 0 2 0 0 0 Browser
Raphicerus campestris 0 0 1 0 0 0 Browser
Oreotragus oreotragus 2 8 1 6 2 1 Browser
Silvicapra grimmia 0 0 1 0 0 0 Browser
Chersina
angulata/Psammobates
tentorius trimeni
2 1 41 1 1 0 Browser
Procavia sp. 3 2 0 4 11 10 Mixed
Lepus sp. 2 3 0 8 8 8 Mixed
Antidorcas marsupialis 2 1 1 3 1 0 Mixed
Phacocherus sp. 0 0 0 1 1 0 Grazer
Oryx gazella 0 0 2 0 0 0 Grazer
Equus zebra 2 5 0 4 5 3 Grazer
n132049272922
These data are compared to the late MSA layers at Spitzkloof A (Dewar and Stewart 2012). Note In Vogelsang et al. (2010) the data are presented
as relative abundance while this table presents the NISP
200 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
63 ±2 ka (AP4) respectively, with an intermediate pulse of
occupation at 67 ±3 ka (AP5) (Vogelsang et al. 2010).
The faunal data from the recent excavation (Vogelsang et al.
2010: Table 6), although limited, are discussed here because
Thackeray’s(1977) analysis of the bones from the original
excavations did not separate the SB from the HP layers. In
the SB layers, of the 32 identified fauna, small mammals
(size 1 and 2; cf. Brain 1981: up to 80 kg) dominate the
assemblage at 59% with large mammals (>30 kg) at 25%.
All species in the sample live on the landscape today
with the important exception of the large grazing equid.
Using the dietary preferences of the identified species
there is a high proportion of mixed feeders, followed by
browsers and grazers respectively (Table 11.1). Similar to
the charcoal signal from the same deposits, the fauna
suggests an early MIS 4 environment that was similar to
today, but with more water available to support woody
vegetation and grasses.
The HP layers at Apollo 11 produced a sample of 35
identified elements, similarly dominated by small mammals
at 57% of the assemblage followed by large ungulates at
23% (Vogelsang et al. 2010: Table 7). Mirroring the SB
sample, the identified species are present on the landscape
today with the addition of the equid, indicating a nearly
modern environment but with increased water availability.
Noting the dietary preferences of the identified species
(Table 11.1) there is an increased proportion of grazers and
browsers at the expense of the mixed feeders. As this dataset
is small and the mixed feeders could consume graze or
browse, the most powerful inference from this table is the
increase in the presence of grazers that do not live on the
landscape today.
Erb Tanks has also produced two dates at *65 ka and
one at 60 ka although the occupation lacks SB and HP
diagnostic tools (McCall et al. 2011). There is no faunal
sample from Erb Tanks for this stage.
MIS 3 (57–29 ka)
During MIS 3, multi-proxy data indicates that the environ-
ment was fluctuating from arid to humid within a climatic
regime that was cool overall. The charcoal identified from a
settlement hiatus bracketed by OSL dates (AP3:
57.9 ±2.6 ka and AP2: 42.9 ±2.7 ka) at Apollo 11 consists
of a single family Chenopodiaceae (Salsola type), which
indicate xeric conditions (Vogelsang et al. 2010). By con-
trast, Restionaceae and desert/semidesert taxa within marine
core GeoN1711-4 signals an increase in humidity beginning
at 50 ka peaking at 32 ka (Shi et al. 2001). In marine core
MD962094, the coarse aeolian dust input initially drops but
then fluctuates dramatically (Stuut et al. 2002).
The fossil assemblage from the hyena den Boegoeberg 1
on the Namaqualand coast includes large water-dependent
grazers, such as Connochaetes taurinus (blue wildebeest)
and Redunca arundimun (southern reedbuck), suggesting a
moist climate, while the large size of the hyena bones sug-
gests a cool environment (Klein et al. 1999). The calibrated
14
C dates on ostrich eggshell are 45,500–36,000 cal BP
(37,000 ±5000
14
C BP, GX-22191), 42,000–36,000 cal BP
(35,000 ±3000
14
C BP, GX-21190) and 40,000–34,700 cal
BP (33,000 ±2600
14
C BP, GX-21189), and are interpreted
by Klein et al. (1999) as a minimum age and likely repre-
sentative of late MIS 4 or early MIS 3. It is possible though
that the Boegoeberg 1 dates are not representing an infinite
date but rather record relatively cool and moist conditions in
mid-MIS 3 as shown by the offshore pollen record. Further
evidence for high humidity is found at Kannikwa near Port
Nolloth in northern Namaqualand where a peat bed is dated
at 32,000–31,000 cal BP (27,900 ±310
14
C BP, Beaumont
1986). Additional support for mid to late MIS 3 humidity is
seen in a composite distribution of
14
C dated evidence for
increased humidity from within the Namib Desert as a whole
(Lancaster 2002), with a humid peak ending at the MIS 3/2
boundary at 37,000–31,000 cal BP (32,000–26,000
14
C BP).
The Ramsay and Cooper (2002) curve indicates a drop in
sea level in the eastern Cape based on wetland peats with
depths of −52 m and −46 m dating from 50,000 to 47,000 cal
BP (45,200
14
C BP, Pta-4140) and 44,000–42,000 cal BP
(39,000 ±1500
14
C BP, Pta-4142) respectively. The pale-
oscape and strontium isotope data (Fisher et al. 2010) also
suggests a mid-MIS 3 drop in sea level at *52 ka while the
paleoscape data identifies two shallow transgressions at 40 ka
and 30 ka that the strontium isotope ratios do not register
(Fisher et al. 2010: 1389, Fig. 4). An offshore marine shell at
a depth of −78.4 m amsl records a rapid drop in sea level with
a calibrated
14
C date of 31,500–30,800 cal BP (27,800 ±440
14
C BP, Pta-1104), from the Orange River Mouth. This
regression event essentially continues through to the Last
Glacial Maximum (LGM) in MIS 2.
OSL dates from Apollo 11 indicate that it was occupied
in several pulses during MIS 3: 58 ±3 ka (AP9) and
57 ±3 ka (AP3) from the base of the late MSA complex;
43 ±3 ka (AP2) from the middle of the complex; and
30 ±1.4 ka (AP11) at the top of the complex (Vogelsang
et al. 2010). Radiocarbon dates add mid to late occupational
pulses occurring at *37,000 cal BP, and *32,000–
29,000 cal BP (Vogelsang et al. 2010).
While there is no faunal data for the earliest MIS 3 occu-
pation, Vogelsang et al. (2010: Table 6) present the identified
remains for the *43 ka pulse (Late MSA III) and the *30 ka
pulse (Late MSA I). The species list from these occupations
mirrors the results from MIS 4 with the addition of a second
grazing species (Phacochoerus sp.) supporting a more humid
signal within an arid zone (Table 11.1).
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 201
Radiocarbon dates measured on ostrich eggshell from
layer Brian at Spitzkloof A returned ages of 52,150 ±800
14
C BP and 51,150 ±850
14
C BP (Table 11.2). A third date
is likely infinite at >59,250
14
C BP. The presence of gypsum
nodules from this layer indicates climatic conditions ranging
from arid to semiarid (Dregne 1976; Middleton 2003), but
with enough moisture to have put the gypsum in solution
(Dewar and Stewart 2012). The fauna from this occupation
pulse consists of 810 identified specimens representing a
minimum of fourteen different species that are all found on
the landscape today (Dewar and Stewart 2012). Small
mammals dominate the assemblage at 37% followed by
tortoises at 35%. The identified species consists primarily of
browsers (Table 11.1) but the presence of the Oryx gazella
suggests that there was some grass available. Overall the
species list suggests the environment at *52–51 ka was
very similar to MIS 4. Erb Tanks was occupied at 45 ka but
fauna and other environmental indicators are absent (McCall
et al. 2011).
MIS 2 (29–14 ka)
Increased or more effective precipitation during early MIS 2
(*28–20 ka) is recorded in Namibia from calcified reed
beds and lacustrine deposits at Koichab Pan (Lancaster
1984), Narabeb (Teller and Lancaster 1986), Khommabes
(Teller and Lancaster 1985) and Gobabeb (Vogel and Visser
1981). Charcoals from the Late Pleistocene layers at Apollo
11 are dominated by Olea, a woody species that lives in dry
riverbeds of the central highlands (Vogelsang et al. 2010).
This species is not found near Apollo 11 today. Olea
europaea ssp africana is a frost and drought tolerant species
that at first glance could signal a cool and arid landscape.
Alternatively, Olea pollen from a hyrax midden in the
Brandberg (Dâures Massif, Namibia) co-occurring with
Stoebe type, dwarf shrubland taxa, Artemeisia and fern
pollen dating to the LGM (*21 ka) has been interpreted by
Scott et al. (2004) as indicating a cool moist signal.
Although the authors do caution that this may not neces-
sarily reflect increased precipitation but rather a drop in
average temperature reducing evaporation, which would also
render rainfall more effective (Scott et al. 2004).
The marine core data also support a wet early MIS 2. Shi
et al. (2001) record the highest percentages of Restionaceae
pollen in core GeoB1711-4 at *24 ka, declining
until *19 ka and then finally dropping off to negligible
values at *14 ka (contra Scott et al. 2004 who did not find
Restionaceae in the Brandberg). Fluvial sediments at
MD962094 and trade wind proxy data from GeoN1711-4,
MD962094, and GeoB1706 mimic the marine core pollen
data with high values at the onset of MIS 2 that steadily
decrease through time (Stuut et al. 2002).
Further south at Elands Bay Cave, the LGM layers
(*25–21.5 ka) are marked by maximum values of pollen
from woodland taxa and the lowest xeric karroid and
Strandveld pollen values (Meadows and Baxter 1999).
Charcoal studies from the same deposits substantiate this
pattern of increased humidity with the presence of
afromontane species such as Celtis Africana and Grewia
occidentalis, which are intolerant of drought. Pollen from
rock hyrax middens in the Cederberg Mountains suggest a
shift at *16 ka from a glacial vegetation consisting of
Stoebe/Elytropappus shrubs and fynbos elements (Ericaceae
and Proteaceae) to a Holocene vegetation signal with a
mosaic of fynbos, thicket, and succulent vegetation (Scott
and Woodborne 2007a,b). The authors interpret this shift as
a result of increasing temperatures and reduced precipitation
(although there is marked variability within the LGM).
Table 11.2 Radiocarbon ages of ostrich eggshell from Spitzkloof A, Namaqualand, South Africa
Lab no. Context Date in
14
C BP Calibrated dates in cal BP
UBA-17609 Layer Nick 14,350 ±10 17,274–17,093
UBA-17610 Layer Nick 14,400 ±70 17,391–17,134
UBA-17611 Layer Nadja 15,200 ±50 18,304–18,108
UBA-17612 Layer Jaird 16,250 ±60 19,457–19,237
UBA-17613 Layer Dave 19,550 ±60 23,415–23,132
UBA-17614 Layer Mark 19,750 ±80 23,671–23,393
UBA-17615 Layer Julie 19,550 ±60 23,415–23,132
UBA-17616 Layer Brian >59,250 N/A
UBA-17617 Layer Brian 52,150 ±800 N/A
UBA-17618 Layer Brian 51,150 ±850 N/A
The
14
C dates were run at the
14
Chrono Centre at Queens University Belfast. Dates are calibrated using the software Calib 7.0 and the calibration
curve Shcal13.14c for the southern hemisphere (Hogg et al. 2013). Note that the geological layers Dave, Mark, and Julie represent a single
chronological layer. Note Experiments have shown that fossil ostrich eggshell is typically 180 ±120 years too old (Vogel et al. 2001) and so 180 yr
was subtracted before calibration
202 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
Local data comes from the Eksteenfontein spring 18 km
northeast of Spitzkloof A (Scott et al. 1995,2012) where
Stoebe/Elytropappus pollen samples indicate the region was
still fairly cool from *15.2 to 13.6 ka, but warming
by *12.5 ka. Scott et al. (2012) suggest that this period also
reflects reduced moisture from a cold dry fynbos to a more
modern arid environment.
In Durban Bay (Eastern Cape) a wetland peat located at
−22 m amsl produced a calibrated date of 30,000–28,000 cal
BP (24,950 ±950
14
C BP, GaK-1390) (King 1972 in
Ramsey and Cooper 2002). By 20,000 cal BP (16,990 ±160
14
C BP, Pta-182) the sea had dropped to a maximum of
−130 m amsl based on a dated Pecten sp. shell from Cape St.
Francis (Vogel and Marais 1971), while submerged material
ranging from −100 to −90 m amsl dating to *13 ka indi-
cates a slow post-LGM transgression.
The paleoscape model and strontium isotopes also iden-
tify a shallow transgression at the MIS 3/2 boundary while
the paleoscape model confirms a rapid drop in sea level
beginning in early MIS 2 with a peak *20 ka. Unexpect-
edly, the LGM peak is not captured by the strontium isotope
data (Fisher et al. 2010). A marine shell near the mouth of
the Orange River mouth indicates that at 18,900–18,000 cal
BP the Namaqualand coastline was located −87.2 m amsl
(Vogel and Visser 1981).
There are two pulses of occupation at Spitzkloof A during
MIS 2 (Table 11.2). The first pulse is identified from three
ostrich eggshell
14
C dates at *23,500–23,000 cal
BP. A second pulse is registered by four
14
C dates ranging
from *19,000 to 17,000 cal BP, bracketing the period when
the coastline would have been near-maximum distance away.
Preliminary analysis of the fauna from the *23,000 cal BP
layers suggests an increase in the diversity of species with the
addition of grazing equids and alcelaphines, a third species of
tortoise Homopus signatus signatus and even a fish vertebra.
While these few elements represent a small sample together
they indicate a likely increase in fresh water availability.
The lithic scatter AK2006-001G along the coast of
Namaqualand, though undated has artifacts typical of Late
Pleistocene microlithic assemblages that occur between *20
and *9.5 ka in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Orton
2008). Orton (2008) argues that AK2006-001G was likely
deposited between 17,000 and 11,000 BP (*20,500–
13,000calBP).AtApollo11,
14
C dates identify occupation
at *25,000 cal BP, *22,000 cal BP, and 17,000–15,000 cal
BP. Thackeray’s(1977)“mean ungulate body mass index”
analysis at Apollo 11 correlates positively with rainfall and
was high during MIS 2, suggesting that both primary pro-
ductivity and carrying capacity were higher than present day.
ThepresenceofEquus capensis at Apollo 11 until *14 ka has
been interpreted as evidence for humid conditions until latest
MIS 2 when xeric conditions then dominated (Thackeray
1979). Erb Tanks also has punctuated dates at 25, 20, 15 and
12 ka (McCall et al. 2011) that are similar to Spitzkloof A and
Apollo 11.
Synthesizing the Data: When Did
People Occupy Namaqualand?
Pre-MIS 6 (>191 ka)
Current evidence for the occupation of Namaqualand before
MIS 6 comes from the presence of handaxes along the marine
terrace and inland river valleys. All we can say is that pop-
ulations were using the landscape to some degree and pro-
visioning themselves with quartzite, quartz and silcrete raw
materials at quarry sites. When these individuals were pre-
sent, what the environment was like and where the coastline
lay are currently unknown and the foci of future research.
MIS 6 (191–130 ka)
Palaeoenvironmental proxy data from marine cores off the
coast of Namibia indicate that the penultimate glacial period
grew more humid through time based on the presence of
flora that require higher water availability than are present in
Namibia today and the high input of fluvial sediments. The
Southern Cape and by proxy the Namaqualand coastline
experienced flux during the first half of MIS 6 but the later
half of this stage experienced a lowered sea level during the
penultimate glacial maximum. This indicates that during
much of MIS 6, the Namaqualand shoreline would have
been much further west than it is today which has two
implications: (1) the exposed coastal plain had the potential
to increase carrying capacity, especially as precipitation
would have been more effective through a shifting rain
shadow or less efficient evapotranspiration; and (2) any
coastal or near-coastal sites deposited during MIS 6 are now
likely to be submerged. This hypothesis will be tested when
more precise datasets are available for this stage. While it
seems that MIS 6 would be a good time to occupy
Namaqualand, to date there are no known sites but hopefully
continued survey along inland river terraces will change this.
MIS 5 (130–71 ka)
Namaqualand experienced fluctuations in both temperature
and humidity during MIS 5. The aridity that ushered in this
stage became moderate during MIS 5d, but pollen and
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 203
fluvial inputs signaling increasing humidity only occur later
during MIS 5c and 5a.
Overall the sea level was near modern values for much of
this stage. Two minor sea level highstands likely occurred
during MIS 5e and 5c with a return to modern sea level by
MIS 5a. While a major regression event is registered on the
Eastern Cape at *117 ka, there is no evidence for a sub-
stantial drop in sea level from the Pinnacle Point/Aghulas
Bank data until the end of this stage at 72 ka. It thus remains
unclear whether the Namaqualand coastline experienced
the *117 ka event. Direct measurement of the Southwestern
African Margin can answer this question and a paleoscape
model for this stretch of the continental shelf is currently
being generated.
There is currently no directly dated evidence for human
occupation of Namaqualand during MIS 5. However, the
shellfish processing sites with fossilized material and heavily
patinated lithics may date to this stage since they are unlikely
to have been deposited beyond an 8–10 km foraging radius
of the intertidal zone (cf. Meehan 1982). This is also the
isotope stage during which Klein et al. (1999) infer human
occupation at Boegoeberg 2, specifically during MIS 5e, 5b
or 5a. Erb Tanks in Namibia has produced two dates at either
end of MIS 5, but there is a strong possibility that the earlier
date is erroneous. The later date of 85 ka, which is associated
with evidence of increasing humidity, represents the earliest
firmly dated evidence for occupation of the greater Namib
region, at least for the time being. Of interest is the close
correspondence between this age and that recently obtained
date (*83 ka) for the earliest sustained human presence in
the Maloti-Drakensberg, another challenging environment
(Stewart et al. 2012,2016).
MIS 4 (71–57 ka)
Paleoenvironmental data from the marine cores and charcoal
from Apollo 11 reflect a shift to a cooler more humid envi-
ronment starting at *70 ka. Just before this, the paleoscape
model and strontium isotope ratios predict a corresponding
regression in sea level and thus a westerly expansion of the
coastal plain, opening up the landscape to flora and fauna.
The end of this stage is marked by a transgression event
straddling the MIS 4/3 boundary that would have drowned
this newly expanded coastal plain. Although, the fauna from
Apollo 11 seem to suggest little change in species through
this 14 ka and thus reflects a relatively muted environmental
change, while the presence of woody vegetation and grasses
suggests that it was more humid than today. Interestingly, the
faunal remains from Varsch River 003 in southern
Namaqualand suggest the end of MIS 4 was potentially
semiarid and provided enough browse to attract tortoises.
A Namaqualand-specific paleoscape model and larger data-
sets of faunal material are required to test these patterns. SB
points and HP segments are found in a range of localities
across the study region including open air sites and shelters,
although compared to other southern Africa landscapes we
know very little about these techno-complexes in
Namaqualand. The increased number of sites and site types
from this stage suggests a more consistent use of the land-
scape than was seen during MIS 5.
MIS 3 (57–29 ka)
Multi-proxy data from MIS 3 indicate that it was a stage in
flux. Apollo 11 was occupied at *58 ka when the shoreline
was relatively close to modern values and the fauna indicates
a modern-like environment but with the addition of equids.
By 57 ka, Apollo 11 was abandoned and the charcoal sample
reflects aridity until *43 ka. Contradictorily the marine
offshore pollen suggests increased and more effective pre-
cipitation by 50 ka peaking at 32 ka, while the fauna at
Boegoeberg 1 potentially also indicate a wet and cool period
from 45.5 to 35 ka. Data from both the eastern and southern
coasts identify a low sea stand at *52–50 ka, when
Spitzkloof A was occupied and cemented gypsum deposits
indicate an arid environment with enough moisture to put the
gypsum into solution. The fauna from this layer is dominated
by arid adapted browsing species yet the presence of
gemsbok indicates the availability of some grass. The
occupation of Erb Tanks (*45 ka) and Apollo 11 (43, 37
and 30 ka) also correlates with low or lowering sea levels
and the presence of additional grazing species at Apollo 11
indicates a potential for more effective precipitation. Overall
we see occupation of the greater region during both low and
high sea stands and contradictory signals for humidity
especially for early to mid-MIS 3.
For now, the most parsimonious answer is that this was a
period of fluctuating environmental conditions and thus
conflicting proxy signals and intermittent occupation of the
region, particularly during early MIS 3. Only with the colder
and potentially more humid conditions of late MIS 3 do
occupational pulses become more frequent.
MIS 2 (29–14 ka)
Globally, MIS 2 exposed humans to one of the coldest and
driest environments of the Pleistocene –the LGM. Yet most
proxy data suggests that Namaqualand likely enjoyed some
periods of increased water availability, with xeric conditions
only recorded during latest MIS 2. LGM flora and fauna from
204 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
Apollo 11 suggest a cold but humid environment with
increased primary productivity and carrying capacity,
although the charcoal signal is complicated. The environment
deteriorates by 14 ka with the introduction of more xeric
conditions and the extinction of Equus capensis. Flora and
fauna from the Spitzkloof region, including the Eksteen-
fontein spring produce a cool/humid signal until it changes
at *13 ka, a pattern supported by the marine core proxies.
From 30 to 20 ka sea levels potentially dropped to a −130 m
amsl, while a submerged marine shell near the Orange River
Mouth records a lowstand of −87.2 m a.m.s.l at *19–18.5 ka.
Occupations at Spitzkloof A, Apollo 11 and Erb Tanks
are pulsed from *22 to 13 ka but are more frequent than
any previous stage. During this interval sea level would have
been at its lowest with the coastline up to *20 km further
west than present day, opening up a vast tract of land
available to be colonized by flora and fauna. Preliminary
evidence that the flora and fauna did take advantage of the
coastal plain is the presence of grazing ungulates at Apollo
11 and Spitzkloof A and a high “mean ungulate body-mass
index”that correlates positively with precipitation.
Conclusion
The paleoenvironmental and settlement signals we possess
for Namaqualand are currently patchy at best, primarily due
to the dearth of large research projects in the region. This is
currently being redressed through our ongoing excavations
at Spitzkloof A and B in northern Namaqualand (Dewar and
Stewart 2012) and the Varsche River project in southern
Namaqualand (Mackay et al. 2010; Steele et al. 2012).
Environments during MIS 6-2 have been preliminarily
reconstructed based on proxy data from distant marine and
terrestrial sources. The resulting picture tentatively supports
the very broad correlation in the WRZ of glacials and sta-
dials as phases of humidity, while interglacials were more
arid (cf. Chase and Meadows 2007). One cautionary note is
that the limited data for Namaqualand does not reflect par-
ticularly strong differences between glacial and interglacial
periods and so continued fine-grained research in the region
is required to verify the pattern. Currently the proxies used to
identify past conditions remain imperfectly aligned, as best
shown by the time lag between the sea level curves and the
contradictory signals in MIS 3, but future work will hope-
fully address these issues.
As sea level is linked to global temperatures, glacial
period shorelines are for the most part submerged. The
majority of archaeological reconstructions of glacial periods
will therefore have to reflect inland settlement and subsis-
tence strategies. If human occupation of Namaqualand is
linked to the availability of water (cf. Dewar 2008), as we
suspect, then we would expect to see increased visibility of
populations on the landscape during humid periods when the
ocean is regressing and the potential for increased carrying
capacity is highest. The current number of dated sites is too
small to confidently verify this assertion but so far the
majority of occupation pulses do seem to correlate with
expanded coastlines. Although tentative, we certainly do
have evidence for the occupation of Namaqualand during
humid periods (from MIS 4-2). Particularly informative are
sites dating to MIS 3, a period that is poorly known in South
Africa, especially from the far better studied southern Cape
coastline. So far the data indicates that Namaqualand was
more often occupied when it was generally cooler and more
humid than it is today, conditions that at times could have
supported grasslands and thus large game. However of equal
interest is that people were present when the region was not
as “easy”, during MIS 5 and parts of MIS 3 for example.
Future research will expand our datasets to hopefully pro-
vide much more detailed understandings of when humans
occupied different parts of Namaqualand, why humans were
drawn or pushed into the region, and the environmental
conditions that prevailed both when people were there and,
importantly, absent. For example, the rare grasses in
Namaqualand today are of the C
3
type, while those of
neighboring Bushmanland are C
4
. We can thus use stable
isotope analysis to test whether environmental changes
simply increased the availability of local species or were
more complex and involved shifting rainfall zones with a
concomitant westward expansion of Bushmanland grasses.
Most crucially, improving our knowledge of the adaptive
strategies involved in colonizing and mastering such shifting
environments is essential for illuminating the processes
underlying modern human behavioral evolution.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada for funding this project (grant
#490993) and The South African Heritage Resources Agency for the
excavation permit (permit #80/09/11/008/51b). We would also like to
thank Dr. Paula Reimer at Queen’s University Belfast and the Chrono
Centre for Climate, The Environment, and Chronology laboratory for
rapid turnaround on our radiocarbon dates. Finally, we would like to
thank Dave Halkett and our other colleagues at the Archaeology
Contracts Office without whose guidance none of this research would
be possible.
Appendix A
The proxy data presented in this study, the associated dates,
implications and sources of the data. The dates are presented
as they were in their published form while the calibrated
dates column reflects calculations for this study.
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 205
Marine isotope stage 6:
Glacial 191–130 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
(for this study) cal BP
b
Implication References
Pollen
a
High percentage of
Restionaceae and
desert/semi-desert taxa
Humid Shi et al. (2001)
Terrigenous sediments
a
Grain size suggests increase in
proportion of fluvial sediment
deposits
Humid Stuut et al. (2002)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Slight increase in
87
Sr/
86
Sr 189.7 ka Minor regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry
and GIS
a
>30 km from modern coastline 184.5 ka Minor regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Eastern Cape sea level Uranium series dating of
aeolianite
Beachrock at −3 m amsl 182,000 ±18,000
(Pta-U430)
Minor transgression Ramsey and Cooper
(2002)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Slight increase in
87
Sr/
86
Sr 173 ka Minor regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry
and GIS
a
*4.81 km from modern
coastline
167 ka Minor transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Slight decrease in
87
Sr/
86
Sr 167 ka Minor transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Peak high ratio of
87
Sr/
86
Sr
at *152 ka
Between 155 and
150.5 ka
Major regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry
and GIS
a
Maxima peak/*91.11 km from
modern coastline
150.5 ka Major regression peak Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry
and GIS
a
Maxima peak/*96.51 km from
modern coastline
137 ka Major regression peak Fisher et al. (2010)
Marine isotope stage 5:
Last Interglacial 130–71 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
(for this study) cal BP
b
Implication References
Pollen
a
Sharp decline of Restionaceae
and desert/semi-desert taxa,
replaced by Kalahari dry forest
taxa, but they rebound at the
end of this stage
Arid with an increase in
humidity by MIS 5a
Shi et al. (2001)
Terrigenous sediments
a
Drop in fluvial input at stage
MIS 5e, moderate at MIS 5d,
sharp increases during MIS 5c
and MIS 5a
Arid with slowly
increasing humidity
and humid peaks
at MIS 5c and 5a
Stuut et al. (2002)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry
and GIS
a
Minima/*1 km from modern
coastline
*130 ka Major transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Decrease in
87
Sr/
86
Sr to near
modern values
*130 ka Major transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Shellfish Boegoeberg 2: shellfish
suggests coastline is near
modern location
MIS5e, b or a? Klein et al. (1999)
Eastern Cape sea level Inferred date +4 m amsl highstand MIS5e? Minor transgression Ramsey and Cooper
(2002)
Eastern Cape sea level Uranium series date of
aeolianite
−44 m amsl lowstand 117,00 ±7,000
(Pta-U487)
Regression Ramsey and Cooper
(2002)
Eastern Cape sea level Ionium dates from Klasies
River Mouth
+4 m amsl highstand 110 ka and 98 ka Minor transgression Hendley and Volman
(1986), Ramsey and
Cooper (2002)
(continued)
206 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
Marine isotope stage 5:
Last Interglacial 130–71 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
(for this study) cal BP
b
Implication References
Amino acid racemization
date
Erb Tanks 85 ka Presence of people in
the landscape
McCall et al. (2011)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model:
Bathymetry and GIS
a
Peak/15.56 km from
modern coastline
*72.5 ka Regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Slight increase in
87
Sr/
86
Sr
*72 ka Regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Marine isotope stage 4:
Glacial 71–57 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
(for this study) cal BP
b
Implication References
Pollen
a
Steady increase in
Restionaceae and desert/
semi-desert taxa
Increasing humidity Shi et al. (2001)
Terrigenous sediments
a
Peak input of aeolian dust
and trade winds, but winds
reduce before the end of
the stage
Increasing humidity Stuut et al. (2002)
OSL date and fauna Apollo 11: Still Bay points
and arid adapted species
+ equids (grazers)
70.7 ±2.6 ka (AP6) Presence of people on
the landscape
in a modern-like
environment with grass
available: more humid?
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Relative dating Namaqualand coast:
Still Bay artefacts
*70 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
Dewar (2008)
Relative dating VR3: Still Bay artefacts *70 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
Steele et al. (2012)
Relative dating STF001: Still Bay points *70 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
Mackay et al. (2010)
OSL date Apollo 11 66.9 ±2.6 (AP5) Presence of people on
the landscape
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Amino acid racemization date on
eggshell
Erb Tanks 65 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
McCall et al. (2011)
OSL date and fauna Apollo 11: Howieson’s
Poort and arid adapted
species + equids (grazers)
63.2 ±2.3 ka (AP4) Presence of people on a
modern-like
landscape but more
humid with
grass available?
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Amino acid racemization
date on eggshell
Erb Tanks 60 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
McCall et al. (2011)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Decreasing
87
Sr/
86
Sr for
a short period
*60 ka Transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
(continued)
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 207
Marine isotope stage 4:
Glacial 71–57 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
(for this study) cal BP
b
Implication References
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model:
Bathymetry and GIS
a
Shoreline steadily returns
to near modern values
for a short period
*60 ka Transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Relative dating Namaqualand coast:
Howieson’s Poort
*60 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
Dewar (2008)
Relative dating and fauna VR3: Howieson’s Poort
and browsing tortoises
dominate
*60 ka Presence of people on
an arid
landscape with browse
available
Steele et al. (2012)
Charcoal Apollo 11: Diverse
array of woody
vegetation similar to
modern environment
or more favorable
58 ±3 ka (AP9) Semiarid and or slightly
more humid
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Marine isotope stage 3:
Stadial 57–29 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
cal BP (for this study)
b
Implication References
OSL and Charcoal Apollo 11: Single species of
Xeric taxa Chenopodiaceae during
occupation hiatus
Between 57.9 ±2.6 ka
(AP3) and
42.9 ±2.7 ka
(AP2)
Arid Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Pollen
a
Decreasing but fluctuating levels
of Restionaceae and
desert/semi-desert species
*57–50 ka Drying? Shi et al. (2001)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry and
GIS
a
Coastline shifts to *18 km from
the modern shore
*57–40 ka Slight regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Strontium isotopes Slight decrease in
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios *55 ka Slight transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Pollen
a
Increasing proportion of
Restionaceae and desert/semi-desert
taxa with a peak at 32 ka
50–29 ka Increasing humidity Shi et al. (2001)
Southern Cape sea level Steady increase in
87
Sr/
86
Sr *55–27 ka Regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Terrigenous sediments
a
Rapidly fluctuating aeolian dust
input and trade winds
Instability? Stuut et al. (2002)
14
C on Ostrich eggshell, fauna and
gypsum
SptzA arid adapted species,
primarily browsers but Gemsbok
suggests some grass. Gypsum
crystals present
*52–51 ka People on the landscape
in a (semiarid) modern-
like environment but
with increased humidity
Dewar and Stewart (2012, this
volume): Table 11.1
Eastern Cape sea level
14
C dated Wetland Peats −52 m amsl lowstand 45,200 ±2,000
14
CBP
(Pta-4140)
49,968–47,070 Regression Ramsey and Cooper (2002)
14
C on ostrich eggshell and fauna Boegoeberg1: Large hyenas
and water-dependent grazing
species
37,220 ±5,010
14
CBP
(GX-22191)
45,433–36,161 Cool/humid with grass Klein et al. (1999)
Eastern Cape sea level
14
C dated wetland Peats −46 m amsl lowstand 39,100 ±1,530
14
CBP
(Pta-4142)
44,286–41,875 Regression Ramsey and Cooper (2002)
Amino acid racemization dates on
eggshell
Erb Tanks 45 ka Presence of people on
the landscape
McCall et al. (2011)
OSL Apollo 11 43 ±3 ka (AP2) Presence of people on
the landscape
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
14
C on ostrich eggshell and fauna Boegoeberg1: Large hyenas
and water-dependent grazing
species
34,990 ±3,110
14
CBP
(GX-21190)
42,061–36,101 Cool/humid with grass Klein et al. (1999)
14
C on ostrich eggshell and fauna Boegoeberg1: Large hyenas and
water-dependent grazing species
33,230 ±2,630
14
CBP
(GX-21189)
40,118–34,755 Cool/humid with grass Klein et al. (1999)
(continued)
208 G. Dewar and B.A. Stewart
Marine isotope stage 3:
Stadial 57–29 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
cal BP (for this study)
b
Implication References
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry and
GIS
a
Slight shift to *10 km from modern
shoreline
*40 ka Shallow transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Calibrated
14
C dates Apollo 11 occupational pulses *37 cal BP Presence of people on
the landscape
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry and
GIS
a
Coastline moves to *25 km from
modern shore
*32 ka Slight regression Fisher et al. (2010)
Calibrated
14
C dates Apollo 11 occupational pulses *32–29 calBP Presence of people on
the landscape
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
14
C dated peat bed Peat bed at Kannikwa near Port
Nolloth
27,900 ±310
14
C BP 31,998–31,269 High humidity Beaumont (1986)
Orange River Mouth sea level
14
C marine shell −78.4 m amsl lowstand 27,800 ±440
14
CBP
(Pta-1104)
30,881–31,506
d
Regression Vogel and Visser (1981)
OSL and fauna Apollo 11: arid adapted
species + equids and warthog
(grazers)
30 ±1.4 ka (AP11) Landscape is slightly
more humid than today.
Some grass available?
Vogelsang et al. (2010)
Southern Cape sea level Paleoscape model: Bathymetry and
GIS
a
Shore returns a few km to *22 km
from modern coast
*30 ka Shallow transgression Fisher et al. (2010)
Marine isotope stage 2:
Last Glacial Maximum 29–14 ka
Data Signal Date Calibrated dates at 1σ
cal BP (for this study)
b
Implication References
Eastern Cape sea level Durban Bay:
14
C dated Wetland
Peats
−22 m amsl stand 24,950 ±950
14
CBP
(GaK-1390)
29,949–27,997 Transgression Ramsey and Cooper (2002)
Pollen and charcoal Elands Bay Cave: Woodland taxa
peak and xeric taxa
minimum + drought-intolerant
species
20.5–17.8
14
C kBP *25,098–24,314 to
21,904–21,110
c
High humidity Meadows and Baxter (1999)
Pollen
a
Peak percentage of Restionaceae *24 ka High humidity Shi et al. (2001)
Terrigenous sediments and trade
wind proxies
a
Peak fluvial activity and trade winds *24 ka High humidity Stuut et al. (2002)
14
C Hyrax dung Pollen Olea, Stoebe type, Artemesia, and
fern pollen co-occurring with dwarf
shrubs
17,000 ±190
14
CBP
(Pta-8902)
20,739–20,248 Cool and moist or
increased
evapotranspiration
Scott et al. (2004)
Southern Cape sea level
14
CPecten sp. shell −130 m amsl maximum 16,990 ±160
14
C yrs
BP (Pta-182)
20,044–19,605
d
Last Glacial Maximum
peak
Vogel and Marais (1971)
Pollen
a
Restionaceae percentages declining *19–14 ka Declining humidity Shi et al. (2001)
Terrigenous sediments and trade
wind proxies
a
Fluvial activity and trade wind curves
declining
*19–14 ka High humidity declining
through time
Stuut et al. (2002)
Orange River Mouth sea level
14
C marine shell −87.2 m amsl lowstand 16,100 ±160
14
CBP
(Pta-1105)
18,982–18,611
d
Regression Vogel and Visser (1981)
Pollen Cederberg Mountains: increasing
fynbos, thicket and succulent
vegetation
13,000 ±130
14
CBP
(Pta-5896) to
11,390 ±100
14
CBP
(Pta-6041)
15,695–15,289 to 13,281–
13,100
Increasing temperatures
and reduced precipitation
Scott and Woodborne
(2007a,b)
Pollen Eksteenfontein spring:
Stoebe/Elytopappus indicate cool
temperatures and increase of
Karoo-like environment
15.2–13.6 calBP
(extrapolated dates)
Cool and humid replaced
by aridity
Scott et al. (1995)
a
Dates were extrapolated using the oxygen isotope curve
b
This study calibrated
14
C dates using the software Calib 7.0 and the Shcal13.14c calibration curve (Hogg et al. 2013; Reimer et al. 2013)
c
No error provided, dates were calibrated with an approximate error of ±300 yrs
d
Marine shell was calibrated using the calibration curve Marine13.14c with a ΔR value of 146 ±85 (Dewar et al. 2012; Reimer et al. 2013)
11 Paleoenvironments of Namaqualand MIS 6-2 209
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