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Procrastination and Depression from a Cognitive Perspective: An Exploration of the Associations Among Procrastinatory Automatic Thoughts, Rumination, and Mindfulness

DOI:10.1007/s10942-016-0235-1
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Alison L. Rose at York University
Alison L. Rose
Mohsen Haghbin
Mohsen Haghbin
Mohsen Haghbin
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Timothy A. Pychyl
Timothy A. Pychyl
Timothy A. Pychyl
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Abstract

Extensive research indicates that procrastination is associated with many maladaptive outcomes including diminished performance and greater psychological distress, but the specific factors and mechanisms associated with the vulnerability of procrastinators still need to be identified. The current study examined the associations among procrastination, ruminative brooding, mindfulness, and self-compassion. Procrastination was measured in terms of academic procrastination as well as a cognitive measure of procrastination examining the frequency of procrastination-related automatic thoughts. In addition to the main focus on the vulnerability of procrastinators, the question of whether students with multiple vulnerabilities would be particularly at risk for depression was also assessed. A sample of 214 undergraduate students completed measures of academic procrastination, procrastination-related automatic thoughts, rumination, mindfulness, self-compassion, and depression. Correlational analyses showed that both procrastination measures were associated with ruminative brooding as well as reduced mindfulness and self-compassion. Moderator-effect tests yielded no significant interactions. Overall, our findings highlight the relevance of cognitive factors in explaining procrastination and depression. Elevated levels on measures tapping cognitive risk factors (ruminative brooding and procrastination-related automatic thoughts) or a low level of protective, self-relevant cognitive factors associated with resilience (mindfulness and self-compassion) were related to a high level of procrastination and depression. These results imply that procrastinators might be vulnerable to depression due to the joint presence of these cognitive risk and resilience factors.
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Procrastination and Depression from a Cognitive
Perspective: An Exploration of the Associations Among
Procrastinatory Automatic Thoughts, Rumination,
and Mindfulness
Alison L. Flett
1
•Mohsen Haghbin
1
•Timothy A. Pychyl
1
Published online: 10 March 2016
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract Extensive research indicates that procrastination is associated with many
maladaptive outcomes including diminished performance and greater psychological
distress, but the specific factors and mechanisms associated with the vulnerability of
procrastinators still need to be identified. The current study examined the associa-
tions among procrastination, ruminative brooding, mindfulness, and self-compas-
sion. Procrastination was measured in terms of academic procrastination as well as a
cognitive measure of procrastination examining the frequency of procrastination-
related automatic thoughts. In addition to the main focus on the vulnerability of
procrastinators, the question of whether students with multiple vulnerabilities would
be particularly at risk for depression was also assessed. A sample of 214 under-
graduate students completed measures of academic procrastination, procrastination-
related automatic thoughts, rumination, mindfulness, self-compassion, and depres-
sion. Correlational analyses showed that both procrastination measures were asso-
ciated with ruminative brooding as well as reduced mindfulness and self-
compassion. Moderator-effect tests yielded no significant interactions. Overall, our
findings highlight the relevance of cognitive factors in explaining procrastination
and depression. Elevated levels on measures tapping cognitive risk factors (rumi-
native brooding and procrastination-related automatic thoughts) or a low level of
protective, self-relevant cognitive factors associated with resilience (mindfulness
and self-compassion) were related to a high level of procrastination and depression.
These results imply that procrastinators might be vulnerable to depression due to the
joint presence of these cognitive risk and resilience factors.
&Alison L. Flett
AlisonFlett@cmail.carleton.ca
1
Department of Psychology, Carleton University, B550 Loeb, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa,
ON K1S 5B6, Canada
123
J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther (2016) 34:169–186
DOI 10.1007/s10942-016-0235-1
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... of procrastination reported a higher level of stress (Sirois, 2015), depression (Flett et al., 2016), and anxiety (Yerdelen et al., 2016). The high prevalence and negative consequences of procrastination necessitated the importance of understanding and identifying the vulnerability and protective factors of procrastination. ...
... Previous findings revealed that a person with a high level of procrastination reported a higher level of stress (Sirois, 2015), depression (Flett et al., 2016), and anxiety (Yerdelen et al., 2016). These findings suggest that procrastination makes life stressful, complex, and uncontrollable for individuals. ...
... These findings show that those who see the difficulties and disappointments of daily life as the worst and frightening aspects of their lives and postpone their responsibilities may have a low level of life satisfaction. In addition, the data indicated that procrastinators report high levels of stress (Sirois, 2014), depression (Flett et al., 2016), and anxiety (Yerdelen et al., 2016) which may result in a decrease in life satisfaction. The current findings agree with the findings of other studies indicating that procrastination was associated with a high level of irrational beliefs (Balkis & Duru, 2018, 2019Harrington, 2005;Steel, 2007) and a low level of life satisfaction (Atalayın et al., 2018;Ferrari et al., 2018;Hinsch & Seldom, 2013;Maria-Ioanna & Patra, 2020). ...
Irrational/Rational Beliefs, Procrastination, and Life Satisfaction: An Empirical Assessment of REBT Models of Psychological Distress and Psychological Health Model
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2021
The current cross-sectional study investigates the relationships between irrational/rational beliefs, procrastination, and life satisfaction in the framework of the psychological distress and health model of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) in a sample of Turkish adults (457). The current findings provide additional evidence to the organizational structure of irrational and rational beliefs in the occurrence of procrastination and life satisfaction. The findings notice that primary irrational/rational cognitive processes predict procrastination via secondary irrational/rational cognitive processes. Global negative evaluation self contributes to procrastination and life satisfaction independently. Finally, the findings reveal that irrational/rational beliefs indirectly predict life satisfaction via procrastination. These findings emphasize that the interventions organized within the REBT framework in combating procrastination may play an important role in increasing life satisfaction.
... Aunque es evidente la relación entre ambas variables, queda por determinar su verdadera naturaleza. Algunos autores plantean que la procrastinación, incluida la procrastinación académica, puede aumentar los pensamientos de carácter rumiativo y depresivos 26 , que, a su vez, pueden conducir a conductas suicidas. Otros investigadores subrayan la intervención de mecanismos cognitivos no adaptativos, como la falta de autocontrol o las dificultades para controlar la frustración cuando no se consiguen las metas deseadas. ...
... Por otro lado, se ha hipotetizado que la procrastinación se correlaciona negativamente con el bienestar psicológico y que incrementa la vulnerabilidad psicológica, especialmente, entre estudiantes 27 . El bajo bienestar psicológico provoca un aumento del estrés psicológico, un factor que suele suponer un mayor nivel de ansiedad, depresión y trastornos mentales en general 26 . ...
ARTÍCULO ORIGINAL PROCRASTINACIÓN, BIENESTAR PERCIBIDO Y RIESGO SUICIDA EN ESTUDIANTES DE ENFERMERÍA
Article
  • Jan 2021
Objetivo: el objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar la relación entre la procrastinación académica, el bienestar percibido y el riesgo suicida en una muestra de estudiantes de enfermería españoles. Método: participaron 128 estudiantes, 100 mujeres y 28 hombres, que respondieron un cuestionario anónimo y autoadministrado que contenía la Escala de Procrastinación de Tuckman (TPS; Tuckman Procrastination Scale), la Escala de Riesgo Suicida (SRS; Suicide Risk Scale) de Plutchik y la versión reducida del Cuestionario de Felicidad de Oxtord (OHQ-.SF; Oxford Happiness Questionnaire-Short Form). El análisis estadístico incluyó el cálculo de índices descriptivos, fa prueba de la t de Student para muestras independientes y los coeficientes de correlación de Pearson (r). Resultados: en las tres escalas aplicadas, los hombres obtienen puntuaciones superiores a las mujeres, aunque sin significación estadística en ninguna de ellas. La medida de procrastinación se correlaciona de forma positiva con el riesgo suicida, y de forma negativa con el bienestar percibido, en ambos casos de forma significativa. Discusión: los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto la relación inversa entre las conductas procrastinadoras y el bienestar percibido. Asimismo, sugieren que los estudiantes con tendencia a fa procrastinación y bajo nivel de satisfacción personal pueden ser más vulnerables a la ideación y a la conducta suicidas. Se plantea la importancia del personal docente en la detección y orientación de aquellos estudiantes que puedan presentar riesgo suicida. Palabras clave: procrastinación académica, riesgo suicida, bienestar percibido, estudiantes de enfermería.
... Studies showed that procrastination has negative consequences on students' health and academic achievement. Procrastination is associated with poor academic performance [12], academic misconduct [13], burnout [14], and depression [15,16]. Apart from these negative consequences, studies designed to study how to decrease procrastination are still scarce [3,17,18]. ...
Writing group program reduces academic procrastination: a quasi-experimental study
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2021
Background Procrastination is a common problem in higher education. It leads to negative consequences on students’ health and academic achievement. Nevertheless, research concerning interventions has not yet produced consistent results. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a writing group program on reducing academic procrastination. Methods This study was a quasi-experimental study with a one-group pretest-posttest design using double pretests. A double pretest design was used to ensure the internal validity of the experiment. Twenty graduate students followed a 15-days writing group program consisted of a training session and four sessions of writing groups. A thesis procrastination scale was used to measure the intervention’s effects. Results The writing group program helped students to set a writing target, discussed writing progress, and provided social support to their colleagues. The results showed that the intervention program could significantly decrease academic procrastination. Conclusion The present study demonstrated that a writing group could potentially reduce academic procrastination. Thus, students could benefit from a writing group when working on their master thesis. A thesis preparation course that provides information about goal-setting strategy and the principles of effective writing habits (i.e., behavioral, artisanal, social and emotional habits), might also assist students in writing their thesis. Further research is needed, preferably through the provision of a control group, a randomized assignment and a larger sample.
... Self-compassionate individuals are able to endure strongly negative emotions (Neff, 2003a). It is assumed that procrastination results from the inability to regulate emotions and the inability to withstand negative thoughts (Flett et al., 2016). At the same time, selfcompassion is the ability to cope with strong emotions. ...
Self-compassion moderates the influence of procrastination on postponing sporting activity
Article
In our daily life, health-promoting behaviour, such as sporting activity, plays a crucial role for a healthy and happy life. While self-compassion might be an important supporting variable in order to be active, procrastination might hinder such positive behaviour. Yet, the relationship between these two variables and their possibly interacting impact on health-promoting behaviour has not been investigated to date. Therefore, our present study focusses on this relationship by surveying 255 participants about self-compassion, procrastination and their planned and actual sporting activity over 6 weeks. Overall, there was a higher discrepancy between planned and actual sporting activity in high procrastinators as opposed to low procrastinators. Interestingly, this effect was modulated by self-compassion. Participants with high self-compassion manage to realize their sport plans even if they indicate high sports procrastination. These results not only illustrate the negative impact of domain-specific procrastination on specific health behaviours, but also point to a solution in the sense of self-compassion. Thus, they represent an important contribution to underline the importance of interventions to increase self-compassion.
... When facing difficulties, people with higher self-compassion are more self-accepted rather than self-critical, so they are less afraid of the possible failure, dare to take responsibility and take action. In other words, selfcompassion could change one's motivation from avoidance to approach (Flett et al., 2016), this may reduce procrastination due to a lack of motivation. Besides, benefit from good coping style, people with higher self-compassion may be less depleted by external stressors and thereby have more resources for self-regulation (Terry & Leary, 2011), thus reducing the likelihood of procrastination. ...
Perceived social support and procrastination in college students: A sequential mediation model of self-compassion and negative emotions
Article
Full-text available
Perceived social support was found to play an important role in reducing procrastination. However, little is known about the psychological mechanisms underlying this relation. Based on the integrated model of social support, the current study investigated the effect of the perceived social support on procrastination, and further explored the mediating role of self-compassion and negative emotions in this relation in a sample of 874 Chinese college students. Results showed: (a) perceived social support negatively predicted procrastination; (b) both self-compassion and negative emotions partially mediated the association between perceived social support and procrastination separately; (c) self-compassion and negative emotions sequentially mediated the relation between perceived social support and procrastination. This study provides new insights for the mechanisms between perceived social support and procrastination, which has important practical implications for the interventions of college students’ procrastination.
... In parallel with this finding, many prior studies have shown a negative relationship between mindfulness and rumination (Borders et al., 2010;Flett et al., 2016;Josefsson et al., 2017;Marks et al., 2010;Raes & Williams, 2010). In addition, Sutton (2016) observed that the acceptance subscale of the selfawareness questionnaire was negatively related with rumination. ...
Do Correlations Between Mindfulness Components and Rumination in Student Athletes Support Mindfulness Training to Reduce Rumination?
Article
Full-text available
In the present study, we examined the relationship between mindfulness and rumination among student-athletes. Ninety-seven young adult student-athletes (38.1% female, 61.9% male; M age ¼ 22.52, SD ¼ 3.53) completed both the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport and the Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire. Among these participants, we observed a significant positive correlation between rumination and the awareness sub-dimension of mindfulness. We also observed significant negative correlations between rumination and two scores from the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport: non-judgment and overall mindfulness. Awareness, non-judgment, and mindfulness were all significant predictors of rumination in a linear regression analysis. While these are correlational data that do not permit causal inferences, these findings raise the possibility, in this population, that awareness triggers ruminative thoughts and overall mindfulness might represent a coping tool for rumination. Further research is needed to test this possibility.
The effectiveness of Mindfulness Education on Job Burnout and Educational Optimism in primary school teachers
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  • Oct 2021
The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of Mindfulness Education on Job Burnout and Educational Optimism in primary school teachers in Zanjan city. In this study, a semi-experimental design with pretest-posttest design with control group used and the statistical population of this research included elementary teachers in Zanjan city in 2017. The samples of study were selected using available sampling method. The sample consisted of 30 burnout teachers whose score in the Maslach Teacher's Burnout questionnaire was 1.5 out of the standard deviation higher than the mean. Individuals who were in the experimental group were included in a group for 8 weekly sessions in mindfulness education. The control group did not receive any intervention during this period. In order to record the changes, the Maslach Teacher Training Burnout Questionnaire (1986) and Beerd Teacher's Instructional Optimism Questionnaire (2010) completed before and after the intervention by the teachers. The statistical method of multivariate quarantine analysis was. The finding of this study showed that the effect of Mindfulness Education training had a significant effect on burnout and educational optimism, so that the burnout and educational optimism score increased significantly in the post-test phase
The role of latent anxiety, manifest anxiety and mindfulness skills in academic procrastination among adolescent girls
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2021
Psychological interventions are necessary for countering academic underachievement in students. This study focused on the two constructs of anxiety and mindfulness that may have a destructive and protective role in learning objectives, respectively. The purpose of this research was to determine the role of latent anxiety, manifest anxiety, and mindfulness skills in explaining academic procrastination in adolescent girls. A descriptive-correlational research design was used for the present study. 350 female students from the secondary schools of Rasht city in Guilan Province, Iran were selected. Two-stage cluster sampling was utilized to select students from various academic fields. Next, the samples were evaluated employing the Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students (Solomon and Rothblum), Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), and Cattell's Anxiety Scale Questionnaire. For data analysis, the Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis with the enter method were employed. Findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between latent anxiety (r=0.13, p<0.05) and the subscale of action with alertness (r=-0.27, p<0.01) with procrastination. There was no significant relationship between manifest anxiety and other components of mindfulness with procrastination. Also, regression analysis showed that only the variable of action with alertness (β=- 0.25, P<0.0001) negatively predicts academic procrastination scores. Findings confirm the importance of removing the factor of latent anxiety as a fundamental and maintaining factor for the cycle of procrastination. Results also confirm that it is necessary to utilize mindfulness exercises with a focus on awareness as an adaptive skill for the improvement of academic efficacy. Keywords: academic procrastination, latent anxiety, manifest anxiety, mindfulness skills.
Regulasi diri sebagai mediator interaksi mindfulness dan prokrastinasi akademik
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Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Academic procrastination in college students is a common phenomenon, although procrastination’s negative impacts were well known. This study aimed to examine the role of self-regulation in mediating the correlation between mindfulness and academic procrastination. Data were collected by distributing online questionnaires to college students from various universities in Indonesia (n = 305). The sampling technique used was convenience sampling. Instruments used in the research were the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale, the Short form of Self-regulation Questionnaire, and the Academic Procrastination Scale. The regression and mediation analyses were held. Results showed that self-regulation partially mediated the correlation between mindfulness and academic procrastination. Increasing in dispositional mindfulness helps college students regulate themselves, thereby reducing the tendency to procrastinate. The implications and limitations of the study and suggestions for further research are discussed.Keywords: academic procrastination; college students; mindfulness; self-regulation. AbstrakProkrastinasi akademik pada mahasiswa merupakan fenomena yang umum terjadi, meskipun dampak negatif prokrastinasi telah banyak diketahui. Penelitian ini bertujuan menguji peran regulasi diri dalam memediasi hubungan antara mindfulness dan prokrastinasi akademik. Pengambilan data dilakukan melalui penyebaran kuesioner secara daring kepada mahasiswa di berbagai perguruan tinggi di Indonesia (n=305). Teknik sampling yang digunakan adalah convenience sampling. Penelitian ini menggunakan alat ukur Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale, Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire, dan Academic Procrastination Scale. Hasil uji regresi dan uji mediasi menunjukkan regulasi diri memediasi korelasi antara mindfulness dan prokrastinasi akademik secara parsial. Peningkatan kondisi kesadaran pada mindfulness membantu mahasiswa meregulasi dirinya, sehingga mengurangi kecenderungan untuk melakukan prokrastinasi akademik. Implikasi dan keterbatasan penelitian serta saran untuk penelitian selanjutnya didiskusikan.Kata kunci: mahasiswa; mindfulness; prokrastinasi akademik; regulasi diri.
اثربخشی آموزش ذهن آگاهی بر فرسودگی شغلی و خوش بینی آموزشی در معلمان ابتدایی
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In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Applied Statistics for the Social and Health Sciences
Book
  • Jul 2012
Overcoming procrastination
Chapter
  • Mar 2020
The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion
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Trait procrastinators and behavior/trait-specific cognitions
Conference Paper
An 18-item Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was developed in Study 1 and related to trait procrastination and negative affect. The research participants were 208 university students. Procrastinatory cognitions were found to mediate trait procrastination-negative affect relations. In Study 2,66 university students completed the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory in terms of anticipated ruminations over the next three weeks (Time 1), and in terms of past ruminations experienced in that period, three weeks later at Time 2. The two assessments of procrastinatory cognitions demonstrated high stability. Trait procrastination was positively associated with procrastinatory cognitions at Time 1 and Time 2. Cognitions were related to self-reported dilatory behavior and to negative affect obtained at Time 2. The usefulness of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was discussed and suggestions for future research were made.
Is Procrastination Weakness of Will?
Chapter
  • Mar 2010
This chapter investigates whether procrastination is a species of weakness of will. Procrastination resembles weakness of will: the procrastinating agent is not doing x even though he in some sense thinks he ought to be. However, the more precise characterizations of weakness of will that have been developed in the literature do not capture the full range of cases of procrastination. Is procrastination simply a variety of akrasia? No, because akrasia is a purely synchronic phenomenon, whereas procrastination is poor performance in the management of one's agency over time. On a recent revisionist account from Holton and McIntyre, weakness of will centrally involves a failure to act on antecedently formed intentions. But this account, even though diachronic, cannot cover all cases of procrastination, either: weakness of will in this sense is exclusively a defect in plan implementation, whereas procrastination is sometimes constituted by defects in plan drafting and adoption.
Backsliding: Understanding Weakness of Will
Article
  • Jun 2012
People backslide. They freely do things they believe it would be best on the whole not to do - and best from their own point of view, not just the perspective of their peers or their parents. The aim of this book is to explain why that happens. The first main item of business is to clarify the nature of backsliding - of actions that display some weakness of will. To this end, Mele uses traditional philosophical techniques dating back to Plato and Aristotle (whose work on weakness of will or "akrasia" he discusses) and some new studies in the emerging field of experimental philosophy. He then attacks the thesis that backsliding is an illusion because people never freely act contrary to what they judge best. Mele argues that it is extremely plausible that if people ever act freely, they sometimes backslide. The biggest challenge posed by backsliding is to explain why it happens. At the book's heart is the development of a theoretical and empirical framework that sheds light both on backsliding and on exercises of self-control that prevent it. Here, Mele draws on work in social and developmental psychology and in psychiatry to motivate a view of human behavior in which both backsliding and overcoming the temptation to backslide are explicable. He argues that backsliding is no illusion and our theories about the springs of action, the power of evaluative judgments, human agency, human rationality, practical reasoning, and motivation should accommodate backsliding.
Procrastination, Negative Self-Evaluation, and Stress in Depression and Anxiety
Chapter
  • Jan 1995
Procrastination is defined typically as an irrational tendency to delay tasks that should be completed (Lay, 1986). Procrastination is believed to be associated with several cognitive, behavioral, and affective correlates and is regarded as a “dysfunction of important human abilities” in routine tasks and critical life tasks (Milgram, Sroloff, & Rosenbaum, 1988, p. 210). The extent of the dysfunction is reflected by estimates indicating that at least 25% of students suffer from severe levels of procrastination (see Hill, Hill, Chabot, & Barrall, 1978; McCown, Johnson, & Petzel, 1989b). Given the potential importance of the procrastination construct, it is perhaps not surprising that it is a topic that has been discussed at length by clinicians and by counselors (e.g., Burka & Yuen, 1983; Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Rarer, 1983).
The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Self-Compassion
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This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented in a series of studies. Results indicate that self-compassion is significantly correlated with positive mental health outcomes such as less depression and anxiety and greater life satisfaction. Evidence is also provided for the discriminant validity of the scale, including with regard to self-esteem measures.