Glowing, glowing, gone? The plight of the Glow-worm in Essex
... The species is predominantly a grassland insect, and seems to prefer habitats that have a patchwork of vegetation including bare earth and tall grass or scrub with a range of different sward heights (Tyler, 2002 ; Fig. 2). In some areas, L. noctiluca has been found to prefer chalk downland, but in the county of Essex in south-east England, populations have been recorded with similar abundance in disused chalk quarries (soil pH 8.2) and in remnant heathland on very acidic soils (soil pH 4.3) (Gardiner, 2011). Populations are also known to occur in non-grassland habitats such as hedgerows and open woodlands (British Naturalists' Association, 1974). ...
... A major reason for the disappearance of L. noctiluca from many sites is thought to be loss and fragmentation of suitable habitats as a result of agricultural intensification, which is compounded by the sedentary nature of the species leading to isolation in small remnant populations (Gardiner, 2011). The adult glowing females (which glow to attract flying males) cannot fly to disperse and colonize new areas, and the larvae are not known to move far in search of food (Tyler, 2002). ...
... Many sites where glow-worms occur are managed by sheep grazing, particularly in the North and South Downs. A specific study of the number of glow-worms in sheep grazed and ungrazed habitat was made at Stow Maries Halt in 2009 and 2010 (Gardiner, 2011). Sheep traditionally graze the open meadow at the nature reserve, with the other half of the site forming the disused Maldon to Woodham Ferrers Railway Line which is fenced off and ungrazed by livestock. ...
The glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca (Linnaeus, 1767) (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) is thought to be declining in the UK. Average glowing counts at 19 sites in Essex, south-east England, changed from ca. 20 glow-worms per km of transect in 2001 to ca. 5 glow-worms per km in 2018. Local-scale factors in addition to climate change drove greater reduction in numbers at some sites than others. There is a clear signal of climate warming and drying effects on glow-worm numbers, but a substantially greater proportion of variation in glowing female counts is explained by local-scale site factors, such as unmanaged scrub encroachment. Management that increased site populations included scrub clearance on a seawall flood defense embankment and coppicing in an ancient woodland. No significant declines were noted in Essex woodlands, or in linear habitats such as a disused railway line or river corridor. The prognosis for Essex populations depends on how the climate and site management factors interact. Sustained favorable management of sites by coppicing and scrub cutting may buffer populations against declines caused by climate drying and warming and benefit other insects such as butterflies.
... The report suggested that declines may not be entirely due to intensive agriculture, as the crash in rabbit numbers due to myxomatosis in the 1950s led to increased woody scrub growth in many chalk downlands that were prime L. noctiluca habitats, such as in Sussex (Tyler, 2002). Recent analysis of numbers at a wide range of sites indicated a decline at five out of eight sites (Atkins et al., 2017), although reasons for the decreases are unclear and may be related to climate change (numbers negatively correlated with maximum temperatures) as suggested by Gardiner (2011). ...
... The soft green glow of female glow-worms is one of the iconic features of summer evenings in the English countryside (Soga & Gaston, 2016). Despite widespread concern over apparent declines in glow-worm numbers since the 1950s (Scagell, 1992;Tyler, 1994), the evidence to support such declines has been anecdotal and difficult to separate from intrinsically high year-to-year variation in numbers and differences in sampling methodologies between studies (Gardiner & Tyler, 2002;Tyler, 2002;Gardiner, 2011;Atkins et al., 2017). Here, we attempt to overcome these challenges with standardised sampling methods, over standardised seasonal survey periods at many sites over many years, and we record a statistically significant reduction in counts of glowing female glow-worms within south-east England. ...
... Our data linking warmer spring temperatures with advancing seasonal phenology and declining glow-worm numbers suggest that regional populations are likely to continue oscillating downward around a declining average abundance, with smaller local populations presumably then at increased risk of extinction. Gardiner (2011) hinted that changing rainfall patterns may also be partly responsible for declines, with summer drought leading to desiccation of final stage larvae and mature females. Similarly, Atkins et al. (2017) suggested both rainfall and temperature components of climate change may be important factors but presented no clear quantitative evidence from their sites, indicating that further research is required into how the complex 2-year life cycle relates to fluctuations in the long-term climate. ...
The glow‐worm Lampyris noctiluca (Linnaeus, 1767) (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) is thought to be declining in the United Kingdom. Yet, much of the evidence for this is anecdotal, with a shortage of standardised long‐term data to investigate temporal changes in abundance.
We present an 18‐year time series of standardised transect surveys for glowing adult females at 19 sites within south‐east England (Essex) from 2001 to 2018.
We used generalised additive mixed models (GAMMs) to control for varying sampling effort, temporal autocorrelation, non‐stationarity of seasonal phenology and non‐linearity of temporal trajectories across sites.
We found a significant long‐term reduction in counts of glowing female glow‐worms, after accounting for a significant shift in seasonal phenology across years, and a negative effect of warmer climatic conditions on glow‐worm abundance. Average glowing counts in south‐east England declined by ca. −3.5% per annum from 2001 to 2018, and this result held true even after a range of sensitivity tests to account for potential methodological artefacts in citizen science data collection.
Temporal trajectories in abundance were strikingly out of phase across the 19 sites, suggesting that local‐scale factors in addition to climate are driving greater reduction in numbers at some sites than others.
These standardised surveys present the first quantitative evidence that numbers of glow‐worms could well be declining in the United Kingdom. There is a clear signal of climate warming and drying effects on glow‐worm numbers, but a substantially greater proportion of variation in glowing female counts is explained by local‐scale site factors, such as unmanaged scrub encroachment. Conservation strategies that can mitigate local population losses could be an essential buffer against climate‐driven declines in south‐east England.
... The report suggested that declines may not be entirely due to intensive agriculture, as the crash in rabbit numbers due to myxomatosis in the 1950s led to increased woody scrub growth in many chalk downlands that were prime L. noctiluca habitats, such as in Sussex (Tyler, 2002). Recent analysis of numbers at a wide range of sites indicated a decline at five out of eight sites (Atkins et al., 2017), although reasons for the decreases are unclear and may be related to climate change (numbers negatively correlated with maximum temperatures) as suggested by Gardiner (2011). ...
... The soft green glow of female glow-worms is one of the iconic features of summer evenings in the English countryside (Soga & Gaston, 2016). Despite widespread concern over apparent declines in glow-worm numbers since the 1950s (Scagell, 1992;Tyler, 1994), the evidence to support such declines has been anecdotal and difficult to separate from intrinsically high year-to-year variation in numbers and differences in sampling methodologies between studies (Gardiner & Tyler, 2002;Tyler, 2002;Gardiner, 2011;Atkins et al., 2017). Here, we attempt to overcome these challenges with standardised sampling methods, over standardised seasonal survey periods at many sites over many years, and we record a statistically significant reduction in counts of glowing female glow-worms within south-east England. ...
... Our data linking warmer spring temperatures with advancing seasonal phenology and declining glow-worm numbers suggest that regional populations are likely to continue oscillating downward around a declining average abundance, with smaller local populations presumably then at increased risk of extinction. Gardiner (2011) hinted that changing rainfall patterns may also be partly responsible for declines, with summer drought leading to desiccation of final stage larvae and mature females. Similarly, Atkins et al. (2017) suggested both rainfall and temperature components of climate change may be important factors but presented no clear quantitative evidence from their sites, indicating that further research is required into how the complex 2-year life cycle relates to fluctuations in the long-term climate. ...
The glow‐worm Lampyris noctiluca (Linnaeus, 1767) (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) is thought to be declining in the United Kingdom. Yet, much of the evidence for this is anecdotal, with a shortage of standardised long‐term data to investigate temporal changes in abundance.
We present an 18‐year time series of standardised transect surveys for glowing adult females at 19 sites within south‐east England (Essex) from 2001 to 2018.
We used generalised additive mixed models (GAMMs) to control for varying sampling effort, temporal autocorrelation, non‐stationarity of seasonal phenology and non‐linearity of temporal trajectories across sites.
We found a significant long‐term reduction in counts of glowing female glow‐worms, after accounting for a significant shift in seasonal phenology across years, and a negative effect of warmer climatic conditions on glow‐worm abundance. Average glowing counts in south‐east England declined by ca. −3.5% per annum from 2001 to 2018, and this result held true even after a range of sensitivity tests to account for potential methodological artefacts in citizen science data collection.
Temporal trajectories in abundance were strikingly out of phase across the 19 sites, suggesting that local‐scale factors in addition to climate are driving greater reduction in numbers at some sites than others.
These standardised surveys present the first quantitative evidence that numbers of glow‐worms could well be declining in the United Kingdom. There is a clear signal of climate warming and drying effects on glow‐worm numbers, but a substantially greater proportion of variation in glowing female counts is explained by local‐scale site factors, such as unmanaged scrub encroachment. Conservation strategies that can mitigate local population losses could be an essential buffer against climate‐driven declines in south‐east England.
... The report suggested that declines may not be entirely due to intensive agriculture, as the crash in rabbit numbers due to myxomatosis in the 1950s led to increased woody scrub growth in many chalk downlands that were prime L. noctiluca habitats, such as in Sussex (Tyler, 2002). Recent analysis of numbers at a wide range of sites indicated a decline at five out of eight sites (Atkins et al., 2017), although reasons for the decreases are unclear and may be related to climate change (numbers negatively correlated with maximum temperatures) as suggested by Gardiner (2011). ...
... The soft green glow of female glow-worms is one of the iconic features of summer evenings in the English countryside (Soga & Gaston, 2016). Despite widespread concern over apparent declines in glow-worm numbers since the 1950s (Scagell, 1992;Tyler, 1994), the evidence to support such declines has been anecdotal and difficult to separate from intrinsically high year-to-year variation in numbers and differences in sampling methodologies between studies (Gardiner & Tyler, 2002;Tyler, 2002;Gardiner, 2011;Atkins et al., 2017). Here, we attempt to overcome these challenges with standardised sampling methods, over standardised seasonal survey periods at many sites over many years, and we record a statistically significant reduction in counts of glowing female glow-worms within south-east England. ...
... Our data linking warmer spring temperatures with advancing seasonal phenology and declining glow-worm numbers suggest that regional populations are likely to continue oscillating downward around a declining average abundance, with smaller local populations presumably then at increased risk of extinction. Gardiner (2011) hinted that changing rainfall patterns may also be partly responsible for declines, with summer drought leading to desiccation of final stage larvae and mature females. Similarly, Atkins et al. (2017) suggested both rainfall and temperature components of climate change may be important factors but presented no clear quantitative evidence from their sites, indicating that further research is required into how the complex 2-year life cycle relates to fluctuations in the long-term climate. ...
... Naturalists consider the glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) to have declined since World War II in the UK (Tyler 2002). Standardised transect counts in Essex, England suggest a short-term reduction in numbers of 74% since 2001 (Gardiner 2011). Although the primary driver of population decline is thought to be climatic (dry springs and summers), habitat management such as coppicing of woodlands may be effective in enhancing numbers. ...
... Although the primary driver of population decline is thought to be climatic (dry springs and summers), habitat management such as coppicing of woodlands may be effective in enhancing numbers. Anecdotal evidence from ancient woods in Essex suggested that in the summer following winter coppicing there was often a small number (< 10) of glowing adult females in the coppiced area (Gardiner 2011). Once the coppice had re-grown the number of glowing females in the coppiced area declined. ...
... Coppiced 0 4 22 3 6 0 35 Control 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 may have resulted in some female glow-worms being overlooked during these control counts. The surveys involved counting glowing adult females using the survey methodology outlined in Gardiner (2011). Three transect surveys were undertaken (from June-August) each year, pre-coppicing in 2009 and post-coppicing from 2010-2014 (a total of 18 surveys each in coppiced area and control). ...
A small area of ancient woodland in Essex, England was coppiced. Glow-worms Lampyris noctiluca were observed in the cut area in the first four seasons after winter coppicing, whereas significantly lower numbers were recorded in an uncut control. The highest abundance was observed in the second season after coppicing, only for numbers to decline as the area became overgrown with bramble Rubus fruticosus and shading from the maturing canopy occurred. Coppicing may promote the conservation of glow-worms in ancient woodland.
... The glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca is thought to have declined since the 1940s in the UK (Tyler 2002). Standardised transect counts in Essex suggest a recent reduction in numbers of 74% since 2001 (Gardiner 2011). Although the primary driver of population decline is thought to be climatic (Gardiner 2011), habitat management such as scrub clearance may be effective at enhancing numbers locally (Gardiner 2013). ...
... Standardised transect counts in Essex suggest a recent reduction in numbers of 74% since 2001 (Gardiner 2011). Although the primary driver of population decline is thought to be climatic (Gardiner 2011), habitat management such as scrub clearance may be effective at enhancing numbers locally (Gardiner 2013). Glowing adult females may find open areas created by scrub clearance effective display sites. ...
... A sea wall flood defence (earthen embankment covered in grassland and scrub) at Creeksea in Essex (51°37'4''N, 0°47'3"E) has the only known sea wall population of glow-worms in the county (Gardiner 2011). Surveys for larvae using roof felt tiles (1 x 0.5 m) undertaken during July and August of 2010 found that they were present in tussocky grassland within 1 m of isolated hawthorn Crataegus monogyna bushes and on the edge (grassland within 1 m) of a blackthorn Prunus spinosa and elm Ulmus spp. ...
The response of glow-worms Lampyris noctiluca to winter scrub clearance on a sea wall flood defence in Essex, England was monitored. The number of glowing adult females did not show a significant difference in the two seasons (one life cycle) after scrub clearance, or at a control site with no clearance.
... A total of 37 glowing adult females were seen in three surveys during the subsequent 2011 summer indicating that the management of scrub in this way may have benefited the Glow-worm population (Gardiner 2011a). The minimum and maximum counts of one and 20 females compared favourably with counts in previous summers. ...
... Number of Glow-worm larvae on the unmown sea wall at Creeksea in the summer of 2010(Gardiner 2011a) ...
... Unfortunately, during the last decades the chance of observing fireflies has become less frequent. A monitoring project in the United Kingdom (Tyler 2002) points to a probable decline of the glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca since the early 1900s (Gardiner 2009). It is a common opinion that a similar decline is generally occurring all over the World. ...
... It is a common opinion that a similar decline is generally occurring all over the World. A critical factor was intensive agriculture (Tabaru et al. 1970) with a sharp increase of pesticide input, the removal of hedges, woods, ponds and uncultivated land patches that can work as habitat refuges for wildlife (Gardiner 2009;Shinsaku et al. 2012). Along with these factors, firefly declines have also been linked to the increase in artificial illumination associated with the growth of urban areas (Thancharoen et al. 2008;Tyler 2002). ...
Research was carried out in the city of Turin (Northern Italy) in order to assess the suitability of the urban environment for fireflies.The study started in 2007 with an artistic and scientific project promoted by Parco Arte Vivente (PAV—Park of living art). Citizens joining the project recorded 18 areas where they could observe fireflies, which were identified as Luciola italica L. (Coleoptera Lampyridae). All of the 18 areas recorded by citizens were then visited during the summer of 2009 and the abundance of L. italica was estimated using transects. In 12 sites the presence of the firefly was confirmed. The habitat structures of L. italica were woods interspersed with clearings in the urban districts in the hills, and parks along rivers in the lower and more populated part of the city. In sites where fireflies were observed, the level of illuminance measured was significantly lower than in areas where L. italica was absent. The analysis of the landscape around the study areas showed a negative correlation between the extent of urbanization and fireflies abundance. Survival of L. italica populations in the urban area of Turin is influenced by the extent of green areas and the level of artificial illumination. Parks lying among rivers preserve a level of darkness suitable for fireflies and are connected by woody strips growing along the banks of rivers, that probably function as ecological corridors.
... In the European glowworm L. noctiluca, flying non-bioluminescent males are attracted to larviform females that glow steadily from perches on raised display sites. Numerous experimental studies conducted with this species have employed glowing light lures to elucidate their signaling system (e.g., Bird & Parker, 2014;Mikkola, 1972;Schwalb, 1961 Although L. noctiluca is geographically widespread in Europe, its populations have been declining for some time (Gardiner, 2011). One potential contributing factor could be that males are more attracted to certain point sources of ALAN than they are to conspecific female glow signals. ...
In recent decades, advances in lighting technology have precipitated exponential increases in night sky brightness worldwide, raising concerns in the scientific community about the impact of artificial light at night (ALAN) on crepuscular and nocturnal biodiversity. Long‐term records show that insect abundance has declined significantly over this time, with worrying implications for terrestrial ecosystems. The majority of investigations into the vulnerability of nocturnal insects to artificial light have focused on the flight‐to‐light behavior exhibited by select insect families. However, ALAN can affect insects in other ways as well. This review proposes five categories of ALAN impact on nocturnal insects, highlighting past research and identifying key knowledge gaps. We conclude with a summary of relevant literature on bioluminescent fireflies, which emphasizes the unique vulnerability of terrestrial light‐based communication systems to artificial illumination. Comprehensive understanding of the ecological impacts of ALAN on diverse nocturnal insect taxa will enable researchers to seek out methods whereby fireflies, moths, and other essential members of the nocturnal ecosystem can coexist with humans on an increasingly urbanized planet.
... One beetle to search for could be the glow-worm (Lampyris noctiluca), which is found at other sites in the Waveney Valley but has yet to be recorded in the Forest. This enigmatic insect which preys on snails and slugs as a larva has declined in the east of England (Gardiner 2011a). It may well be present in the open heathland areas of the Forest or in the wet grassland along the River Waveney. ...
Results from glow-worms surveys on 15 sites across southern and central England were used to assess the current status of L. noctiluca in the region and to study the influence of ecological and climatic factors on glow-worm numbers and phenology. The surveys also provide an indication of L. noctiluca's habitat requirements, as well as offering a method of estimating total population sizes.
There has been a considerable range expansion for Roesel's bushcricket Metrioptera roeselii in Essex since 1980, and it is often assumed that the macropterous (long-winged) form (f. diluta) has played an important role. A systematic study of the occurrence and distribution of this bushcricket in the county shows that this range expansion has corresponded with a significant increase in air temperature and the availability of tall grassland on farmland, due to the introduction of set-aside and agri-environment schemes such as Countryside Stewardship. These tall grasslands are particularly important for M. roeselii in areas of the county (e.g., the northwest) where hedgerow removal has been severe since the 1940s. This study indicates that the previous year's air temperature may be the most crucial climatic determinant of macroptery, hot weather leading to successful breeding and high population densities in the following year. These populations may then produce macropterous individuals in response to overcrowding; this may explain the occurrence of long-winged M. roeselii in years with cool and damp weather. However, this study fails to provide conclusive evidence of this due to a lack of quantitative macropter data. Nevertheless, a clear link is established between high temperatures and the early appearance of macropters, hot weather from April to July leading to accelerated nymphal development and earlier sightings of macropterous bushcrickets.
Ecologists have quantified Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) density in a wide variety of conservation studies. Objective determination of Orthoptera population size is possible using mark-release recapture techniques but these are time-consuming and of little use for all but the smallest scale studies. Therefore, a wide range of sampling techniques have been devised to quantify population density and the most commonly used methods include sweep netting and quadrat counts. It is the aim of this paper to critically review studies that have used these techniques and to provide useful suggestions for non-specialists on which method may be most applicable to their study site. This paper reviews a selection of the extensive literature reporting studies estimating the abundance of grasshoppers (Acrididae) in a wide range of grassland ecosystems. Where possible, studies on bush-crickets (Tettigoniidae) and crickets (Gryllidae) are included reflecting their overall contribution to assemblage diversity in grassland ecosystems and to highlight the need for further investigations of sampling efficiency on these two under-researched families.The most rapid and inexpensive sampling methods, such as quadrat and transect counts, involve ‘flushing’ grasshoppers from the sward. These techniques are fairly accurate in short, open swards (2). At higher population densities (>2adults per m2), methods which require the capture of grasshoppers such as box quadrats and sweep netting may be more appropriate. Sampling grasshopper populations in taller vegetation (>50cm sward height) is more problematic as the efficiency of many techniques may be reduced by vegetation structure. Methods such as timed counts can be used at low densities (2) and night trapping might be most applicable where high numbers of grasshoppers are present (>2adults per m2).There is an urgent need for development of a standardised sampling technique that can produce comparable data from studies with a wide variety of observers in grasslands with differing vegetation structures and grasshopper densities.
Ecologists have long studied the critical role of natural light in regulating species interactions, but, with limited exceptions, have not investigated the consequences of artificial night lighting. In the past century,the extent and intensity of artificial night lighting has increased such that it has substantial effects on the biology and ecology of species in the wild. We distinguish “astronomical light pollution”, which obscures the view of the night sky, from “ecological light pollution”, which alters natural light regimes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the catastrophic consequences of light for certain taxonomic groups are well known, such as the deaths of migratory birds around tall lighted structures, and those of hatchling sea turtles disoriented by lights on their natal beaches. The more subtle influences of artificial night lighting on the behavior and community ecology of species are less well recognized, and constitute a new focus for research in ecology and a pressing conservation challenge.
Glow-worms Lamyris noctiluca L. (Col.: Lampyridae) were studied in grasslands under varying management regimes. Meadows subjected to a single summer cut for hay supported smaller colonies than unmanaged sites although the reasons for this are unclear. Grasslands mown regularly throughout the summer showed an increase in numbers of females; it is theorised that this might be a consequence of favourable adjacent habitats and that the shorter sward provided advantage to females displaying to males in flight overhead. A mosaic of regularly mown and tall unmanaged grassland may provide the ideal habitat. Grasslands subjected to grazing by cattle or rabbits supported only small colonies.
The book reviews the natural history of this generally little-known group (the Lepidoptera excluding butterflies), which comprises over 2000 species in the UK. After an introductory chapter, the author draws together the results of amateur study and the latest scientific research in chapters on: the origins and distribution of Britain's moths; dispersal, migration and orientation; life cycles and hibernation; plants as food for moths; plant defence against larvae; mating behaviour and the use of pheromones in the control of moth pests; moth predators and population dynamics; catching and studying moths; and the conservation of moths. Numerous examples of spcies studies from the scientific literature are included to illustrate aspects such as distributions, subspecies, races and clines, orientation cues, mass migrations, strategies for emergence from pupae, feeding strategies, responses to chemical defence, predator avoidance, crypsis and mimicry, and endangered species and species undergoing conservation action.
With the subtitle, 'The full fascinating story of Britain's landscape', the emphasis of this volume is on the earlier post-glacial history of both natural and man-made features in rural Britain. Whilst chapters recount the development of fields systems, heathland, moorland, grassland and wetlands, most attention is paid to woods and wood-pastures, and their significance in both the natural environments and the economic and social life of the rural populations. Chapters are devoted to the history of hedgerows and walls, the extinction and introduction of animal species, and the changing fortunes of the elm. In addition to a chapter on conservation, conservation sections are included in most other chapters, highlighting the need for changes in current policies towards the agricultural and silvicultural uses of the countryside. -J.Sheail
Mitigation for a development initiated a ten-year study of the European glow-worm (L. noctiluca) including field survey, pitfall trapping, captive breeding and translocation methodologies. Preliminary results indicated a field ratio of sixty-three larvae for each adult female. The species is relatively resilient to disturbance and breeds readily in captivity.
L. noctiluca has possibly been introduced to railways with ballast. Substrate (including turf) collection may be a suitable translocation method but pitfall trapping of larvae provides a more readily assayable technique. Habitat management should provide a mosaic of open areas suitable for courtship display, well- drained substrate for the laying and hatching of eggs and moister vegetation to encourage mollusc prey.
The microclimate of an improved hay meadow was studied using Tinytag dataloggers to record sward temperature after cutting. Temperatures in the sward were then compared to grasshopper abundances to see if mowing created an excessively hot microclimate unfavourable for sustained grasshopper activity in mid summer. The abundance of Chorthippus albomarginatus and Chorthippus parallelus was significantly reduced on the hay plots compared to the unmanaged control swards, which may have been due to high sward
temperatures created by the absence of tall, shady vegetation in which grasshoppers may take refuge to avoid overheating. This study suggests that a combination of mortality caused by the physical process of mowing, and high sward temperatures created by removal of the standing crop by cutting may cause the low abundance of grasshoppers in improved grassland in eastern England. This research is particularly important when considering the orthopteran assemblages of Environmental Stewardship Scheme field margins where mowing for hay in July and August may seriously reduce grasshopper populations. If mowing of grassland has to occur during the grasshopper season, we suggest a later cut in September or a system of rotational mowing, leaving areas of uncut grassland as shelter.
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